LIBRARY 


BIBLICAL  AND  THEOLOGICAL 


LITERATURE 


EDITED    BY 

GEORGE   R.   CROOKS,  D.D, 

AND 

JOHN  F.   IIURST,   D.D. 


VOL.   IV.-CHRISTIAN  ARCHEOLOGY 


A-'EW  YORK 
PHILLIPS    &    HUNT 

CINCINNATI 
CRANSTON   tfe    STOWE 

1883 


I 


■^u*  <^ 


Copyright,  1888,  by 
New  York. 


at 


PUBLISHERS'  ANNOUNCEMENT. 


rpHE  design  of  the  Editors  and  Pnhlishei's  of  tlie 
Biblical  and  Theological  Likraiiy  is  to  t'uniisli 
ministers  and  laymen  witli  a  series  of  works  wliic-li,  in 
connection  with  tlie  Commentaries  now  issuiiiir,  sliall 
make  a  eompendions  apparatus  for  study.  While  the 
tlieology  of  the  volumes  will  l)e  in  hai'inony  with  tin* 
doctrinal  standards  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  ('huii.-h, 
tlie  aim  will  be  to  make  the  entire  Lihraiy  acceptal)le 
to  all  evausfelical  Christians. 

The  following  wi'iters  will  co-operate  in  the  author- 
ship of  the  series :  Di*.  ITarman,  on  tlit^  Introdurtioii 
to  the  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures;  Dr.  Tei-iy,  on 
Biblical  Hermeneutics ;  Dr.  Bennett,  on  Christian  Ar- 
chaeology ;  Dr.  Miley,  on  Systema^ic  Theology  ;  the  VaW- 
tors,  on  Theological  Encyclopaxlia  and  Methodology : 
Di-.  Itidgaway,  on  Evidences  of  Christianity ;  Prof.  Littl.-, 
on  Christian  Theism  and  Modern  Speculative  Thought : 
Di'.    Ciooks,  on    the  History  of  Christian  Doctrine  ;  and 


iv  PUBLISHERS'  ANNOUNCEMENT. 

Bishop  Hurst,  on  the  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
The  volumes  on  Introduction  to  the  Scriptures,  Biblical 
Hermeneutics,  Theological  Encyclopgedia  and  Method- 
ology, and  Christian  Archaeology  have  now  been  issued. 
In  the  case  of  every  treatise  the  latest  literature  will 
be  consulted,  and  its  I'esults  incorporated.  The  \voiks 
comprised  in  the  series  will  be  printed  in  full  octavo 
size,  and  finished  in  the  best  style  of  typography  and 
bindini^:. 


Christian  Archeology 


BY 

CHARLES  W.  BENNETT  D.D, 

IROFESSOR    OF    HISTORICAL    THEOLOGY    IN    GARRETT   BIBLICAL    INSTITUTE,    EVANSTON,    ILLINOIS 


INTRODUCTORY   NOTICE 

BY 

DR.  FERDINAND  PIPER 

TROFESSOR    OF   CHL'RCH    HISTOKY    AND    CHRISTIAN    ARCH.EOLOCV    IN   THE    UNIVERSITY   OF   FERI.IN 


NEIV  YORA':  PHILLIPS  ^  ILUXT 

CINC/.yXAri:   CRAXSTO.y  &*  STOll'E 

iSSS 


AUTHOR'S     PREFACE 


TT  is  with  much  diffidence  tluit  I  send  forth  upon  its  inissiuu 
this  work  on  Christiiin  Archaeology.  I  will  let  that  veteran 
Christian  archseolosjist,  Dr.  Piper,  my  much-revered  instructor, 
speak  of  the  need  of  some  such  book  as  this.  In  the  Introduc- 
tory Note,  which  he  has  had  the  great  kindness  to  furnish,  the 
scope  and  value  of  this  Discipline  are  sketched  in  his  own  inimi- 
table style.  While  the  master  speaks  it  behooves  the  pupil  to 
keep  silence. 

The  arrangement  is  a  departure  from  the  usual  one.  I  have 
thought  that  by  giving  the  Archaeology  of  Christian  Art  tlie  first 
l)lace  in  the  discussion,  the  results  of  this  study  could  best  be 
utilized  in  the  illustration  of  the  Constitution,  Worshi[),  and  Lite 
of  the  Church. 

It  only  remains  for  me  to  express  my  sinccrest  appreciation  of 
the  kindly  encouragement  and  aid  which  have  been  so  freely 
given  me  both  at  home  and  abroad.  It  would  be  invidious  ti» 
make  distinctions,  but  to  my  associates  in  theological  instruction, 
to  friends  who  have  helped  me  in  making  the  requisite  travels  for 
personal  study  of  monuments,  to  my  most  highly  esteemed  pre- 
ceptor and  guide  in  the  Berlin  University,  and  to  those  who  have 
assisted  in  the  proof-readings  and  indexing,  I  would  express  my 
especial  obligations.  If  careful  readers  of  the  work  Avould  com- 
municate to  me  any  errors  wliicli  they  may  discover,  it  would  bo 
regarded  as  a  personal  favour,  as  well  as  help  to  the  attainment 
of  truth. 

GaURETT  BlULlCAL  INSTITUTE,  EVA.NSTOiV,  IlL.,  J/cy  IJ,   IS88. 


INTRODUCTORY    NOTE 


AT  the  invitation  of  the  esteemed  author,  I  write  a  few  words  of 
introduction  to  this  vohiraeo  It  is  with  pleasure  that  I  greet  the 
first  work  on  Christian  Arclioeology  which  lias  appeared  on  Amer- 
ican soil.  With  hearty  good  wishes  I  welcome  it  to  a  position  of 
jtrominence,  even  before  it  has  come  into  my  hands.  At  the  same 
time,  I  cannot  be  in  doubt  in  regard  to  its  character.  The  ac- 
quaintance I  have  with  the  method  of  the  author's  studies,  his 
protracted  connection  with  our  University,  his  travels  in  the  Old 
World  and  their  purpose,  give  assurance  of  its  solid  worth.  Since 
numerous  plates  and  illustrations,  as  well  as  several  maps,  accom- 
pany the  text,  the  work  comes  to  have  the  character  of  an  Art- 
Archreology,  and  will  be  helpful  in  theological  instruction.  Thus 
it  appears  that  the  book  is  designed  for  the  Monumental  section  of 
ecclesiastical  science. 

I.  The  title  itself  is  full  of  significance.  In  Classical  Antiquities, 
where  the  word  dg^aLoXoyia  is  in  common  use,  it  refers  primarily  to 
the  historic  life  of  a  nation,  as  Roman,  Jewish,  etc.  ;  since  the  idea 
of  life  (6  apxct^og  (Slog  TTjg  -oXecog),  as  the  essential  content  of  Political 
Antiquities,  occupies  the  foremost  place.  Only  after  several  modi- 
fications, through  the  development  of  the  "Archeology  of  Art"  in 
connection  with  Classical  Antiquities,  has  the  present  character  of 
archjeological  science  been  determined.  By  further  adding  the  In- 
scriptions (which  as  a  whole  are  excluded  from  Classical  Antiqui- 
ties), we  reach  the  Discipline  which  has  too  long  been  neglected  in 
the  department  of  theological  inquiry.  In  view  of  the  progress 
made  in  the  corresponding  philological  fields  of  Archaeology  and 
Epigraphy,  and  of  the  pressing  demands  of  theological  science,  it  is 
evident  that  this  neglect  cannot  much  longer  continue.  In  the 
United  States,  where  an  able  Journal  of  Archaeology  has  received 
support  for  several  years,  a  commendable  zeal  already  exists,  so  that 
the  author's  work  does  not  appear  prematurely^  there. 

The  work  is  devoted  exclusivel}'  to  the  first  six  centuries,  although 
the  name  Archicologj'  does  not,  in  itself,  have  reference  only  to 
what  is  ancient.     But  for  this  very  reason  we  call  attention  to  the 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE.  ix 

significance  of  tliis  field  of  in(;uiiy  for  the  study  of  tlieolo<;y  and 
for  the  service  of  the  Church. 

II.  This  sit,mificance  Hes,  first  of  all,  in  the  fact  that  it  reveals  a 
source  of  information  which  sui^plies  a  serious  lack  in  our  knowl- 
edge of  Christian  Antiquity:  for  the  nearer  we  ai»i)roach  the  be- 
ginnings of  the  Church  the  more  meagre  are  the  literai-y  sources  of 
evidence.  These,  for  the  most  part,  are  all  which  have  hitherto 
been  taken  into  consideration.  Here,  accordingly,  the  contempo- 
rary monuments  in  stone,  metal,  and  color,  found  by  thousands 
in  all  parts  of  the  world,  especially  in  the  countries  around  the 
Mediterranean,  are  of  immense  assistance.  It  is  the  work  of  the 
archa?ologist  to  make  a  critical  examination  of  these,  and  to  de- 
termine their  historic  value.  The  discovery  of  Pompeii  and  Iler- 
culaneum  afi'ords  an  illustration  from  Classical  Anticjuities  more 
complete  than  had  been  thought  possible.  AVhen  Pacinudi  imme- 
diately thereafter  visited  Herculaneum  and  the  INIuseum  at  Najdes, 
he  exclaimed,  "O  what  treasures!  what  wonders  !  "  He  ventured 
to  affirm  that  by  the  spending  of  a  week  in  the  Museum  he  had 
learned  more  than  by  ten  years  of  previous  study.  In  the  domain 
of  Church  history  nothing  similar  were  possible,  because  through 
the  excavation  of  Pompeii  the  entire  domestic,  civil,  and  religious 
life  was  revealed,  whereas  Cliurch  history  is  chiefiy  concerned  willi 
the  latter.  Subterranean  discoveries  pertaining  t<j  the  ancient  lile 
of  the  Church  have,  however,  been  made  for  centuries,  and  MJth 
such  rich  results  that  a  special  theology  of  the  Catacombs  might 
be  compiled  from  them.  And  even  above  ground,  in  recent  years, 
numerous  remains  of  ancient  Christian  architecture  dating  from 
the  flourishing  period  of  the  early  Church  have  been  discovered, 
ruined  cities  of  Central  Syria  Avhich  might  be  characterized  as  new 
Pompeiis. 

But  these  objects  and  these  discoveries  are  of  service  not  to  His- 
toric Theology  alone,  but  every  branch  of  theological  investigation 
has  thereby  been  benefited,  especially  Biblical  Interpretation  and 
Dogmatics,  since  texts  of  Scripture  and  doctrinal  opinions  frecpu'utly 
furnish  the  fundamental  thought  expressed  in  these  sculptures  and 
paintings.  Moreover,  the  iconographic  expression,  even  when 
comprised  in  lines  and  colors,  has  a  certain  advantage  over  the 
written,  especially  in  that  frank  unconsciousness  which  is  often  oV»- 
scured  by  words. 

Hence  it  is  that  however  large  a  share  the  "holy  building  fa- 
thers" may  have  had  in  these  ruined  edifices,  all  were  nevertheless 
intended  for  Christian  worshippers  and  grew  out  of  thi'ir  needs,  so 
that  their  faith  and  sentiments  are  therein  expressed.     It  was  as 


X  INTHODUCTORY  NOTE. 

true  then  as  to-day,  that  in  order  to  understand  the  religious  life  of 
a  communit}^  it  is  necessary  to  visit  their  places  of  burial  ;  and 
fortunately  innumerable  cemeteries  of  ancient  Christendom  have 
been  preserved  to  aid  us  in  our  theological  investigations. 

But  all  these  remains  should  not  exist  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
forwarding  the  investigations  of  the  scholar  and  the  theologian.  The 
religious  community  at  large  ought  also  to  derive  enjoyment  and 
profit  from  them.  There  are  no  more  memorable  sites  than  these 
sacred  places  on  the  border-land  between  time  and  eternity,  witli 
their  testimonies  in  word  and  symbol  to  the  truth  on  which  the 
ancient  believers  based  their  lives,  and  in  which  they  died.  They 
are  inestimable  gifts,  intelligible  without  learned  interpretation, 
refreshing  to  simple  and  unlettered  Christians,  and  inspiring  even 
to  the  youth  of  the  Church.  On  this  account,  the  founding  of 
museums,  especially  the  S3'stematic  arrangement  and  exhibition  of 
copies  (where  originals  are  not  to  be  had)  for  schools  and  congre- 
gations, has  long  been  a  thing  to  be  desired.  But  this  cannot  be 
effected  unless  theologians  do  their  duty  and  earnestly  devote  them- 
selves to  the  work.  For  this  purpose  a  volume  like  the  present  is 
an  available  help. 

III.  The  appearance  of  this  work  in  the  United  States  is  also  of 
special  significance.  The  monuments  which  are  therein  discussed 
direct  our  thoughts  to  Christian  antiquity.  But, without  disparage- 
ment to  the  remains  of  a  primitive  civilization  which  are  found  on 
that  continent,  the  governments  and  peoples  of  America  belong  to 
modern  times.  Christian  Archaeology  cannot,  therefore,  be  studied 
on  American  soil.  The  consciousness  of  this  fact  is,  of  course, 
there  fully  recognized.  Hence  among  American  scholars  there 
is  a  natural  impulse,  stronger  than  that  for  ordinary  professional 
purposes,  to  study  their  own  first  beginnings  on  this  side  of  the 
sea.  This  is  the  impelling  motive  which  leads  to  the  old  home, 
Europe,  and  the  still  older  Asia.  This  powerful  incentive  readily 
determines  the  American  scholar  to  undertake  the  voyage,  and  he 
reckons  the  journey  short.  This  also  leads  the  professional  theo- 
logian, both  for  practical  and  scientific  purposes,  to  the  memorials 
of  ecclesiastical  antiquity  to  be  found  in  the  seats  of  primitive 
Christianity,  Avhere,  above  all,  the  theater  of  the  events  affords  the 
best  possible  setting  for  their  history.  Thus  measurably  the  past 
becomes  the  present.  As  a  traveller  in  the  tropics,  while  ascending 
a  high  mountain,  passes  within  a  few  hours  through  all  climatic 
conditions,  even  to  polar  cold;  so  is  it  possible  for  the  archjeologist, 
as  he  examines  the  sites  and  memorials  of  his'.oric  developments,  to 
enter  into  their  spirit  as  an  eye-witness,  and  so  cause  them  again  to 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE.  xi 

l)ass  before  him.  Is  lie  concenu'd  witli  tlio  a])ostoIic  times,  it  is 
certain  that  PauFs  sermon  on  31urs  Hill  is  nowhere  read  so  intel- 
ligibly as  on  the  spot  where  it  was  delivered,  in  sight  of  the  Acroj*- 
olis  and  its  temples,  and  looking  out  over  the  land  and  sea.  And 
from  high  ecclesiastical  anticjuity,  which  j>osscsses  no  documents 
more  precious  than  the  letters  to  the  Church  in  Smyrna,  and  those 
to  the  Churches  in  Lyons  and  Vienne  concerning  their  martyrs,  we 
may  take  as  examples  the  stadium  at  Smyrna  (whose  site  is  per- 
fectly recognisable)  where  Polycarp  suffered,  and  at  Lyons  the 
crypt  of  St.  Denis  where  the  prisons  of  Pothinus  and  IJlandina  are 
shown.  When  authenticated,  these  places  and  a  thousand  otliers, 
next  to  those  in  the  Holy  Land,  incite  the  theologian  to  make  his 
pilgrimage. 

If  the  poet  sings  of  sacred  Palestine, 

"  It  was  no  strange  desire, 

When  pilgrims  numberless  emharkcd 

But  at  Thy  sepulclier  to  pray, 

And  kiss  witli  pious  zeal 

The  eartli  Thy  fool  has  trod," 

it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  American  theologians  in  great 
numbers  leave  their  native  shores  to  visit  historic  spots  where  they 
may  view  the  mementoes  of  the  past. 

If,  then,  this  work,  next  to  the  knowledge  which  it  imparts,  may 
also  awaken  among  the  writer's  countrymen  a  still  stronger  desire — 
following  the  example  of  the  highly  esteemed  author,  who  in  the 
course  of  his  investigations  has  several  times  crossed  the  ocean,  and 
so  gained  the  right  to  speak  from  personal  observation — to  under- 
take that  pilgrimage,  in  order  to  reach  the  origins  of  the  Church 
and  to  get  a  view  of  its  primitive  uionunu'nts,  it  will  thereby  render 
another  valuable  service.  Dr.  Ferdinand  Pii-kr. 

Berlin  University,  Jan.  15,  1888. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


nCJURK  PaGE 

1.  Ceiling    decoration    from    Santa    Domitilla,    Rome.       Northcote    and 

Browklow 57 

2.  Ceiling  decoration  from  San  Pr.etestato.  Rome.     Kraus 53 

3.  Ulysses   and   the   Sirens.      From   the    crypt   of  Santa    Lucina,    Rome. 

Northcote  and  Brownlow 65 

4.  A  Christian  sarcophagus,  with  tragic  masks.     Roller 60 

o.  From  a  Christian  sarcophagus,  decorated  with  dolphins.     Roller G6 

G.  Coin  of  Constaxtius,  showing  the  mingling   of  heathen   and  Christian 

emblems.     Piper 67 

7.  A  COIN  OF  Majorian,  fifth  century.     Piper 67 

8.  Amor  and  Psyche,  from  Santa  Domitilla.     Northcote  and  Brownlow.  . .  08 

9.  Amor  and  Psyche  with  the  Good  Shepherd,  San  Calisto,  Rome.     Kraus.  69 

10.  Genii  in  a  vintage  scene.      A   winged  genius  holding  back  the  veil 

From  a  Christian  sarcophagus.     Roller 70 

11.  Supposed  eucharistic  scene.      Fresco  from  the  oldest  part  of  Santa 

Domitilla,  Rome.     Kraus 79 

12.  The  fish  associated  with   other  Christian   symbols.      From   an   early 

Christian  sarcophagus.     Pipkr SO 

13.  Fresco  fro.m  the  "Chamber  of  the  Sacraments,"  San  Calisto,  suggesting 

the  eucharistic  meal.     roller 81 

1-1.  Fresco  from  a  Christian    c.\tacomb    in   Alexandria,   representing   the 

EUCHARISTIC    MEAL.       KrAUS 82 

15.  The  SWASTIKA,  with  Christian  emblems.     Munter St 

16.  Monogram  on  coin  op  Anthemius,  A.  D.  467.     Piper 86 

17.  Various  forms  of  the   cross,  especially  of  the  monogram  of   Ciirlst. 

Northcote  and  Brownlow 86 

18.  Monogram  of  Christ  on  an  arcosolium  of  San  Calisto,  Rome.     Kraus..  .  86 

19.  The  Constantinian  monogram,  with  palm  branches  and  the  legend,  IN- 

SIGNO.     Piper 87 

20.  The  monogram  of  Christ  encircled  by  a  wreath.     Mitnter.  . .    87 

21.  A  jeweled  cross  from  Ravenna.     Piper 88 

22.  The  A  S2,  with  monogram  in  circle.     Munter 89 

23.  Monogram  and  A  i2  in  triangle.     Munter.  ...    89 

21.  A  i2,  WITH  DOVES  and  monogram.     From  a  burial  monument.      Piper 89 

25.  Caricature  op  Christ.     A  pagan  graffito  probably  of  second  century. 

Palace  of  the  Cesars,  R:)Me.      Becker 95 

26.  From  an  antique  gem.     A  supposed  caricature  of  the  teaching  Christ. 

Northcote  and  Brownlow 96 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xiii 

FIGURE  PAfiK 

27.  Coin  ok   Alexander  tiik  Great— ax  ass  and  its  foal.     Nortiilote  and 

liuOWNLOW .  .  ,       i)ti 

28.  Fresco  ceiling  from  Santa  Domitilla,  Rome.     Orpueus  in  center.    Kkals.     99 

29.  Christ  raising  Lazarls.     From  a  fresco.     Pipek loO 

30.  Fresco  from  the  ceilinc;  in  a  chamber  in   8an  Calisto,  Rome.     Noutm- 

cote  and  Brownlow lol 

3L  Bust   of   Christ   from   San   I'onziano.      Pu<)1!aulv   from    ninth    ckntlky. 

Northcote  and  Brownlow 1(»2 

32.  Bust  of  Chrlst  from  a  cemetery  of  Naples.     Probably  from  the  sl.xth 

century.     Northcote  and  Brownlow 103 

33.  Bust  of  Christ  from  the  crypt  of  Santa  Cecilia,  cemetery  of  San  Ca- 

listo.    Kraus 103 

34.  Fresco    from    the  cemetery  Santa  Gf:nerosa,   near   Rome,   Christ    with 

SAINTS.     Kraus 1 1 15 

35.  Virgin    and   Star,    from    Santa   Priscilla,    Rome.      After    photograph 

from  Roller loO 

36.  Virgin  and  Child,  from  Santa  Domitilla,  Rome.  •  Northcote  and  Brown- 

low    107 

37.  Virgin  and  Child,  from  Santa  Agnese,  Rome.    Kraus 108 

38.  A  Good  Shepherd,  from  Santa  Generosa,  Kraus 109 

39.  A  Fresco  of  St.  Cecilia,  from  Crypt  of  Santa  Cecilia,  Rome.     Kraus.  . . .   109 

40.  Vine  ORNAMENT  FROM  San  Calisto,  Rome.     Northcote  and  Brownlow....   110 

41.  Mosaic   vine   ornament,  from   Mausoleum   of  Galla   Placidia,  Ravenna. 

Northcote  and  Brownlow Ill 

42.  Mosaic  of  Christ,  in  archbishop's  pal.ue,  Ravenna.     Kraus 124 

43.  Mosaic  from  the  apse  of  SS.  Cosmas  e  Damiano,  Rome.     Schnaase 126 

44.  Mosaic  of  Christ,  from  San  Apollinare  Nuovo,  Ravenna.     Kraus 127 

45.  Mosaic  of  Christ,  from  St.  Sophia,  Con-stantinople.     Schnaase 129 

46.  Statuette   of   the   Good    Shepherd,    Lateran   Museum.     From  an  orig- 

inal drawing 132 

47.  Good   Shepherd  with   crook   or  staff,  Latep.an  Museum.     From  an  orkj- 

iNAL  drawing   ....    1 33 

48.  The  Goon  Shepherd.     To  compare  with  Heumes-Kriophoros.     Northcote 

and  Brownlow <• 1 34 

49.  IIermes-Kriophoros,  FROM  Wilton  House.     Northcote  and  Brownlow...  134 

50.  Restored  statue  of  IIippolytus.     Northcote  and  Brownlow i:!5 

51.  A  vintage  scene,  with  Goon  Shepherd.     After  Roller 138 

52.  The  translation  of  Elijah.      Kraus 139 

53.  The  history  of  Jonah,  from  a  sarcophagu.s.    Piper i:i9 

54.  Karly  Christian  sarcophagus.     Kraus 1-11 

55.  Sarcophagus  of  the  fourth  century.     Kraus 143 

5(1.  The  fall,  from  Sarcophagus  of  Junius  B.vssus.     Ph-er 144 

57.  From  the  Junius  Bassus  monument.     Piper 144 

58.  A  late  sarcophagus.     After  a  photograph  by  Roller 14(5 

59.  The  Nativity  and  the  offering  of  the  magi.     Kraus 147 

60.  Sarcophagus  from  the  fifth  ce.ntury.     After  Roller 118 

61.  The  Last  Judgment  in  sculpture.     After  Roller 149 

62.  A  CRUciFi.\io.v,  from  an  ivory.     Kraus 152 

63.  Ivory    carving   from    the   cathedra   of   Bishop    Ma.mmianus,    Ravenna. 

Schnaase '^» 


3av 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIGURE  PAGE 

64.  A    Christian    lamp,    \vith    Constantixian   monogram.      Nortiicote    and 

Brovvxlow 155 

65.  A  SO-CALLKD   HLOOn-PHIAL.         KraU.S 156 

60.  'J"he  house  of  Pansa.     Pompeii 166 

67.  Atrium  Tusca.nicum.      Dehio , 167 

68.  Atrium  displuviatum.      Deuio 168 

69.  Atrium  displuviatum,  with  covered  compluvium.     Dehio 170 

70;  Heathen  schola.  Via  Appia,  Rome.     Stockbauer 170 

71.  Another  heathen  schola,  Via  Appia,  Rome.     Dehio ITl 

72.  Christian  schola  above  San  Calisto.  Rome.     Stockbauer 171 

73.  Form  of  an  early  basilica,  a  bronz  lamp.     Ce  Rossi   171 

74.  Cella  and  arrangement  of  graves  above  San  Sisto,  Rome.     Schnaase.  .  172 

75.  Basilica  in  Santa  Generosa,  Rome.  Northcote  and  Brownlow 173 

76.  Groundplan    of  basilica   in  Santa  Petronilla,    Rome.     Nouthcote  and 

Brownlow 174 

77.  View  op  basilica  in  Santa  Petronilla,  Rome.      Kraus 176 

78    Plan  of  basilica  from  the  villa  ok  (Juintilian.     Stockbauer 177 

7v».  Palace  of  Diocletian,  SsPOL.iTRO.     Schnaase. 179 

80.  Basilica,  from  villa  of  Hadrian,  Tivoli.      Dehio 182 

81.  Another  basilica,  from  villa  of  Hadrian.      Dehio  182 

82.  Interior  of  San  Clemente,  Rome.     Lubke 185 

83.  Groundplan  of  San  Clemente,  Rome 186 

84.  Interior  structure,  development  of  cross- ribbed  arches.    Wiege.mann  .  .  189 

85.  a  clustered  column,     lubke 191 

86.  A  Gothic  interior 192 

87.  San  Clemente,  Rome.     Stockbauer 193 

88.  Cross-section  of  Basilica  Sjssoriana,  Rome.     Stockbauer 193 

89.  Groundplan  of  the  same.     Dehio  and  Be?,old 194 

90.  Groundplan  of  Santa  Pudenziana,  Rome.     Stockbauer 195 

91.  San  Pietro  in  Vaticano,  Rome.     Front  elevation.     Dehio  and  [Jezdlh.  198 

92.  Perspective  interior  of  San  Pietro,  Rome.     Schnaase 199 

93.  Atrium  of  Sylvan  us,  via  Appia,  Rome.     Dehio 200 

94.  San  Lorenzo  fuori  le  mura,  Rome.     Dehio  and  Bezold 204 

95.  Santa  Agnese  fuori  le  mura,  Rome.     Interior  view.     Dehio 205 

96.  Groundplan  of  Santa  Sinforosa,  Rome.     Stockbauer 206 

97.  Entablature,  etc.,  of  San  Apollinare  Xuovo,  Ravenna.     Schnaase.  .  .  .  208 

98.  San  Apollinare  in  classe.     Schnaase 209 

99.  San  Apollinare  in  classe.     Interior  view.     Schnaase 210 

100.  St.  Demeirius,  Thessalonica.     Cross  section.     Stockbauer. 212 

101.  Basilica  at  El-Barah,  Central  Syria,     de  Vogtte 214 

102.  Church  at  Tourmanin,  Central  Syria,     de  Vogue ....  215 

103.  Baths  of  Diocletian.     Stockbauer 219 

104.  Temple  of  Romulus.  Via  Appia,  Rome.   Stockbauer 222 

105.  Groundplan  of  St.  George,  Thessalonica.     Stockbauer 224 

106.  St.  George,  Thessalonica.     E.xteuior  view.     Schnaase 224 

107.  San  Vitale,  Ravenna.     Interior  view.     Schnaase 225 

108.  San  Vitale,  groundplan.     Schnaase 226 

109.  San  Vitale,  longitudinal  section.     Schnaase  227 

110.  Capital  from  San  Vitale.     Lubke 228 

1 1  J.  Capital  from  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople.     Lubke 228 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xr 

FIGURE  PAOK 

112.  SS.  Sercius  and  Bacchus,  CoNsxANTiNorLE.     SrocKnAiEu 229 

1 13.  Hall  in  ancient  Roman  palace.     Dehio 229 

1 14.  Section  of  St.  Sophia.     Stockbauer '. 233 

1 1 5.  Section  of  the  Basilica  of  Constantine,  Rome.-    Stockbauer 234 

110.  Groundplan  of  St.  Sophia.     Schnaase ' 237 

117.  St.  Sophia.     Longitudinal  section.     Schnaase ....  238 

118.  Section  of  Santa  Constanza,  Rome.     Dehio  and  Bezold 241 

119.  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  Nocera  de  Pagani,  section.     Schnaa.se 242 

120.  Burial  chapkl  of  Galla  Placidia,  Ravenna.     Stockbauer 244 

121.  Section  of  the  same.     Dehio  and  Bezold 245 

122.  Cathedral  of  Trier.     Schnaase 246 

123.  Graffiti  from  papal  crypt,  San  Sisto,  Rome.     Roller 269 

124.  Cross  in  circle  with  inscriptions.     Munter 270 

125.  Column  from  the  Basilica  of  Petronilla,  Rome.     Northcote  and  Brown- 

low 27t"> 

126.  Baptism  ok  Christ.     Fresco  from  Santa  Lucina,  Rome.     Original  draw- 

ing    399 

127.  Another  baptism  of  Christ.     After  Roller 40ti 

128.  Supposed  baptism.     Fresco  from  Pretest ato,  Rome.     After  dk  Ro.ssi. ...  401 

129.  A  BAPTISM,  from  San  Calisto,  Rome.     After  de  Rossi 401 

13(>.  A  baptism,  from  San  Calisto,  Rome.     After  de  Rossi 402 

101.  A  BAPTISM   on    a   fragment  OF  A   GLASS  CUP.       AfTER  MaRTIGNY 403 

102.  Baptism   of   Christ.      Mosaic   from   San    Giovanni    in   fonte,   Ravenna. 

After  Piper 404 

133.  Baptism  of  Christ.     Mosaic   from   Santa  Maria   in  Cosmedin,  Ravenna. 

After  Quast 405 

134.  A  baptism,  from  a  fresco  in  Santa  Pudenziana,  Rome.     After  Martigny  405 

135.  A  baptism  of  Christ,  from  a  fresco  in  San  Ponziano,  Rome.     Munter..  406 

136.  A  baptistery  from  a  sarcophagus,  Rome.      After  Dehio  and  Bezold 410 

137.  Groundplan   of   a   baptistery  at  Deir  Seta,  Central  Syria.     After  de 

Vogue 110 

138.  A'ertical  Section  of  baptistery  of  San  Giovanni.     Dehio 411 

1 39.  Vertical  Section  of  baptistery  in  Albegna.     Dehio 412 

140.  An  Altar  (mensa)  of  the  fifth  century.    After  Roller 427 

141.  A  Roman   columbarium.     After  Guhl 513 

142.  A     STREET     OF    TOMBS    LEADING    FROM    IIeRCULANEUM    GATE,    PoMPEII.       AfTER 

Guhl f"!^ 

143.  Entrance  to  Santa  Domitilla,  Rome.     Kraus 517 

144.  A  gallery  in  Catacombs.     Northcote  and  Brownlow 518 

145.  Plan  of  Santa  Agnese,  Rome      Kraus 618 

146.  An  arcosolium.     Kraus ^1^ 

147.  Section  OF  CHAMBER  AND  lumisarium.      Northcote  and  Browvlow 520 

148.  Rock-hewn  tombs  at  El-Barah,  Central  Syria,     de  Vogue 521 


Plate   I.  Gilded  glasses  and  bronze  iusts,  representing  Peter  and 

Paul f'^f"'>«  "- 

"     IT.  The  sarcophagus  of  Junius  Bassus,  Photograph Facino  144 

•'     II».  The  sarcophagus  OF  Junius  Bassus,  Engraving Facing  145 

"    in.  Christian  inscriptions  associated  WITH  Christian  SYMBOLS  .   Facing  258 


xvi  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAfiE 

Plate  IV.  Ciiiustiax  symhols  ox  iirniAL  mommkxts Facixg  261 

■'  V.     El'lTAI'llS   FKOM    FIRST   HALF  OF  THK  TIIIKI)  CKXTCRY FaCING    262 

"  VI.    IxSfKU'TIOXS  OF  DOCTRIXAL   IMPORT Facixg    264 

"        VII.    IXSCUIPTIOXS  OF    P(ft»E   DaMASUS,    FOURTH   CEXTLKY FaCING    265 

"    VIII.  Epitaphs  of  secoxd  half  of  the  fol'rth  cextuuy Facing  267 

"        IX.  Facsimile    of  the  first    page  of   the    Axtiphoxarium   of 

Grkgory  the  Great Facing  313 

"         X.  Xlmj:  fuom  early  Codices Facing  314 

Map  ok  the  Roman  Empire  at  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Justinian, 

SHOWING   THE    CHIEF  SITES    OF    CHRISTIAN    MONC.MENTS.. .  .        FaCING    22-23 

Map  OF   Rome    and    its   environs,  showing  the  location  of  the 

CATACOMBS,    PRINCIPAL    CHURCHES,  AND   OTHER    IMPORTANT 

OBJECTS Facing  545 


CONTENTS  AND  ANALYTIC  OUTLINE. 


INTRODUCTION 


CllAP'l'Eli   I. 


GENEKAL    PRINCIPLES. 


1.  Definition 1.3 

2.  Divisions 13 

3.  Divisions  of  Cliristian  arcliseoloj^y. 

(1)  Of  Christian  art 13 

(2)  Of    constitution    ani.i     govern- 

ment    14 


(3)  Of  worship  and  rites U 

(4)  Of  Christian  life 14 

History  of  arclueolo{,'y 15 

Kelations  of  Christian  to  classical"  ar- 

cluBolo^y 1(5 

Chronological  Inuits  and  reasons. .  17,  li 


CHAl'TEK   II. 


UTILITY    OF   THE    STUDY. 


Connection  of  archjeology   witli  his- 
tory of  civilization 19 

Utility  of  archisology. 

(1)  Has  corrected  ehronolonry 20 

(2)  Has  corrected  false  notions  of  the 

hatred  of  art 20 


(3)  Has  aided  to  correct  tlie  text  of 

patristic  writings 20 

(4)  [las  helped  to  write  the  history 

of  heresies 21 

Co)  Unconscious  testimony 21 

{6)  They    help    to    a<certain    what 

Christ  taught 22 


BOO  K     FIR  ST. 

ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN    ART. 

CHAPTER    I. 

GEOGRAPHY   AND   CHRONOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART   MONUMENTS. 


1.  Reasons  of  the  rapid  spread  of  the 

Gospel 25 


2.  A  mesR:ige  to  the  poor. 

3.  Gained  soirie  of  the  better  classes. . . 

4.  Number  of  Christians  in  the  empire. 

6.  Spirit  of  the  new  religion 

tj.  Adoption  by  the  state 

7.  Monuments"! 

(I)  Increase  of 


(2)  Nevertheless  limited 23 

(3j  Ruthless    destruction    of,    rea- 
sons    28,  2'.t 

8.  Monuments  of  first  century 29,  30 

9.  "  "    second    "      30,31 

10.  "  "   third        "     31-34 

11.  "  "   fourth      "     34-36 

12.  "  "    fiilh        "     3ii-39 


13. 


si.vtii 


39-41 


CHAPTER    II 

THE   RELATIONS   OF   CHRISTIANITY   TO    ART   DURING   THE   FIRST   8I.X   CENTURIES. 


1.  Three  chief  questions  involved. 
A.  The    Jewish    origin    of    the    first 
Christian  converts,  and  the  pe- 
culiarity of  the  Semitic  imagina- 
tion. 
(1)  First  Christians  of  Jewisli  ori^ 


(2)  Jewish  exclusiveness 

(3)  Depressed  eoiKlition  of  Jewish 

people .... 

(4~)  This  unfavorable  to  art  culiuie. 


1 


(5)  Tiie  second  commandment  does 

not  prohibit  art 43 

(G)  The  temple  site 44 

(7)  Vegetable  and  animal  forms. . .  45 

(8)  The  commandment  a   hinder- 

ance  to  art .^5 

(9)  The    Semitic    imagination  hn-^*"^ 

petuous 45,  4i! 

(10)  Examples  from  Scripture 4'j 

(11)  Confirmed  from  examples,  tho 

temple,  sculpture,  poetry..  47,43 


2 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


B.  Diverse    opinions    of   Jews    and 

Greeks  relative  to  the  nature  and 
revelation  of  God. 

(1)  Hebrew  monotliei.sm  unfav 

able  to  arts  of  form '49,  50 

(2)  The  Greek  mythology,   its  e.\- 

ternahiess,  favorable  to  arts 
of  Ibrm 411,  50 

(3)  Illustration  in  Si.  Paul's  writ- 

ing   ..^0^ 

C.  The  growing  inlluence  of  CUiisti- 

iinity,  audits  effeet  on  art  cult- 
ure. 

(1)  Universalism  of  the  GosjilI.  .  5J 

(2)  Powerful  art  influen'ees fo^ 

(3)  Early  opposition  of  ChnsiiiUis 

to  arc — its  extent 5-J,  53 

(4)  Decorative    art    the     eai'iu-.-i 

form 54 

(5)  Originality  of  Christian  art.  . .   5i 

(6)  Syiiibnlisni  of  Christian  art. .  .   5) 

(7)  The  Church  appropriated  what 

was  at  liand ' 55 

(8)  Decoration    of    burial    monu- 

ments       5li 

2.  The   Eoman    Catacombs,   decorative 

art  in  the  same 50-58 

3.  Commingling  of  Christian  and  pa- 

gan elements 5!i Jj' 


The  mythological  element  in  Christ- 
ian art. 

( 1 )  Barberiui  Diptych 61 

(2)  Sarcophagus  of  Junius  llassus     6C 

(3)  Greek  manuscript 60 

(4)  Eoman  imperial  coins til 

Types 61 

Heathen    elements     in      Christian 

structures. 

( 1 )  Sarcophagi G2 

(2)  Churches *i~ 

Prophecies  and    preparations  —  ex- 
amples. 

{1)  Translation    of    Elijali    and 
Apollo tic 

(2)  The  good  shepherd  and  the 

ram  bearer 6f 

(3)  Christ  and  Orpheus ti4 

(4)  Christ  and  Hercules 64 

(5)  Temptation  and  the  Sirens...     65 

(6)  Christ  and  Mars 66 

(7)  Numismatic  cx^miples 66^^ 

No  baechic  nor  amatory  scenes  ....  /us 
Amor  and  Psyche  the  type  of  eternal 

reunion 68,  61 

The  genii tit 

The  phoenix  a  symbol  of  the  resur- 
rection  70,  7] 


CHAPTER    III. 


SYMBOLISM    OF   CIIlll.STI.\N    ART. 


1.  General  principles. 

(1)  Definition  of  .symbol 

(2)  Not  arbitrary.'. 

(3)  Caution  in  interpretation.... 

(4)  Canons  of  interpretation 

(5)  Schools  of  interpretation 

2.  Examples — Clirist. 

(1)  No    portrait  of   Christ    pre- 

served  

(2)  The  lamb 

(3)  The  fish— the  eucharist. ...  77- 

3.  The  cross  and  crucifix. 

(1)  Pre-Christian 

(2)  Signs  of  the  cros>» 

(3)  Pre-Constantine  cross 

(4)  Not  of  Indian  origin 

(5)  The  monogram  of  Christ. ..  85- 


72 


74 


(6)  The  Tau  cross &J 

4.  The  Alpha-Omega  monuments 8S: 

6.  The  vine St 

6.  The  Good  Sheyilierd 9l 

7.  This  symbol  not  necessarily  derived  91 

8.  The  disciples  and  the  Chuieh. 

(1)  The  door — it.s  sisnifieance. . .  9" 

(2)  The  fish ': 9: 

(3)  The  sheep  and  the  lambs 9: 

(4)  The  ship  explained 91 

9.  Other  symbols. 

(1)  The  anchor 9 

(2)  Tlie  palm-tree  and  the  palm 

brancli      95 

(3)  Theerown,  lyre,  peacock,  (tc.  93 
10.  Tiie  caricatures  of  Christand  hi.s  doc- 
trine   94-96 


CHAPTER   IV 


E.\RLY    CHRISTIAN    PAIXTIXO    AXD    MOSAICS. 


1.  Earliest  paintings  in  tlie  catacombs.  /  9^  11 

2.  Similarity  of  Christian  to  heatlien 

painting 97 

3.  The  cycle  of  Cliristian  art  peculi  ir.  98 

4.  The  principle  of  artistic  bahincing. .  98 

5.  Naturalness  of  early  Christian  an  ..  ^9tK 

6.  Two  types  of  Cin'ist . .  TW    12. 

7.  The  later  frescos   depart   from  the 

earlier  tyjie loi    i,s. 

8.  Rea.sons  of  this  change 104    14. 

9.  Tlie  orantes 106    15, 

10.  No  symbolic  representation  of  the  16. 

Virgin 106    17, 


Various  types  of  the  Virgin. 

(1)  The  Virgin  and  star. ..    . 

(2)  Vii'gin    and   child   in    S 

Domitilla  . .    

(3)  Virgin    and   child    in    S 

Agnese 

The  Good    Shepherd  and    St. 

cilia 

Vine  ornaments 

Paintings  on  gilt  glasses 

Primacy  of  Peter 

Miniatures  and  illuminations.. . 
Fragment  of  a  Latin  liible 


. ...    106 

aiUa 

. ...    107 

anta 

. ..  .   103 

Cl- 
109 

11(1,111 
....    Ill     , 

1  n .  1 1 1   5' 

11;    V 

. ...  11- 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


1.  General  principk-s. 

(1)  How  classitiecl 114 

(2)  Nearest  nU'wd  to  painting 115 

(3)  Kinds  of  niusaius 11.') 

2.  Limited  use  in  the  Catacoinhs 115 

3.  Utility  of  their  study 115 

4.  Caution  against  restorations lli; 

5.  Chronology ll(j 

G.  Santa  Constanza  in  Koine. 

(1)  Its  style 117 

(i2)  Its  description ll'J 

(3)  Transition  in    style,  and  the 

cause 119 

7.  C]i;ipels  in  San  Giovanni  in  Later- 

ano 11,5 

8.  Santa  Pudenziana    119 

9.  Santa  Sabina. 120 


MOSAICS. 

10, 


12. 


Saint  Paul  beyond  the  walls 

Santa  Maria  Ma^giore. 

(1 )  Description 

(2)  The  teacliings  of  tliese  mosa- 

ics  

Mosaics  of  Ravenna. 

(1 )  San  Giovanni  in  fonte 

(2)  Mausoleum  of  Galla  Phicidia. 
Other  mosaics  of  the  fifth  century . . 
Mosaics  of  the  si.vth  century. 

(1)  SS.     Cosmas    and     Dumian, 

Rome,  description....  124, 

(2)  San    Apollinare   Nuovo,   Ra- 

venna   

(3)  St. Sophia, Constantinople  127- 

(4)  St.  Sophia,  Thessalonica.  129, 

(5)  St.  Catharine's, Mt.  Sinai.... 


120 
120 
121 
l'J2 

1-JJ 

125 

125 
129 

i.;o 

130 


CHAPTER  V. 

EARLY    CniSISTIAN   SCULPTURE. 


1.  Why  Christianity  seemed  hostile  to>*^ 

sculpture ISr 

2.  Why  sculpture  experienced  a  deca- 

dence  ^  13L» 

3.  No  portraitures  of  Christ 7151 

4.  The  Good  Shepherd  in  statuary 132 

5.  Difference  between  the  Good  Shep- 

herd and  the  ram-bearing   Mer- 
cury   133 

6.  The  bronze  statue  of  St.  Peter 133 

7.  Statue  of  Ilippolytus,  its  Christian 

origin  questioned 133, 134 

6.  Types  of  Christ  in  Christian  sculp- 
ture   136 


9.  The  decorative  principle  united  with 
the  symbolic 

10.  Examples  of  combination. 

( 1 )  Translation  of  Elijah 

(2)  The  History  of  Jonah 

11.  Frequency  of  recurrence  of  Scriptu- 

ral subjects 

12.  Architectural    elements    in    sarco- 

phagi  142, 

13.  The  Junius  Bassus  monument.  .145, 

14.  The  nativity  in  sculpture 

15.  The  last  judgment  in  sculpture 


13S 
139 

142 

143 
14ti 
^4H 

150 


CARVINGS    IN    IVORY. 


Ivory  diptyohs 151 

Consular  and  ecclesiastical  diptychs  151 
One  of  the  earliest  representations  of 
the  crucifixion 154 


4.  Carving  on  book-covers 155 

5.  Ivory   pixes 15<; 

t).  Sculptured  lamps 157 

7.  Ampullffi  or  blood- phials 157, 15^^ 


CHAPTER  VI. 


EARLY  CMRISTIA 

§1.— r/«e   Chr 

1.  Origin  of  the  basilica  : 

(1)  Alberti's  theory  from  the  Ro- 

man basilica 157 

(2)  Zesterniann'stheory,  a  Christ- 

ian development 158 

(3)  His  five  classes 159 

(4)  The  hypjethral  temple 159 

(5)  Messmer's  theory,   frouj  the 

triclinium I'M 

(6)  From  the  j)rivate  dwelling. .  I'i2 

(7)  From  the  pagan  xchula lii'J 

(8)  An  eclectic  view,  its  discus- 

sion  \(\->-\M 

(9)  Relations  of  private  dwellini;s 

to  churches 1  <lil 

(10)  Development  of  the  atrium 

H;7-li>9 

(11)  The  schola  and  burial  guilds 

1711-172 

(12)  The  cellfe 172-175 


N  ARCHITECTURE. 

idian  Basilica. 

2.  Origin  of  pagiin  Roman  basilica. 

(1 )  Form  of  the  law  basilica 

(2)  The  apse 

3.  Constructive  elements 

4.  Erroneous  theories . . 

5.  Earliest  notices  of  Christian  basili- 

cas   

fi.  The   Christian    Church   an   organ- 
ism  ;  . 

7.  The  apse  the  unifying  member  in 

the  Christian  basilica 

8.  Suggestion  of  the  apse  in  lieathen 

structures 

9.  DifTcrences    between    heathen   and 

< 'liristian  basilicas 

10.  The  p:irts  of  the  basilica: 

(1)  The  apse  and  its  furniture. .. 

(2)  The   vestibule • 

(.;)  The  transept 

(4)  The  triumphal  arch 

(5)  The  naves 


175 
177 
17X 
17^ 

ISO 

181 

181 

1<2 

1-" 

1^-t 
1-5 

1>7 

157 
15S 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


11.  The  influence  of  the  Christian  ba- 

silica   on   other   forms   of 
Christian  arcliitecture. 

(1)  First  £rerms  of  the  Gothic 18'.' 

(■2)  The  unifyinjr  spirit 18',i 

(3)  Further  transformations   190 

12.  Some  of  the  earliest  Christian  churches. 

(1)  Few  pre-Constantine 191 

(2)  Exaniples 193-196 

13.  Basilicas  of  Roman  origin  in  the  time 

of  Constantine. 

(1^  Constantine's  influence 196 

(2)  Few   churches   survive  —  ex- 
amples  197-202 


14.  Some  basilicas  of  the  post-Constan- 
tine  period. 

(1)  Contrasts   l^etween   East  and 

West 202 

(2)  Splendour    of    Constantine's 

reign 203 

(3)  Examples  of  churches...   203-206 
Churelies  of  Ravenna. 

(1)  Periods  of  architecture  in  Ra- 
venna   207 

(2)  Examples  of  churches  in  each 
pieriod 208-211 

Christian    basilicas  in   other  coun- 
tries  211-217 


15 


16 


§  2.— The  Central  or  Domed  Church. 


1.  Its  peculiar  home  in  the  East 217 

2.  Origin  of  the  domed  structure. 

(1)  Very  obscure 218 

(2)  Resemble  baptisteries 218 

(3)  Ceiitrid  buildmg  in  Constan- 

tine's time 220 

3.  Classification  of  domed  structures. 

(1)  With  niches 220 

(2)  Cruciform  structures 221 

(3 )  The  simple  rotunda 221 

(4)  With   niches  and   columns- 

examples 222-229 

4.  Bvzantine  architecture. 

■(1)  Syncretism  in  art 230 


(2)  Valuable  art  services  of  By- 

zantium    231 

(3)  A    product    of   the    Oriental 

spirit 232 

(4^  Three  historic  periods 232 

(5)  Fixedness  of  art  forms  in  the 

>econd  period — reasons,  232,  233 

5.  Saint  Sophia. 

n)  Difficulties  of  structure 234 

(2)  Vast  preparations 235 

(3)  Description 236-241 

6.  The  circular  structure,  and   exam- 

ples  241-244 

7.  The  cruciform  buildings,  and  exam- 

ples  .' 244-246 


Cn.\PTER  VII. 


EARLY    CHRISTI.\N    EPIGKAPHV. 


1.  Definitions  and  principles. 

(1)  Early  Christian  use 

{2)  Increased   interest   in    later 

times 

(3)  Value     of     Christian     epi- 

graphy  

(4)  Number    of    Christian    in- 

scriptions  

(5)  Materials  on  which  inscrip- 

tions are  found 

(6)  Kinds  of  inscriptions 

2.  Palseographic  principles. 

(1^  How  are  inscriptions  read. . 

(2)  Punctuation 

(3)  Orthography  of  inscriptions. 

3.  Chronology  of  inscriptions. 

(1^  Indictions 

(2)  Provincial  eras 

(3)  Inscriptions  without  dates. . 

(4)  Special  indications 

4.  Tlie  subject  and  content  of  inscrip- 

tions. 

(1)  Paj^an  influence  in  Christ- 

ian ejiigraphy 

(2)  Becker's  four  conclusions  re- 

specting D.  M 


254 


(3)  Views  of  death  and  of  the 
future 256, 

5.  Application  of  principles  and  their 

illustration. 

(1)  The  magi 

(2)  Paradise 

(3)  Orantes 

^4^  Tlie  church 

(^5)  Tapers  in  church  service. . . . 

(6)  Other  symbols 261, 

(7)  The  significance  of  dormit. . 

(8)  Carelessness  in   preparation 

of  inscriptions 

(9J  The  future  life 

flO)  The  Damasone  inscriptions. 

(11)  Prayers  to  the  dead 

n2)  The  terms  for  chief  pa>tor. . 

(13)  Warning   against   hasty  in- 

ductions   

(14)  Possible  ignorance  of  Christ- 

ians as  to  the  signiticaneo 
of  certain  inscriptions 

6.  Eulogistic  character  of  later  inscrip- 

tions  

7.  The  Graffiti 268, 

8.  Epigraphic   and    pictorial    aids    to 

history  illustrated  . . .  270, 


257 


258 

258 
258 
259 
260 
262 
263 

262 
264 

261 
265 
266 

2G7 


267 


268 
269 


271 


CONTENTS   AND  ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


CHAPTER   VIll. 

EARLY   CHRISTIAN    POETRY    AND   HYMNOLOGY. 


1.  Preliminary  considerations. 

(Ij  Kelations   of  poetry   to    re- 
ligion  272 

(2)  Earliest  liynnis 272 

(3)  Early  Ciiristianity  prolific  of 

poetic  themes 272 

(4)  Yet  not  favourable  to  met- 

rical forms 273 

(5)  Tlie  Psalter  at  first  in  gen- 

eral use 273 

(6)  Gems  of  hynnioloiry  in  the 

New  Testament 273 

(7)  The  probable  use  of  hymns 

in  the  second  century 274 

^8)  Milliter's  conclusions 275 

(9)   The  Greek  fathers   favour- 
able to  the  use  of  liymns.   276 
(10)  Reason    of    the   fewness    of 

hymns 276 

2.  Sacred  poetry  of  the  Syrian  Church. 

(1 )  Antioch  the  mother  city. . . .   277 

(2)  The  hymns  of  the  Gnostics.   278 

(3)  Ephraein     of    Edessa,    liis 

metliods 278 

(4)  His  poems  numerous,  tlieir 

metrical  principles 279 

(5)  Example  of  his  poetry.  279,280 

3.  The  Greeic  hyinnology. 

(1)  The  Pcedngoff its  of  Chmciit.  2S0 

(2)  Gregory  of  Nazianzen 281 

(3)  Synesius,  his  defects 'jsl 

(4)  Anatolius  and  his  hymns..  2.s2 


Tlie  poetry  and  hymnoloiry  of  tlie 
Western  Ciiurch. 

(1)  Two  kinds  of  sacred  poetry.  283 

(2)  Lyric   poetry   an    exotic  m 

Koine 264 

(3)  llijjh  character  of  Christian 

lyi-ic 284 

(4)  Commodianus,    his    poems, 

their  val ue 285 

(5)  Lactantius       and       Juven- 

cufi 285-287 

(6)  Damasus,    hymns    of,    and 

character 287, 288 

(7)  Disturlied  conditions  under 

Constantine 288 

(8)  Julian  and  liis  policy,  iis  ef- 

fects upon  Christian  litera- 
ture    289,290 

(9)  Paulinas     of      Nola,       liis 

theory  of  poetry,  antl  his 
tlieines 290,291 

(10)  Ambrose,  liis  education  and 

contributions  t'>  hvnmol- 
ocry ' ..  291,292 

(11)  Influence  of  Arian  hymns. .   292 

(12)  Prudentius,  his   works  and 

their  character 293-295 

(13)  Fortunatus,  his  poems..  295,296 

(14)  Other  hymn  writers 296 

(15)  Do.vologies 296,  297 

(16)  Gregory's  hymns  ot  doubt- 

ful genuineness 296 


CIIAl'TER  IX. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    MUSIC. 


Educational  value  of  Jewish  cere- 
monies   

Hebrew  music  lost 

First  Christians  familiar  with  Jew- 
ish forms 

Greek  influence  powerful 

The  old  temple  service  a  partial  con- 
servator   

Influence  of  Jewish  sects 

The  early  Christians  adopted  what 
was  then  at  hand 

Improvisation 

Music  not  an  imitation  of  miture. . . 

Tlie  betrinnings  of  Christian  music 
uncertjiin  in  date 

Ariaii  influence 

Conciliary  action 

(Opinions  as  to  this  action. .....  303, 

Character  of  the  singing  service 

Ambrosian  chant 

Changed  circumstances  of  tiic 
Church— its  effect  on  music 

Music  and  poetry  associated  by  the 
Greeks 


18 

208 

298 

19 

20 

-299 

29',) 

21 

•>o 

300 

23 

300 

24 

301 

301 

25 

302 

26 

302 

27 

303 

28 

303 

304 

29 

304 

305 

30 

305 

31 

306 

32 

The    Greek    musical    notation— its 

complex  chm-acter 307 

Romans  not  patrons  of  art 307 

Christianity  first  developed  the  dia- 
tonic   » 308 

Ambrose  reduced  tiie  modes  to  four  309 

The  modes  and  sciienie 3u9 

Other  musical   writei-s — Macrobius, 

Eoeihius,  etc _  • .  • . .   310 

Gregory  the  Great,  his  services  in 

reforming  music 311 

The  .Vuthentic  and  Plagid  modes..  312 
Explanation  of  these  and  tiie  nature 

of  the  development 312-314 

Gregorian  Antiplionanum 314 

Tlie  Nuiiue— illustrations  and  trans- 
lations proposed — the  key  lost...  315 
Perpetuations  of  the  Gregorian  oliant 

— its  originality 316 

Decline   of  music   in    the    Eastern 

Church 316 

Connection  of  religion  with  art  cul- 
ture  317.  SlSn 

Reinarka  of  Cousin 31  J*n 


CONTENTS   AND  ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


BOOK     SECOND. 

THE     ARCHAEOLOGY     OF     THE     CONSTITUTION     AND     GOVERN- 
MENT OF    THE    EARLY   CHRISTIAN    CHURCH. 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  CHRISTIAN    CHUKCH    IN    ITS    IDEA  AND    ORIGIN. 


1.  New  Testament  idea  of  the  Cliurcli. 

(1)  A  kiiiijdom 322 

(2)  'EKnAi/aia 3'22 

(3)  The  body  of  Christ 323 

(4)  A  temple 323 

(5)  The  bride 323 

(tj)  A  visible  form 323 

2.  Thu  names  applied  to  its  members. 

(1)  Disciples 322 

(2)  Believers 323 

(3)  Brethren 323 

f4)  Oppiobious  epithets 323 

(5)  The    clients    of    their    Master, 

Christ 323 


The  Apostolate. 

(1)  The  triumph  of  the  Church  as- 

sured    323 

(2)  No  inspired  form  of  the  Church  324 

(3)  Cliarisms 324 

(4)  Christ  alone   was  teacher,   the 

apostles  were  disciples 324 

(5)  A  fellowship 325 

(6)  Apostles  known  to  the  Jewish 

Church 320 

(7)  Other  ministers 328 

(8)  The  Twelve— its  significance...  327 

(9)  Other  apostles 328 

(10)  The  first  test  of  apostleship 328 


CHAl'TER  II. 

THE  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH — ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS. 


1.  T'.ie 

(1) 
(2) 
(3) 
(4) 
(5) 

(6) 
(7) 

(8) 

(10) 
(11) 

2.  Pres 

(1) 
(2) 

(3) 
(4) 

(5) 


apostles  and  deacons. 

First  officers 

But  one  order  at  first 

Wlio  wore  the  deacons  ? 

Gravity  of  their  functions 

A  dopi  ed  by  the  Gentile  ch  urclies 

also 

Deaconesses 

Thediaconate  peculiarly  ('liris- 

tian 

The  deacons  also  preached 

Prior  to  the  first  persecution  no 

formnl  church 332, 

The  Church  orjranized 

James,  his  office 

byters  and  bishops. 

First  pertained  to  local  societies 

Presbyters  common  to  Jewish 

and  Christian  societies 

A  council — what  ? 

The   entire  community   had   a 

share  in  the  deliberations  . . . 
Each  congregation  independent. 


320 
330 
330 
330 

331 
331 

331 


(6)  The    presbyters  chiefly  officers 

of  administration 

(7)  The  early  type  republican,  not 

monarchical 

(S)  Presbyters  a'so  teachers 336, 

(9)  Presbyters  in  Gentile  churches. 
337, 

3.  Essential  identity  of  bishops  and  el- 

ders, 
f  1)  Reasons  for  so  believing 

(2)  Schaff"'s  summary 

(3)  Wjiy  two  terms?"    Two  theories 

339, 

(4)  Supervisor  of  charities 

4.  General  conclusions. 

(1)  Duties   of  ofiicers  at  first   not 

sharply  defined 

(2)  Cliarisms  the  first  preparation.. 

(3)  Clement    makes  no  distinction 

between   bishops  and   pres- 
byters  

(4)  No  trace  of  a  primacy 


335 


33(3 
337 


338 
339 


340 

340 


341 
341 


342 

342 


CHAPTER  HI. 

THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  CONSTITUTION  FROM  THE  DESTKUCTION  OF  JERUSALEM  TO  IRENiEUS. 


1.  Influence  of  the  death  of  apostles  and 

the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem. 
CI)  Their  vast  importance 343 

(2)  The     dcstrueti'in     of    Jerusa- 

lem scattered  the  apostles 
abroad 343 

(3)  Emancipated  the  Church  from 

Jewish  prejudices 343 

(4)  Compelled    a     more     compact 

organization 344 

2.  The  Icrnatian  episcopiicy. 

(1 )  Functions  of  a  bishop 344 

(2)  Bishops   and  presbytei's   diflfer 

in  their  derivation 345 


3.  Tlie  Clementine  homilies. 

(1)  A  monarchical  episcopacy 34G 

(2)  Bishops  successors  of  the  apos- 

tles   S4ii 

(3)  Arbiter  of  doctrines 347 

4.  The  Shepherd  of  Hernias  and  Polycarp. 

(1)  Distinction    between    the    lay 

and  clerical  element 347 

(2)  No    Catholic   Church   yet   rec- 

ognized   348 

(3)  The      bishop      the      unifying 

power 348 

(4)  Church  letters 348 

(5)  No  priesthood  of  the  clergy  in 

the  New  Testament ....   349 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


(6)  Kisc  of  .siicLi-dotalism,  its  ef- 

fects    349 

(7)  Tlie   views   found  in  "The 

Teaeliing  " 350 

The  form  of  government. 

(1)  A  cono;re»iitionul  episcopacy.  350 
(2;  Tlie  cnarism  a  result  of  the 

oflB.ce 351 


(3)  Tlie  elioicc  of  l)i.shops ,"."l 

(4)  Tlie  episcopacy  a  development  351 

(5)  Relations  of  fjislioijs  to  eaoli 

other So-I 

(0)  Bisliop  of  Rome z-,2 

(7)  Cliaiijre  in  prcsljj'tciiai  jiDwer  S.Vi 

(8)  Dirtereiit  authority  of  bisiiop 

and  presbyter Zo-^ 


CHAl'TER  IV. 

THE    CHURCn    CONSTITUTION    FKOil    IREN^US    TO    THE    ACCESSION    OF    CON8T.\NTlXE. 


1.  The  theory  of  Irena>us. 

(1)  Peculiar      conditions     of     the 

Church 

(2)  The  Gnostic  threats 

(3)  Divisions 

(4)  Testimony    of    Hcgesippus— of 

Irenseus 

(5)  The  Church  principleof  Irena^us 

(a)  Harmony  of  apostolic  teae  1 1  - 

i'lg 

(b)  The  bishops  the  deposita- 
ries of  this  teaching 


(c)  A  regular  succession. 

(d)  Compilation    of     lists 


of 


1)  Compilation 

bishops 

(6)  Others  in  harmony  with   this 

principle 

The  influence  of  Cyprian. 

(1)  Unity  of  Ciiurch  identical  with 

the  episcopate 

(2)  Which  unity  proceeds  from  the 

chair  of  St.  Peter's 

(3)  Power  and  authority  of  tradi- 

tion   


353 
353 
354 

354 
354 

354 

355 
355 

355 

356 


35C> 
357 
357 


(4)  The  episcopate  no  longer  con- 
gregational but  general 358 

<'5)  This  etfected  by  onlinatioii 35!S 

3.  Tlie  sacerdotal  principle. 

(1)  Growth  of  sacerdotalism 359 

(2)  The    priesthood   of  the   clergy 

came  from  the  priesthood  of 
the  body  of  believers 359 

(3)  C yorian's  view 359 

(4)  Did    the    sacerdotal    principle 

come  from  the  Jewish  or  Gen- 
tile Churches? SCio 

(5)  Lightfoot's  opinion StJCi 

^6)  This  not  so  clearly  established.  3G1 

4.  Tlie  Apostolic  Constitutions. 

(1)  The  (,'liureli  a  divine  state 3G2 

(2)  Ordination,  liow  effected,  and  its 

signifieance 302 

5.  Conclusion. 

(1)  The  Church  forms  and  govern-       , 

ment  ati'LCted  by  their  envi- 
ronments    3i!2 

(2)  Church  government  a  develop- 

ment   302 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE   OFFICES   AND  OFFICERS   OF  THE   POST-APOSTOLIC    CHURCH. 


Origin  of  episcopacy. 
(1)  Theories. 

(a)  Of  apostolic  origin 

(b)  It  originated  in  household 
societies 

(c)  It  was  formed    out  of  the 

presbyterial  office  by  ele- 
vation   


(2)  Conclusion. 

rh 


2.  The    presbyters,    deacons,    deacon- 
esses, etc. 

(1)  Duties  and  prerogatives 

(2)  Limitations  of  tiie  rights  of  the 
laity. 


(3)  Functions  of  the  presbyters, 
lianges  in    "     " 
deacons. 


363 
364 


364 
365 


365 


365 
366 


(4)  Changes  in  the  functions  of  the 


366 
367 


(5)  Could  baptize 

(6)  Could   not  consecrate  the   eu- 

charist 367 

(7>  When  elis^ible  to  this  office 367 

(8)  The  number  of  deacons 368 

(9)  The  archdeacon. 

(a)  How  elected 86> 

(h)  His  importance 368 

(10)  The  deaconesses. 

(a)  Qualifications 36S 


(b)  Their  ordination 

(c)  Did  not  baptize 

(d)  Their  duties 

Chorcpiscopi.  metropolitans,  and  pa- 
triarchs. 

(1)  Divisions  of  the  empire  aeccpt- 

cd  by  the  Church 

(2^  Subordination  of  officers 

(3)  Chorcpiscopi. 

(a)  Occasion  of  institution 

ih)  Presbyters  or  deacons 

(c)  Functions 

(d)  Silt  in  councils 

Pnmntos.     , 

fa)  Time  of  oriirln  uncertain... 

(b)  How  ai'pointcd 

(c)  Their  duties 

(5)  Patriarchs. 

(a)  Arose  graduallv 

(b)  Duties ." 

Suborders  of  the  cleix'y. 

(1)  Providential  indicntions 


SB9 
369 
369 


(4) 


36» 
37" 


2^  Subdciicons. 
3)  Acolytes 


(4)  Exorcist."*,  thoir  duties 

(5)  Other  inferior  ofHcoi-8,  as  read- 
ers, door-kecpci's,  etc. ... , 


371 
371 
:!71 
371 


372 


373 
873 

373 
373 
374 
374 


37t 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

STNODS   AND   COUNCILS — THEIE  AUTHORITY. 


The  synod  of  Jerusalem 375 

Church  synods  after  the  analoofy  of 

civil  leafjues 375 

Necessary  to  preserve  Church  unity.  375 

Provincial  synods 375 

Decline  of  lay  influence 375 

Metropolitan  synods 37(5 

Tlie  representative  prhiciple 376  ' 


8.  CEcumenical  councils 376 

(1)  W  lio  assembled  the  councils  ?  376 

hS  Who  presided  ? 376 

(3)  Subjects  considered 377 

(4i  Method  of  votiug 378 

(5)  Were  their  decisions  binding?  37G 

(6)  Growing  authority  of  concil- 

iary  decisions 377 


CHAPTER    VII. 


CHUKCH     DISCIPLINE. 


1.  Reasons  and  degrees  of  punishment. 

Ci.)  Design  of  church  discipline. .   378 

(2)  Catechumenical  training  a  lat- 

er institution 378 

(3)  The  regulafldei 379 

(4)  Church  discipline  incurred  no 

loss  of  civil  rights 379 

(5)  Sins  venial  and  mortal 379 

(G)  Admonition   and    lesser    ex- 
communication   379 

(7)  Tlie  greater  excommunication  379 


Notice  to  other  churches 380 

(9)  Did  not  annul  benefits  of  bap- 
tism   380 

(10)  Right  of  appeal 380 

2.  Penitential  discipline. 


(X)  The  lapsed 381 

(2)  Four  orders  of  penitents 381 

(3)  Special  penitential  presbyter.  382 

(4)  Decline  of  the  penitential  sys- 

tem    382 

(5^  Ceremony  of  readmission 382 

^6)  Five  stages  of  absolution 383 

(7)  The  care  of  the  early  Church 

respecting  disciphne 383 

Discipline  of  the  clergy. 

(1)  More  stringent  than  lay  disci- 

pline     383 

(2)  Penalties  inflicted 383 

(3)  Deposed    clergy  rarely    rein- 

stated    383 

(4)  Ancient  discipline  wholesome  384 


BOOK    TH  I  RD. 

THE   SACRAMENTS   AND   \A/^ORSHIP  OF   THE   EARLY   CHURCH. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  Nature  of  the  sacraments 389  i  3.  The  number  of  sacraments 388 

2.  Co)ifounding  sacraments   with  mys-  4.  Irenceus' view  of  sacrament  and  mj's- 

teries 387, 388  '         tery 38&n 

CHAPTER   I. 

THE   SACKAMENT   OF   BAPTISM. 

§  1.  Tlie  Idea. 

1.  The  formula 389  I  3.  Opinions  respecting  its  nature 390 

2.  Peculiarity  of  the  baptism  instituted  4.  Its  characterizations 390 

by  Christ 389  ' 

§  2.  Subjects  of  Baptism. 

1.  First  subjects  were  adults 39115.  Origen's  testimony.. 392,393 

2.  Scriptures  and  Apostolic  fathers  si-  6.  Infant  baptism  postponed  till  third 

lent  respecting  infant  baptism. . .  391  year 393 

3.  Patristic  views 391,  392    7.  Liberal  practice  of  the  Church 393 

4.  Not  general  until  fourtli  century 392  1 

§  3.  Catechumenical  Training  of  Adults  for  Baptism. 
1.  Baptism  immediate  on  profession  of         1  2.  Special  training  necessary  in  case  of 

394  I  Gentile  converts 394 


faith 


§4.  The  MlniKtranbt. 
1.  A  function  of  the  bishops 394  l  2.  Others  o<^^M  administer  it  in  extreme 


395 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


§  5.  The  Mode  of  Baptism. 


1.  Cliri.st  iniido  use  of  known  modes. . . 

2.  Analogies  traced 3',i."), 

3.  Immersion    the   usual    mole  among 

the  Jews 

4.  Jewish  proselyte  baptism 

5.  Immersinn  the  usual   mude,  but  lib- 

erty permitted 

6.  "Teaching  of  the   Twelve"    as    to 

mode 31)8, 

7.  Monumental  testimony    398- 

(1)  i'rescos  from  tSanta  Lucina. . 
398 


395 

390 


39(; 

39G 


397 


399 
406 


-400 


(2)  i'rescoes  from  San  Pretestato  401 

(3)  "        "      San  Calisto.  401,402 

(4)  Glass  from  the  Equiline 40J 

(5)  Mosaics  from  li.iveiuia..  404-4O7 

(6)  Other  frescos 40o-4"7 

8.  Clinic  baptism 407 

9.  Cyprian's    opinion   of  clmie    bap- 

tism   4o7,  -iO.s 

10.  Baptism  by  aspersion  by  Celtic  and 

Coptic  churches 40& 


§  6.  Times  and  Places  of  Baptism. 

1.  Apostolic  custom 408  1  3.  A  reasonable  liberty  allowed 409 

2.  Favorite  times  of  baptism 409  I  4.  Baptist eries 409-412 

§  7.  Immediate  Preliminaries. 

1.  Profession  of  faith  required 412  I  3.  Sponsors  and  obligations 413 

2.  Kenunciation  of  the  devil 412  I 

§  8.  Accompanying  Ceremonies. 

1.  Trine  baj^tism  of  the  nude  figure 413  14.  Influence  of  the  Avians 414 

2.  Tertullian's  and  Ambrose'saecount         '  5.   Unction 414 

413,  414  j  <).  Imposition  of  liands 415 

3.  Explanations  of  the  practice 414  | 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE    LOIiD's    SIPPKK. 

§  1.  Idea  and  Mode  of  Celebration. 


The  meal  symbolic 41  •; 

Celebrated  daily 41(j 

Testimony  of  early  frescos 41  ij,  417 

A  communal  meal 417 

Its  administration  not  contined  to  a 

class 417 

How  celebnited 417 

The  agape  discontinued 418 

The  two  parts  of  worship 418 

The  simplicity  of  early  observance 

418,  419 

Early  accounts  of. 418,  419 

Order  of  celebration 419,  42i) 

Infant  conmiunion 420 


13.  Oblations  of  the  whole  Church 

14.  Liturgical    forms   gradually    devel- 

ojied 421, 

15.  Character  of  the  liturgies. . ._. 

1(5.  No  recognition  of  a  sm-offering. . . . 

17.  In  what  sense  a  sacrifice 421, 

18.  Opinions  respecting  tiie  euchurist 

422, 

19.  Obligation  to  commune 

20.  No  jirivate  mass 

21.  Elements  sent  to  the  sick,  etc 

22.  Where  celebrated 

23.  When  and  how  often  celebrated.  425, 

24.  No  elevation  of  the  host 


420 

422 
421 
421 
422 

423 

424 
424 
425 
425 
42t} 
42G 


§  2.  The  Altar  and  its  Furniture. 

1.  Names  and  forms 426  i  4.  Richness  of  altar  furniture 428,  429 

2.  Position  ot  altar 420,  427    5.  Protest  against  luxury 429 

3.  The  chalice  and  paten 42S  | 

CHAPTER  Til. 

E.\KLV    CHKISTIAN    WOUSMIP. 

8  1.  The  Apostolie  Age. 

430  14.  Composition  of  early  churches.    431,4'''.2 
4-0    5.  Greater  independence  among  heathen 

431  I  converts 453 


1.  Suggestions  of  an  early  litur.'v.. 

2.  Jewish  iiirtuences 

3.  Forms  of  worship 


S  2.  Worsliip  in  time  of  ApostolicFathers. 

1.  Statement  of  "  The  Teaching" 433  13.  Heathen  testimony 

2.  Testimony  of  Ignatius 434  I 


434 


10  CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 

§  3.  Public  Worship  in  Second  and  Third  Centuries. 

1.  Justin  Mui-tyr's  account 434,  435  I  3.  Cyprian's  and  Augustine's  testimony. 

2".  Tertullian's  statement 436  I  436,  437 

CHAPTEE  IV. 

THE   EARLIEST   LITURGIES. 

§  1.— Origin. 

1.  Occasions  of  growth 438  I  3.  Have  undergone  great  modifications.  439 

2.  Teniteutial  system 43S  I 

§  2.— Classification  and  DescrijMon. 

1.  Neal's  classification 439,  440  I  5.  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark 441 

2.  Two  parts  of  a  liturgy 440  I  6.  Classes  of  Western  liturgies 441,  442 

3'.  Liturgy  of  St.  Clement 440  |  7.  The  philosopliy  of  the  liturgy 442 

4.  Liturgy  of  St.  James 441  '  8.  Central  thought  in  each 442,  443 

CMAI'TER  V. 

THE  lord's  day,  or  SUNDAY. 

§  \.  -Historic  statement. 

1.  Reason  for  observing  the  first  da>-. . .  444  |  4.  Imperial  rescripts  concei'ning. . .  445,  446 

2.  Relation  of  tlie  seventh  to  the  first . .  444  I  5.  Humane  provisions 446 

8.  Early  testimonies  to 445  I 

§  2.— Sanctity  and  Ground  of  Ohservance. 
1.  The  resurrection  of  Christ 446  !  6.  Tlie  fourth    conmiaudu     it  not  the 


2.  No  positive  enactment 447 

3.  Early  testimony 447,  448 

4.  Provisions  for  ohservance 448,  449 

5.  Gentile  churches  not  bound  by  the 

Jewish  law 449 


basis  of  obligation 449,  450 

Patristic    testimony    re.-.pecting    the 

grounds  of  oliligation 449,  450 

Reasons  of  seeking  a  legal  sanction. .  450 
The  legal  at  length  supplanted  the 

moral 451 


CHAPTER  VI. 

EASTER    AND   OTHER   FESTIVALS. 

§  ].— Zrtea  and  Time  of  Obsei'vance. 

1.  Lifluence  of  the  Jewish  passover 452  I  3.  The  parties 452,  453 

2.  Controversy  about  observing  Easter         I 

452,  453 

§  2.—Attem\^ts  at  Reconciliation. 

1.  The  import  of  the  question 453  I  4.  Conciliary  decisions 454 

2.  The  demand  of  Victor 453,  454  I  5.  Rule  for  celebration 454 

3.  The  arguments 454  I  6.  Dillerent  cycle- 454,  455 

§  3.— T/ic  Carmtmic^'t  of  Easter. 

1.  Two  divisions  of  the  festival 455  13.  Lengthened  observance  of 45r. 

2.  Acts  of  mercy 456  I 

§  4.— 77ic  Festival  of  Pentecost. 

1 .  Two  uses  nf  the  word  Pentecost 456  |  2.  Mode  of  observance 466 

I  5.— The  Feasts  of  Epiphany,  Christma%  etc. 

L  Multiplication  of  feasts 456  I  4.  Supposed  origin  of  CJn-istmas 457 

2.  Origin  of  the  festival  of  Epiphany. .  456  I  5.  Conclusions  reached 457,  4-"i8 

8.  Date  of  birth  of  Christ  unknown 457  I  6.  Influence  of  Mariolatrv 458 


I 


CONTENTS   AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


11 


BOO  K    FOU  RTH . 

THE  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF  CHRISTIAN    LIFE. 
CHAPTER  I. 


THE    CIIUISTIAN    FAMILY. 


1.  Tlie  family  a  type  of  the  Church. . .   4ijl 

2.  Clirist's  yaiictiou  of  the  tiimily.        .   4ill 

3.  The    apostles    in     lianuony    witli 

Christ 461,  462 

4.  Teac-hiiiif  of  the  Fathers 462,  463 

5.  Position  of  woiiiaii  among  the  Ro- 

mans    463 

6.  Evils  under  tiie  Liter  Kepublic 46-3 

7.  Cin-istian  and  heathen  view  of  abor- 

tion      464 

8.  Opinions  respectin;!^  infanticide.  464,  465 

9.  Training  of  children 465 

10.  Tlie  Roman  law  concernino'  the  chil- 


dren 


11.  The  riiurch  had  oversight  of  niar- 

ria  J  e 

12.  Prescribed  limits  of  con.s;in<?uinity. 

13.  Inrtuence  of  asceticism  and  celiljac'y. 

14.  Po.ssilile  oriirin  of  asceticism 

15.  Heathen  e.\ami)les  of  asceticism 

16.  Causes    strenirthehing     it     in     the 

Church 

17.  Civil  legislation  adverse  to  asceti- 

cism   

18.  Evil  ettects  of  the  cvaltation  of  cel- 

ibacy and  virginity  in  the  Church 


465 

466 
466 
467 
467 
467 

463 

468 

469 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE   CHURCH   AND    SLAVEI^V. 


1.  The  relations  of  tiic  Church  to  civil 

oovcrnmcnt 470 

2.  Christianity  gave  a  new  law 470 

3.  Slavery  a  fixed  institution   in   the 

Roman  empire 470 

4.  Conditioi>,^f  the  slave 470,  471 

5.  ChristiaiuLy  did  not  attempt  direct 

abolitlc,^. 471,  472 

C.  Its  care  for  the  slave 472 

7.  Emancipation  encQuraged  and  prac- 

tised    472 

8.  Sliglit  influence   of  first   Christian 


emperors  on  abolition  of  slavery.  473 
9.  The  moral   type  influenced  abo'li 

tion 473,  474 

10.  The  simnliuity  of  Clu'istianity  un- 

favorable to  slavery 474 

11.  Slavcseligible  to  office  in  the  Church  474 

12.  Monumental  evidence  of  equality  of 

all  classes  under  Christianity  475,  476 

13.  The  testimony  of  the  bulle 476,  477 

14.  Ciiristianity  elevated  labor 477 

15.  Illustrative  inscriptions 477 

16.  Evidence  entn'elv  harmonious 478 


CHAPTER  Iir. 

RELATION   OF   THE   EARLY   OHlliCH    TO    CIVIL    AND   MILITARY    LIFE. 


1.  Christianity  encouraged  labor 479 

2.  Trying  position  of  the  early  Christ- 

ians    479 

3.  Certain  trades  condenuied 480 

4.  Patristic  opinions 4S0 

5.  Public  amusements  interdicted 480 

6.  Low  condition  of  the  Roman  drama  4S1 

7.  High  tragedv  unpopular 4>il 

8.  Legal  disabilities  of  actors 4si 

9.  All  shows  tainted  with  idolatry 482 

10.  TertuUian's    and    Cyprian's    state- 
ments   482,  483 


11.  Actors  excluded  from  the  Church..  4*3 

12.  Conciliary  action 483 

13.  Roman  love  of  spectacles 4s3 

14.  Aversion  to  military  life 484 

15.  Tainted  with  idolatry 484 

16.  Decadence  of  the  military  spirit 485 

17.  Milder  views  at  length  j)revail 485 

18.  The   provision  of  the   Churcli   for 

soldiers 485, 486 

19.  Monumental  evidence 486,487 

20.  Few  monumental  references  to  mil- 

itary life 487 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CHARITIES    IN   THE    EARLY    CIICRCH. 


1.  Poor-relief  by  heathen  peoples 488 

2.  Teaching  of  the  Stoics 488,  489 

3.  Its  detects 489 

4.  The  clubs  and  guilds.    4S9 

5.  The  element  of  selfishness  in  them.  489 

6.  Infiucnco  of  the  Voile// Ui  on  Christ- 

ian charities .' 490 

7.  The  Church  a  true  connnnnity 490 

8.  Heathen  charities  tainted  uith  self- 

ishness    490 


9.  True  inspiration  of  Christian  cliarity  491 

10.  One  fiunily  of  believers 491 

11.  Financial  "prosperity  in  the  Roman 

empire 492 

12.  Its  influence  on  charities 493 

13.  Adverse  influences 493 

14.  Cliristiau  charities  broad  and  organ- 

ized   493,  494 

15.  Influence   of   Christian   charity   on 

pauperism 495 


12 


CONTENTS  AND   ANALYTIC   OUTLINE. 


16.  Opportunities  for  Christian  charities 

in  persecutions  and  misfortunes 

496,  497 

17.  Influence  ofMontanisni  upon  charity  497 


18.  Influence  of  union  of  Church  and 

State 498 

19.  Decay  of  pure  charity 499 

20.  Kise  of  hospitals 499 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE    RELATIONS    OK    THE    EARLY    CHURCH    TO    EDUCATION    AND    GENERAL    CULTURE. 


1.  The  culture  of  the  apostles  difficult 

to  ascertain 500 

•2.   Influence  of  Jewish  practices oOo 

3.  Schools  in  time  of  Christ 501 

4.  Influence  of  the  syna<rogue 501 

5.  Christ's  method  sutrtcestive 502 

6.  E.xalted  character  of    the    apostolic 

teachings  and  writings 502,  503 

7.  The  Christian  duty  to  children 503 

8.  The  prevalence  of  secular  schools. . .   504 

9.  The  declining  conclition  of  education 

in  tJie  West 504 


10.  Embarrassments  of  the  Christians.   504 

11.  Tlie  Cateehumenate 505 

12.  The  uses  of  Greek  learning 505 

13.  The  schools  of  Alexandria  and  An- 

tioch 505-507 

14.  A  more  favorable  view  of  pagan  cul- 

ture     507 

15.  Cliristian  theory  of  education  as  de- 

veloped by  the  Christian  fathers. 

507-509 

16.  Effects  of  the  barbarian  invasions.   509 

17.  Education  in  the  Eastern  Church..  509 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CARE  FOR  THE  DEAD  IN  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 


1.  Jewish  burial  customs 510 

2.  Burial,  not  burning 510 

3.  Three  kinds  of  tnmbs 511 

4.  Jewish  monuments 511 

5.  Greek  burial  customs 511 

6.  Both   burying    and   burning   prac- 

tised    511,  512 

7.  Ciieerfulness  attempted 512 

8.  Roman  customs 512,  513 

9.  Legal  provisions 513 

10.  Both  burial  and  burning  practised.  513 

11.  The  Columbarium 514 

12.  Ornamented   tombs  on   the  public 

streets 514,  515 


13.  Christian  care  for  the  dead ,   515 

14.  Inhumation  and  not  burning 516 

15.  The  family  idea  preserved  in  bur- 

ial     516 

16.  No  secrecy  necessary 516 

17.  Burial  clubs 516 

18.  Origin  of  Roman  catacombs 516,  517 

19.  Description  of  catacombs 517 

20.  Extent  of  catacombs 517,  518 

21.  Cubicula  not  used  for  puljlic  wor- 

ship    519 

22.  The  lighting  of  tiie  catacombs    520 

23.  Theology  of  tlie  catacombs 520 

24.  Tombs  of  Central  Syria 521 


ADDENDA. 

I.  Glossary  of  Terms 523  I  HI.  Translation  of  Inscriptions 529 

11.  Italian    Churches    and    Catacombs,          I  IV.  Literature  of  Christian  Archaeology  538 
with  English  Names 527      V.  General  lude.x 549 


INTRODUCTIOX. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

A  RCH^OLOGY  {dgxatoXoyiay  is  the  science  of  antiquit}'.     Its 
-^  province  is  to  ascertain  the  life  of  ancient  peoples 
by  the  study  of  their  monuments,  customs,  hiws,  institu-       i^eflmtion. 
tions,  etc.     It  is  an  auxiliary  of  general  history. 

It  may  be  divided  into  general  and  special  archaeology.    General 
archaeology    considers    those    fundamental    principles 
which  must  alike  control  in  the  study  of  the  early  life        ^'visions, 
of  all  peoples.     Special  archeology  has  reference  to  the  life  and 
institutions  of  a  particular  people  or  age,  or  to  a  particular  kind  or 
class  of  evidence. 

Christian  archaeology  should  be  further  limited  to  the  systematic 
study  of  the  art,  constitution,  government,  discipline,  Further  iimita- 
worship,  rites,  and  life  of  the  early  Christian  Church.       tionoftheterm. 

It  can  be  conveniently  examined  under  the  following  fourfold 
division  :  ^,   ,  , 

mi  1         1  P  ^1     •     •  Divisions  of 

a.    1  he  archeology  01  Christian  art.  christian     ar- 

This  examines  Christian  thought,  life,  doctrines,  and  <^''*'''"^'>- 
institutions  as  they  are  found  crystallized  and  expressed  in  monuments ; 
monumental  evidence  being  here  used  in  distinction  from  document- 
ary. It  therefore  includes  the  examination  of  the  geography  and 
clironology  of  Christian  art  monuments;  the  influences  exerted  uj)on 
Christian  art  by  Judaism  and  heathenism  ;  the  symbolism  of  t'hrist- 
ian  art  ;  the  history  and  monuments  of  Christian  j)ainting  and 
mosaics,  of  Christian  sculpture,  architecture,  music,  and  poetry. 
It  carefully  studies  the  Christian  burial  monuments,  also  Christian 
inscriptions,  coins,  medals,  seals,  rings,  diptyclis,  an<l  furniture."     A 

'  The  word  apxaioXoyia  seems  to  bo  the  adequate  Greek  STiionymc  for  tlie  LUin 
Antiqxdtates.  Hence  some  writers,  notably  Biii<;!inm,  have  preferred  to  ii^e  tlie 
latter  term. 

^  Otto  Jahn  would  rank  numismatics  among  the  sources  of  history,  und  regard 
epigraphies  as  an  auxiliary  of  philology. 


14  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

scientific  treatment  presupposes  a  correct  estimate  of  monumental 
evidence,  wliicli  is  the  result  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
autoptic's,'  criticism,  and  hermeneutics  of  Christian  art  monuments.'' 

b.  ArcliiBology  of  the  constitution  and  government  of  the  Christian 
Church. 

This  includes,  1.)  The  examination  of  the  fundamental  idea  of 
the  Christian  Church  as  revealed  in  the  New  Testament  Scriptures. 
2.)  The  Church  in  its  organized  form.  3.)  The  otKces  and  officers 
of  the  Church  ;  the  superior,  including  the  bishops,  presbyters,  and 
deacons,  and  the  inferior,  including  the  subdeacons,  deaconesses, 
catechists,  acolytes,  exorcists,  etc.  The  government  by  councils, 
synods,  etc.  4.)  The  Church  discipline,  which  examines  the  con- 
ditions and  methods  of  admission  into  the  Church  ;  the  duties  of 
the  individual  members  to  the  organic  body  ;  the  nature  and  extent 
of  penalties,  etc. 

c.  ArchcBology  of  Christian  woi'ship  and  rites. 

This  embraces,  1.)  The  means  of  public  religious  education  and 
edification,  including  prayer,  singing,  reading  of  the  Scriptures, 
preaching,  etc.;  in  which  all  might  participate.  2.)  The  sacraments, 
their  nature,  number,  efticacy,  candidates,  ministrants,  mode  and 
place  of  celebration.  3.)  The  sacred  times  and  seasons,  as  Sabbath, 
Easter,  Christmas,  Quadragesima,  etc. 

d.  Archreolog}^  of  Christian  life. 

This  considers,  1.)  The  Christian  family,  its  basis  and  significance. 
2.)  The  opinion  of  the  Church  respecting  the  marriage  relation,  the 
treatment  of  slavery,  household  religion,  etc.  3.)  The  relation  of 
Christians  to  trades  and  business  ;  what  vocations  Avere  lawful,  Avhat 
forbidden.  4.)  The  relation  of  the  Christian  Church  to  charities  ; 
the  care  for  the  poor ;  the  existence  of  orphanages,  hospitals,  etc. 
5.)  The  social  and  literary  position  of  the  early  Church.  6.)  The 
care  for  the  dead,  Christian  burial,  prayers  for  the  dead,  etc.^ 

'  This  term  is  applied  to  the  simple  deseription  of  monuments  ;  tlieir  material, 
extent,  degree  of  preservation,  style,  place  of  discovery,  etc. 

^  Kraus:  Ueher  Begriff,  Umfanj,  unci  Bedeuhmg  der  christliclten  Archceologie. 
Freiburg,  1879.     s.  12. 

^  V.  Sehultze :  In  Zockler's  Handbuch  der  theologisrhen  Wissenschaften,  etc.  3  Bde. 
1884.     Vol.  ii.  ss.  236-272. 

This  is  mainly  after  tlie  analogy  of  classical  arch;eolo<ry ;  and  no  valid  reason  can 
be  urged  wiiy  the  arch;eology  of  the  Christian  Chin-ch  sliould  not  have  like  logical 
division. 

The  two  latest  treatises  upon  Christian  arcliaiology  are: 

J.  Mallet :   Corns  Ek'meutnire  d^Airheologie  religieuse.     Paris,  188:'. 

Reusens:  Elemmts  d'Archeologie  chretienne.    Aix-la-Chapelle,  1885. 

The  former  dctiues  arcliLeology  as  the  science  of  ancient  monuments.   "  Arcliseoiog}'-, 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

The  study  of  Christian  arfha.^ology  properly  dates  from  the  six- 
teentli  century.     It  was  occasioned  not  only  by  the   ij^eneral  revival 
of  classical  learning,  but  especially  by  the  earnest  con-    History  of  ar- 
troversies  of  the  reformation  period.     The  Protestant    t''^i^'"''«>- 
reformers  had  vigorously  arraigned  the  Church  for  a  wide  departure 
from  the  primitive  simplicity  of  worship,  doctrine,  and  polity,  and 
they  believed  that  this  charge  could  be  best  justified  by  a  thorough 
examination  of  the  life,  the  institutions,  and  the  customs  of  the  early 
Christian  centuries.     The  Magdeburg  centuriators'  thus    The    centuri- 
became  the  pioneers  in  special  archaeological  studies  ;  to    '^'^"■'^• 
justify  the  revolt  against   the  mediaeval   Church    was   tlieir   chief 
aim. 

To  answer  this  arraignment  of  the  centuriators,  the  adherents  of 
Rome  were  in  turn  compelled  to  enter  ui)on  like  funda- 
mental  studies.  Cassar  Baronius  (f  1G07),  a  priest  of  the 
Roman  oratory,  then  a  cardinal,  after  thirty  yt'uvs  of  most  labo- 
rious investigation  published  his  AiDudes  Ju-clesia\  a  work  which 
has  ever  since  been  regarded  as  the  well-furnished  arsenal  from 
which  the  Roman  Catholic  writers  have  derived  tlieir  weapons  of 
defense." 

While  the  thought,  doctrines,  i;sages  and  life  of  the  early  Christ- 

intlie  sense  in  vvhicli  we  use  it,  includes  the  study  of  architecture,  sculpture,  paint- 
ing— all,  indeed,  embraced  under  the  term  arts  of  design  ;  also  paleography,  or  the 
science  of  inscriptions  and  ancient  writings;  numismatics,  or  ancient  coins  and  medals; 
glyptics,  or  engiaviug  on  precious  stories  ;  sphragistics,  or  the  science  of  seals;  ce- 
ramics, or  a  knowledge  of  pottery  ;  and.  finally,  furniture — this  last  term  not  being 
confined  to  its  ordinary  meaning,  but  including  every  thing  connected  with  Christian 
worship,  as  baptismal  fonts,  chairs,  stalls,  sacred  vessels,  crosses,  chandeliers, 
censers,  vestments,  and  liturgical  ornaments."     pp.  1,  2. 

Canon  Rcusens  says:  "The  study  of  antiquity  can  be  divided  into  two  parts: 
1.)  Sciences  philological.  2.)  Sciences  historic.  The  first  embrace.s  the  literary 
sources,  the  second  the  monumentil.  The  word  Christian  archit'ology  has  chief 
reference  to  the  latter,  or  monumental.  It  therefore,  properly  speaking,  includes  the 
study  of  the  monuments  of  Christian  worship,  that  is,  church  editices.  and  clmrch 
furniture  in  its  broadest  sense." 

'  Matthias  Flacius,  a  prsacher  of  Magdeburg,  an  Illyrian  by  birth,  associated  with 
himself  a  numl)er  of  learned  Protestants,  among  whom  were  Matthew  Judex,  Holtz- 
huter,  Andrew  Corviiuis,  and  Basil  Faber,  for  the  purpose  of  writing  a  liistory  of  the 
Church  by  centuries.  Hence  these  writiTS  are  called  centm-iators.  This  work  is 
learned,  and  exhibits  much  acuteness  and  great  powers  of  generalization,  but,  as 
might  bo  expected,  is  too  often  intensely  partisan. 

*  While  not  himself  an  arclueologist,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  Baroniua 
nevertheless  in  certain  sections  of  his  Annaks  examines  the  arch;cological  materials 
that  are  important  to  answer  certain  debated  questions  of  the  early  Christian  his- 
tory. These  were  afterward  collected  and  edited  by  Schulting :  Tli'-y-'""--  Antioni- 
latum  Ecdesiasticarum,  etc.,  IGOl. 


16  ARCHiEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

ians  were  characteristic,  they  can,  however,  best  be  studied  in 
Relations  of  connection  with  Jewish  and  classical  arcllaeolog3^  The 
Christian  to    ^    ^   converts    had    been   adherents    of    the   then   ex- 

classical   ar- 

chaioiogy.  tant  religious  systems,  Jewish  and  heathen.     On  their 

acceptance  of  the  new  faith  prejudices  were  not  immediately 
corrected,  but  long  continued  in  the  Church  as  modifying 
factors.  The  tenacity  of  the  Jew  for  his  venerated  religion 
and  its  stately  ritual  caused  serious  embarrassment  to  the  apostles 
and  early  Christian  fathers.  The  heathen  mythology  left  its 
deep  impress  upon  the  art  of  the  early  and  mediaeval  Church,' 
The  philosophic  systems  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  furnished  a  vig- 
orous and  exact  terminology  for  the  expression  and  defense  of 
Christian  doctrine,^  while  the  corrupted  Neo-Platonism  of  a  later 
period  was  the  fruitful  source  of  dangerous  heresies.  The 
methods  of  investigation  and  the  forms  of  expression  that  matured 
under  the  influence  of  classical  antiquity  greatly  aided  in  the 
discussion  and  precise  formulation  of  Christian  thought.  These 
philosophic  systems  were  not  merely  negative  in  their  relations 
to  Christianity,  but  they  contained  positive  elements  of  the  good, 
the  true,  and  the  beautiful.  They  have  remained  unsurpassed 
for  terseness  and  comprehensiveness,  for  beauty  and  variety.' 
Thus  Christian  archaeology  receives  important  aid  and  illustra- 
tion from  the  study  of  Jewish  and  classical  archaeology.  These 
latter  discii^lines  are,  however,  with  respect  to  their  content,  almost 
the  exact  antipodes  of  each  other.  Aside  from  purely  literary 
remains,  nearly  all  the  materials  for  classical  archaeology  are  to  be 
found  in  works  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and  epigraphy,  Avhile  the 
Hebrews  lai'gely  lacked  the  ability  to  produce  works  of  a  high  order 
of  excellence  in  formative  art.  Hence  many  of  the  ablest  classical 
archaeologists  make  the  formative  arts  the  centre  and  kernel  of  clas- 

'  Compare  Piper :  Mijtliologie  der  cUristlichen  Kunst  von  der  dlfesten  Zeit  bis  ill's  seek- 
zelinte  Jahrhundcrt.  Weimar.  Bd.  i,  1847.  Bd.  ii,  1851.  Fr.  Miinter:  Sinnbilder 
und  KunstvorstelluwjPM  der  alten  Christen.  Altona,  1825.  F.  X.  Kraus :  Die  christ- 
liche  Kunst  in  ihren  friihesten  Anfdvxien.     Leipzig,  1873. 

^  Besides  the  numerous  histories  of  Christian  doctrines,  see  especially  Uebervveg: 
History  of  Philosophy,  translated  by  Morris.  2d  Part:  Tlie  Patristic  and  Scholastic 
Period.  Becker:  JDas  philosoplmche  System  Platans  in  seiner  Beziehimg  zum  christ- 
lichen  Dogma.  Freiburg,  1862.  Ackermann:  Tlie  Christian  Element  in  Plato  and 
the  Platonic  Philosophy.  Edinburgh,  1861.  Cocker:  Christianity  and  the  Greek 
Philosophy.  New  York,  1870. 

i*  Compare  Kraus :  Lehrhuch  der  christUchen  Geschichte.  Treves,  1872.  Sepp:  Das 
Heidenthum  und  dessen  Bedeutung filr  das  Christenthum.  Bd.  iii,  ss.  285-289.  Dollinger: 
Tlie  Gentile  and  the  Jew  in  the  Courts  of  the  Temple  of  Christ.  Translated  by  N". 
Darnell.  London,  1862.  Piper :  Virgil  ols  Tlieologe  und  Prophet  in  Evangel.-Kal- 
ender,  1862. 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

sical  archaeology,*  while  writers  on  biblical  archaeology  must  neces- 
sarily regard  these  arts  as  constituting  but  a  comparatively  insig- 
nificant part  of  their  investigations." 

The  date  from  which  {terrnhms  a  quo)  this  examination  should 
begin  is  naturally  when  the  first  germs  of  the  Christian  Ciiurch  ap- 
pear, or  when  their  existence  can  be  well  authenticated,  chronological 
even  though  the  documents  and  monuments  may  have  limits  of  our 
entirely  disappeared.^  This  limitation  will,  however,  •^*''"»'°^^'*^"- 
be  determined  by  the  main  purpose  which  the  investigator  may  have 
in  mind.  With  respect  to  the  other  limiting  period  [tertnbms  ad 
quern)  widely  different  opinions  have  been  entertained.  In  this  case 
there  is  no  natural  terminus.  Some  have  regarded  the  death  of 
Gregory  the  Great,  A.  D.  G04,  a  proper  limit  to  Christian  archaeolog- 
ical inquiries.*  Others  have  extended  it  to  the  eleventh  century,  or 
to  the  age  of  Hildebrand;^  while  still  others  would  make  the  Refor- 
mation of  the  sixteenth  century  the  line  of  separation  between  the 
old  and  the  new."  Some  of  the  later  Avriters  on  Christian  art 
archaeology  would  place  no  boundary  to  its  appropriate  study, 
regarding  whatever  is  past  as  falling  legitimately  under  the  term 
archaeological.' 

While  no  strictly  historic  limit  can  be  fixed,  beyond  which  Chris- 
tian archaeological  studies  may  not  be  continued,  we  shall  confine  our 
examinations  to  the  period  ending  with  the  second  Trullan  Council 
at  Constantinople,  A.  D.  692.  Prior  to  this  the  Church  had  under- 
gone most  of  its  fundamental  changes,  and  Christian  art  and  institu- 

'  Stark :  Randbuch  der  Archmlogie  der  Kumt.  Leipzig,  1 880,  1  te  Theil.  Otto  Jahn  : 
Ueher  das  Wesen  und  die  wichtiysten  Aufgaben  der  archceologischen  Studien.  Wiii- 
klcmanri  :    Geschichie  der  Kumt  des  Alter thums.     2  vols.,  4to,  1776. 

^  For  discussion  of  causes,  v.  Bk.  i,  chap.  ii. 

3  Guericke :  Lehrbuch  der  christlich-kirchlichen  Archaalogie.  2to  Aufl.  Berlin, 
1859,  §  1. 

■*Bingiiam  :  Origines  Ecclesiastic;  or,  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church.  2  vols. 
1867.     Guericke:    Op.  cit.     Rhe\n\va\d:  Die  Jiirchliche  Arrhliologie.  BcrWn,  \83Q,  ^  ^. 

^AugusU:  Ilandhuchderch.  Archdologie.  3  Bde.  Bd.  i,  s.  23.  Augusti  rather  inclines 
at  times  to  the  sixteenth  centur}'  as  a  better  limit. 

*  Baumgarten:    Vorlesungeniiher  chrisf lichen  Alt.erthiimer. 

'Hagenbach:  Encyclopcedia  der  theologischen  Wi.ssenschnften.  Gte  Aufl.,  §77.  Crooks 
<fe  Hurst:  Theological  Encyclopedia  and  Methodology,  pp.  388,  389.  Rosenkranz: 
Eacycl.  der  theol.  Wissensch often.  1867,  §  96.  Piper:  Einleilung  in  die  momtmentide 
Theologie,  1867,  §  17.  Piper  says:  "Of  course  for  the  nionnment-s  of  art  the  Refor- 
mation constitutes  a  distinct  line  of  demarkation.  occasioned  by  llio  revival  of  the 
study  of  classical  literature,  and  by  the  changed  conditions  of  life  in  whicli,  besides 
Christianity,  still  other  elements  of  culture  made  tliemselves  effective.  .  .  .  But  to  this 
branch  of  theology  (monumental)  the  close  of  the  iMiddle  .\ges  can  by  no  means  fur- 
nish a  proper  limit,  since  the  Christian  spirit  can  never  cease  to  interest  itself  in 
montmicntal  studies.  To  this  extent  only  is  this  limitation  reasonable,  namely,  that 
2 


18  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

tions  had  developed  a  type  that  remained  essentially  fixed  for  five 
hundred  years.  This  comprehends  the  classic  period  of  ancient 
Christian  art  and  the  formative  period  of  Christian  doctrines.  In 
it  are  most  clearly  noted  the  teachings  of  primitive  Christianity,  and 
just  to  what  extent  art  may  be  a  helpful  auxiliary  of  the  Church  or 
become  a  corrupting  and  misleading  power.  From  the  close  of  the 
seventh  century  begins  a  new  period,  in  which  the  Graeco-Roman 
element  in  the  West  yields  to  the  Teutonic,  and  the  Byzantine 
church  life  and  art  become  stiff  and  immobile.  The  Church,  by 
the  controversy  over  image  worship,  was  now  sundered,  and  thence- 
forth two  distinct  historic  streams  flow  side  by  side.  There  is  no 
lonsrer  one  undivided  Church,  but  the  Greek  and  the  Latin-Germanic 
develop  each  its  own  distinctive  character  and  life. 

The  more  noted  modern  archaeologists '  substantially  agree  to  limit 
ArchEeoiogists  the  term  Christian  antiquity  to  that  period  during  which 
and  historians  Christianity  moved  chiefly  within  the  compass  and  influ- 
in  agreemen  .  ^^^^^  ^£  Graeco-Roman  civilization.  While  the  duration 
of  this  movement  varied  somewhat  in  Rome,  in  Gaul,  and  in  the 
Orient,^  it  will  be  sufficiently  exact  for  the  purposes  of  our  inquiry 
to  limit  the  period  to  the  Council  in  which  the  great  schism  between 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  originated.  In  this  limitation 
the  Christian  archaeologists  are  in  substantial  harmon}^  with  the 
more  recent  historians^  of  the  Church,  who  regard  the  seventh  cen- 

at  the  period  of  the  Reformation  art  activity  is  divided  into  the  contrarieties  of  a 
Protestant  and  a  Cathohc  art.  But  tlie  products  of  art  history  do  not  connect  with 
past  history  alone ;  tlie  present  has  also  matured  in  both  communions  the  ripe  fruits  of 
a  higher  art  endowment,  and  of  a  profounder  insight  into  the  sacred  Scriptures.  As 
such  works  exert  over  each  other  a  powerful  spiritual  influence,  a  suggestion  is  thus 
furnished  that  in  art  may  be  found  a  ground  not,  indeed,  of  ecclesiastical  union,  but 
of  real  reconciliation."  s.  52. 

'  V.  especially  De  Rossi:  Inscriptiones  CJu-istiance  urhis  Romce.  I.  Rom^,  1861, 
fol.     Roma  Sotterranea.     I.  Roma,  1864  ;  II.  Roma,  1867;  III.  Roma,  1877. 

Garrucci:  Hagioglypta  s.  Pictures  et  Sculptures,  sacrce  antiq.,  etc.  Paris,  1856. 
Vetri  ornati  di  Figure  in  Oro,  etc.  Roma,  1857.  Storia  delV  Arte  cristiana, 
Prato,  187.3,  3  vols.  fol. 

Le  Blant:  Manuel  d' Epigraphie  cliretienne,  1869.  Inscriptions  cliretiennes  de  la 
Gaid,  1856-1865. 

Martigny:  Dictionnaire  des  Aniiquites  cliretiennes,  1877. 

^  It  is  well  known  that,  while  the  death  of  Gregory  the  Great  (A.  D.  604)  marks 
sufficiently  the  point  of  transition  from  the  antique  to  the  mediajval  tj'pe  of  the 
Church  in  Italy,  the  Grseco-Roman  civilization  was  felt  as  a  controlling  power  in 
Gaul  for  nearly  a  century  later;  so  that  our  studies  must  be  extended  among  the 
monuments  of  Gaul  till  near  the  close  of  the  seventh  century. 

^  Neander,  Gieseler,  Baur,  and  others  begin  the  second  or  mediseval  period  with 
the  death  of  Gregory  the  Great;  Niedner  begins  the  second  period  with  the  middle, 
and  Kurtz,  Hase,  Alzog,  and  others  with  the  last  quarter  of  the  seventh  century. 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

tury  as  the  line  of  division  between  ancient  Christianity  and  that  of 
the  Middle  Ages;  between  the  period  during  which  the  Church  was 
influenced  by  and  influenced  in  turn  Gra^co-RonKin  thought,  and 
that  period  during  which  she  came  more  directly  into  contact  with 
the  Teutonic  and  Sclavonic  i)eoples. 


CHAPTER  II. 

UTILITY  OF  ARCILEOLOGICAL  STUDIES. 

The  opinion  has  too  commonly  prevailed  that  archaeology  is  a 
study  of  the  merely  strange  and  curious,  and  that  it  chiefly  contrib- 
utes to  the  gratification  of  the  relic-hunter  and  antiquarian.'  Doubt- 
less there  was  some  reason  for  this  opinion  when  things  ancient  were 
examined  in  their  isolation  and  for  their  own  sake,  rather  than  in 
connection  with  the  organic  development  of  a  civilization  of  which 
they  are  the  surest  indexes.  Since  archaeology  is  con-  yuai  connec- 
nected  vitally  with  the  past,  and  shows  that  any  type  of  ti""  of  an  ha?- 
civilization  is  measurably  influenced  by  a  given  environ-  tory^of'  civnu 
ment,  it  ranks  among  the  most  practical  of  discii)lines.  zation. 
The  materials  of  an  earlier  civilization  sustain  relations  somewhat 
similar  to  those  of  the  organic  remains  that  may  have  been  collected 
by  the  paleontologist.  So  long  as  the  latter  are  pre-  Archipoioffical 
served  in  museums  simply  to  gratify  the  curious  they  objects  like  or- 
are  of  little  value.  But  when  by^he  application  o'f  «>»"'«  >^""»'n»- 
clearly  defined  principles  each  bone  and  fragment  becomes  the 
means  of  constructing  the  entire  skeleton  of  an  animal  of  a  far-off 
age,  whose  habits  and  habitat  are  thereby  reproduced  before  the 
eyes — the  ancient  world  being  thus  made  real  to  the  geologic  investi- 
gator— paleontology  becomes  a  vital  science,  and  these  otherwise 
dead  organic  remains  are  instinct  with  life. 

So  with  archaeological  objects  of  either  heathen,  Jewish,  or  Clirist- 
ian  origin.  Tlirough  the  story  which  tluy  have  told  many  serious 
errors  of  ancient  history  have  been  corrected,  the  past  of  long-buri(  d 
dynasties  has  been  made  to  pulsate  with  a  life  before  wholly  un- 
known, the  plans,  occupations,  and  institutions  of  men  have  bci-n 
revealed  as  clearly  as  though  they  were  passing  before  our  eyes. 

'  V.  Crooks  .ind  Hurst:  Encydopcedia  ar.d  Methochlorty,  p.  3S9.  ''By  tikiiii;  nrchrp- 
ology  out  of  its  connection  wifli  the  livirifr  development  of  tlie  Cliwrch  and  making 
it  an  iiiccnse-breatliin<T  roliquarj',  we  dcprrade  it  as  a  science,  into  a  mere  liunt  for 
bric-a-brac,  and  give  it  an  un-Protestant  varnish  of  idle  curiosity  and  favoritism." 


20  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

As  by  the  study  and  interpretation  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  the 
Aids  to  profane  history  of  that  ancient  people  has  been  thoroughly 
history.  reconstructed  ;  as  Assyrian  history  has  received  richest 

illustration  and  been  entirely  transformed  by  the  discovery  of  art 
and  epigraphic  remains  on  the  sites  of  buried  cities; '  as  the  Hellenic 
scholars  already  feel  that  the  most  thorough  and  elaborate  treatises 
of  Grote  and  Curtius  no  longer  furnish  adequate  statements  relative 
to  many  phases  of  Greek  life  and  thought  ;  *  so,  too,  in  the  history 
Equally  to  of  the  Christian  Church  has  archaeology  essentially  aided 
Christian.  jj^  j-j^g  correction  of  many  misleading  statements,  and  led 

to  a  fuller,  juster,  and  more  satisfactoiy  knowledge  of  the  early 
Christian  centuries. 

Among  many  that  might  be  named,  the  following  points  may  suf- 
fice to  illustrate  the  utility  of  these  studies: 

1.  Much  erroneous  chronology  of  the  history  of  the  first  three 
Has  corrected  ceuturies  has  been  corrected,  while  the  faithful  study 
c  rono  ogy.  ^£  ^j^^  inscriptions,  both  classical  and  Christian,  has  been 
the  means  of  casting  an  unlooked-for  light  upon  the  lives  and  writings 
of  the  early  Christian  fathers.' 

2.  Archaeological  studies  have  also  corrected  the  false  notions  rela- 
And  false  no-  ^^^^  ^^  ^  supposed  hatred  of,  or  aversion  to  art  on  the 
tions  relative  part  of  the  early  Christian  fathers.  The  remains  of  the 
^^  ^^^'  catacombs  clearl}^  teach  that  they,  on  the  contrary,  en- 
couraged the  cultivation  and  practice  of  the  fine  arts.  * 

3.  They  have  been  useful  in  perfecting  the  text  of  the  Patristic 
Aids  to  perfect  writings.  By  them  the  spurious  has  been  separated 
the  Patristic  from  tlie  genuine,  and  falsifications  have  been  detected 
writings.  j^j^^i  eliminated.  By  the  use  of  the  analytic  method 
they  have  enabled  the  investigator   to   bring   into   a  fair   historic 

'  '•  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  refer  to  their  value  as  contributions  to  mythological, 
historical,  and  philological  knowledge,  as  this  is  now  universally  recognized.  Tlioy 
suddenly  appear  as  apparitions  of  a  departed  past  which  at  one  time  it  was  supposed 
would  never  be  recovered.  The  history  of  the  West  had  been  told  in  glowing  pages  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans:  that  of  the  East,  a  hazy  and  ill-defined  conception  of  thought, 
remained  .so,  till  rock  and  clay,  leather  and  papyrus,  had  been  compelled  to  reveal 
the  secrets  of  the  unknown  and  almost  magical  characters  in  which  that  history  was 
written.  Some  errors  in  translation — as  in  all  thiugs — but  ihe  grand  outlines  and 
principal  details  remain,  and  nothing  can  mar  the  chief  O'ltliues  and  beauties  of  the 
history."     S.  Birch :  Records  of  the  Past. 

'^  V.  K.  L.  Hicks:  A  Manual  of  Greek  ffistorical  Inscriptinns,  pp.  xi,  xii. 

^  Piper:  Zur  Geschichte  der  KirchenviXter  aus  epigraphischen  Quellen  in  Zeitschrift 
fiir  Kirchenrjeschichle,  1876. 

■•  de  Rossi:  Roma  Soiterranea,  Introductory  Chapter,  lascriptiones  Christiance 
etc.,  Prolegomena. 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

succession  what  was  before  mixed,  confusing,  and  uncertain. 
By  likeness  of  alpliabet,  by  similarity  of  expression,  by  eoni- 
paring  etymological  and  art  characteristics  as  noticed  in  in- 
scriptions and  surviving  art  works,  a  juster  and  truer  text  has 
resulted.' 

4.  The  history  of  the  early  heresies  has  received  important  aid 
from  the  study  of  inscriptions  both  on  burial  monuments  History  of  her- 
and  on  gems  and  seals.  "  Thus  the  new  religions  of  esies. 
mixed  origin  that  flourished  under  the  Roman  Empire,  the  Mithraic, 
the  later  Egyptian,  and  the  various  forms  of  Giu)sticism,  cannot  be 
properly  studied  without  a  constant  reference  to  these  genuine  illus- 
trations (the  Abraxas  gems,  etc.)  of  their  doctrines;  since  the  only 
written  documents  concerning  them  have  been  transmitted  to  us  bv 
either  ignorant  or  prejudiced  adversaries,  whose  sole  object  was  to 
heap  as  many  foul  charges  as  they  could  collect  or  devise  upon  the 
members  of  the  rival  sects."  ^ 

5.  The  peculiar   nature  of   monumental    evidence  must   not   be 
overlooked.      Inscriptions    and     art     remains    become    _,.  , 

i  Their    uiuon- 

unconscious  Avitnesses  to  the  facts  of  history,  and  scious  tvsti- 
to  the  extent  of  this  unconsciousness  is  their  value  "'°"^'- 
augmented.  This  becomes  more  manifest  Avhen  we  consider  how- 
large  a  part  of  the  surviving  literature  of  the  first  three  Christian 
centuries  is  of  the  nature  of  apologetics.  These  writings  were 
designed  for  the  defence  of  the  ("Christian  system  against  the 
attacks  of  adversaries,  or  to  correct  erroneous  doctrines  of  heretical 
sects.  They  contain,  therefore,  a  strong  personal  element  that  is 
not  most  favorable  to  the  revelation  of  the  whole  truth.  Sonu-  of 
the  most  extended  and  valuable  treatises  are  marked  by  evidences 
of  strong  passion  which  manifestly  leads  the  writer  to  represent 
the  opinions  of  opponents  in  the  most  unfavorable  i„  pontrast 
light,  and  to  conceal  the  weak  points  of  the  apologist,  witheariyapoi- 
Such  weakness  can  hardly  attach  to  monumental  evi-  oK^tics. 
dence,  since  this  implies  calmness  as  well  as  unconsciousness, 
and  is,  therefore,  more  of  the  nature  of  average  judgnu-nts, 
and  expresses  more  nearly  the  general  public  opinion.  "The 
unimpeachable  form  of  inscriptions'"  is  a  characterization  of  this 
species  of  evidence  which  has  come  to  be  generally  accei)ted.  A 
rude  inscription  with  grammatical  inaccuracies,  a  palm  branch,  a 
symbol  scratched  upon  the  soft  plaster  used  to  dose  a  Christian 
tomb,  a  simple   "  depositus,"  or  "  in  pace,"  may  thus   unconsciously 

'  British  Quarterly  Review,  October,  1880.  p.  470. 

'  King:  Antique  G'-ms,  pp.  xviii,  xix. 

3  Hatcli:    The  Organization  of  the  Earbj  Christian  Churches,  p.  16. 


22  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

tell  the  stoiy  of  the  real  thought  and  life  of  the  early  Church  more 
truly  and  justly  than  the  most  elaborate  treatise.' 

6.  The  attention  of  scholars  is  now  more  than  ever  before  directed 
toward  the  first  Christian  centuries.  In  the  estimate  of  earnest 
Christian  investigators,  the  questions  of  supreme  imjiortance  are: 
Who  Avas  Jesus  of  Nazareth  ?  What  were  the  doctrines  which  he 
inculcated  ?  What  was  the  genius  of  the  kingdom  which  he  estab- 
lished ?  What  were  the  institutions  that  he  ordained  ?  What  were 
the  life,  the  customs,  the  accepted  beliefs  of  the  original  Church 
before  it  was  allied  with  earthly  and  governmental  powers?  What 
were  the  sources,  nature,  and  intensity  of  the  forces  that  vitiated 
the  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  first  Church  ?  What  are  the  truths 
of  absolute  authority,  because  uttered  and  enforced  by  the  Founder, 
or  by  his  immediately  inspired  apostles  ?  What  is  of  mere  human 
origin,  or  of  prudential  value,  which  may,  therefore,  be  accepted 
or  rejected  according  to  the  shifting  environment  of  the  Church  ? 
These  are  some  of  the  pressing  questions  which  Christian  archre- 
ology  is  specially  helpful  to  answer,  because  it  regards  the  objects 
which  it  investigates  as  indexes  of  the  life  and  will  of  the  early 
Christian  actors  and  of  the  real  spirit  of  the  Church. 

*  Stevens:  Tlie  Old  Runic  Monumenis  of  Scandinavia  and  England.  London,  1865, 
1867,  1868.  "  This  absence  of  '  grammatical  propriety,'  and  this  presence  of  '  a  most 
illiterate  and  unskillful  artist '  are  doublj  precious  in  the  eyes  of  the  speech-killer, 
even  as  much  so  as  the  'accurate  spelling'  indulged  in  by  the  more  wealthy  and 
educated  families  of  the  deceased.  They  open  out  to  us  glimpses  of  the  most  an- 
cient and  widely  spread  and  popular  Lingua  Rustica,  in  its  various  dialects,  which, 
rather  than  the  Book-Latin,  of  which  it  was  independent,  is  the  base  of  all  the  Ro- 
mance tongues  now  flourishing  in  Europe,  with  all  their  various  and  old  patois." 
Vol.  ii,  p.  394. 

The  quotations  in  the  above  passage  are  from  Burgon's  remarks  on  the  great  vari- 
ety of  mouuments  and  inscriptions  in  the  Roman  catacombs. 


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BOOK  FIRST, 


The  Archeology  of  Christian  Art, 


THE 

AECH^OLOGY  OF  CHEISTIAN  AET. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GEOGRAPHY  AND  CHRONOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS. 

The  rapid  propagation  of  Christianity  during  the  first  three 
centuries  has  long  been  the  vexed  problem  of  the  deistic,  the  natu- 
ralistic, and  the  mythical  schools.  Solutions  have  been  various,  but 
each  has  proved  inadequate.  Only  a  religion  of  divine  origin  and 
sanction  can  explain  the  facts  of  the  early  Christian  history. 
Absolutely  unassisted  by  human  philosophy  or  state  patronage, 
stubbornly  opposing  the  indulgence  of  passion,  awakening  no  hope 
of  temporal  reward,  in  directest  contradiction  to  the  prevalent 
thought  and  life,  a  pronounced  monotheism  in  the  midst  of  a 
debased  polytheism,  it  nevertheless  gained  disciples  in  every 
province  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  in  the  far-off  regions  beyond. 

The   wonderful   history  recorded   in   the  Acts   of   the   Apostles 
(Chapter  II)  represents  that  persons  from  widely  sepa- 
rated  countries   Avere   convei'ted   by  the  preaching  of    spread  of  the 
Peter  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  ^°'P'''- 

Doubtless  many  returned  to  their  homes  after  the  celebration  of 
the  great  national  feasts  at  Jerusalem,  and  others  would  naturally 
hasten  to  spread  the  tidings  of  salvation  among  their  former  asso- 
ciates. From  each  of  these,  as  from  a  centre,  the  rapid  propagation 
of  the  Gospel  in  distant  parts  went  forward.  By  the  sparks  that 
were  scattered  abroad  from  this  pentecostal  baptism  of  fire  a  bright 
and  unquenchable  flame  was  kindled  throughout  the  Roman  world. 

To  tlie  poor  and  the  oppressed  tlie  Gospel  must  have  been 
especially  precious.  The  carpenter's  son  spoke  com-  a  message  to 
forting  words  to  the  enslaved,  and  dignified  the  "^"^  p*^'^""- 
honest  toiler.  He  who  in  the  agonies  of  the  crucifixion  said  so 
tenderly  to  his  favored  disciple,  "Behold  thy  mother"  (John 
xix,  27),  founded  a  religion  that  appealed  with  especial  force  to 
the  heathen  woman  of  the  East.     In  these  very  countries  where  her 


26  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

condition  was  most  degraded,  Christianity  elevated  her  to  be  the  peer 
of  her  husband.  By  virtue  of  a  communion  of  spirit  and  a  common 
hope  it  gave  to  marriage  a  new  sanction,  to  maidenhood  a  new 
sacredness,  to  the  whole  life  of  woman  a  higher  worth.' 

Few,  indeed,  of  the  official  class  were  at  first  attracted  toward  the 
Influenced  the  ^^^w  religion  ;  yet  the  testimony  of  records,  as  well  as 
better  classes,  of  the  monuments,  is  conclusive  that  some  of  the  refined 
and  of  the  honorable  early  embraced  the  new  faith.  The  mention 
during  the  apostolic  times  of  Joseph  of  Arimathsea  (Matt,  xxvii, 
57-60,  et.  al.);  Sergius  Paulus  (Acts  xiii,  6-12);  Dionysius  of 
Athens  (Acts  xvii,  34);  and  of  Priscilla,  Aquila,  and  Pudens, 
"  dearly  beloved  in  the  Lord,"  in  whose  house  at  Rome  Christian 
services  were  held  (Rom.  xvi,  3-5  ;  1  Tim.  iv,  21);  as  well  as 
the  evidence  of  the  interment  of  some  members  of  the  Flavian 
family  of  Domitian's  reign  in  the  cemeteries  of  Domitilla  and 
Lucina  at  Rome,  fully  confirm  the  belief  that  the  Gospel  had  already 
found  faithful  witnesses  among  the  patrician  classes  and  even  in  the 
imperial  household,*  The  governor  of  Bithjaiia  complained  to 
Trajan  that  persons  of  every  age  and  of  both  sexes  embraced  the 
pernicious  faith.^ 

In  the  second  century  Tertullian  boasted  that  in  Carthage  one 
Number  of  tc^th  of  the  population  were  Christians,  including 
christians.  some  even  of  senatorial  rank.  "  We  are  a  people 
of  but  yesterday,  yet  we  have  entered  all  your  places — cities, 
islands,  fortifications,  towns,  market-places,  yea,  your  camp,  your 
tribes,  companies,  palace,  senate,  forum."*  This  must  be  taken 
with  caution,  since  at  a  still  later  date  Origen  says  that  the 
number  of  the  Christians  as  compared  to  the  whole  population  was 
very  small.  From  a  letter  of  Pope  Cornelius  it  has  been  estimated 
that  under  Maximian  the  Church  at  Rome  could  not  have  numbered 
more  than  fifty  thousand,  or  one  twentieth  of  the  population,  and 
the  total  throughout  the  empire  could  not  have  been  more  than 
one  twelfth  to  one  tenth  of  the  entire  people,  or  approximately  from 
eight  millions  to  twelve  millions,*     By  the  middle  of  the  century- 

'  Friedlander :  Sittengeschichte  Roms.     Bd.  iii,  s,  587. 

2  de  Rossi:  Bulletino  Arch.  Christ,  iii,  1865,  p.  33,  etc.;  Roma  SoUerranea,  t.  i. 
pp.  196,  319-321. 

2  Pliny  :  I.  x.,  ep.  97.  "  Multi  enim  omnis  setatis,  omnis  ordinis,  utriusque  sexiis,"  etc. 

■*  "Hesterni  sumiis  et  vestra  omnia  implevimus  urbes,  insulas,"  etc.  Apologeticus 
ad  versus  gentes,  cup.  xxxvil. 

*  Staiidlin:  Univ.  Gesch.  der  christ.  Eirche,  1833,  s.  41,  places  the  number  of 
Ciiristians  at  the  crowning  of  Constantine  at  {la  moitie)  one  half  of  the  population  of 
the  empire.  Matter:  Hist,  de  V  Eglise,  t.  i,  p.  120,  puts  it  at  one  fifth.  Gibbon: 
Decline  and  Downfall,  etc.,  chap,  xv,  places  it  at  one  twentieth ;  Chastel :  Destruo 


I 

CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  27 

the  apologists  of  the  Church  were  numerous,  and  were  equal  in 
learning  and  controversial  power  to  their  ablest  opponents.  While 
the  foregoing  statement  of  the  zealous  African  is  to  j.^^^  gpjj^t  ^j 
be  taken  with  caution,  it  nevertheless  illustrates  the  the  new  reiig- 
earnestness  and  fidelity  of  the  early  Christians,  and  *'°' 
the  marvelous  propagative  power  of  their  religion.  These  results 
seem  all  the  more  remarkable  in  the  entire  absence  of  evidence  of 
an  organized  association  for  the  spread  of  the  new  faith  into  foreign 
parts.  Rather  did  the  rapid  extension  of  the  Gospel  in  the  century 
of  its  origin  result  from  the  apostolic  preaching,  from  the  enthusiasm 
which  this  must  have  aroused  among  peoples  impoverished  in  faith 
and  longing  for  spiritual  nourishment,'  from  the  consistent  and 
devoted  lives  of  its  individual  professors,  and  from  the  simple  testi- 
mony of  the  men  and  women,  who  had  accepted  the  divine  message, 
to  its  saving  power.  The  words  of  Christ,  "  Ye  are  the  light  of  the 
world.  A  city  that  is  set  on  a  hill  cannot  be  hid"  (Matt,  v,  14), 
Avere  eminently  true  of  the  members  of  the  early  Christian  commu- 
nity. Before  the  accession  of  Constantine  the  influence  of  Christ- 
ianity had  penetrated  the  thought,  the  principles,  and  the  life  of 
the  empire.  While  the  old  systems  showed  a  most  remarkable 
tenacity  of  life,  their  hold  on  the  nation  was  nevertheless  becoming 
weaker  and  weaker. 

The  clear,  discerning  genius  of  Constantine  saw  in  the  new 
religion  the  sure  promise  of  the  future.  With  it  he  Adoption  by 
united  his  fortunes,  and  in  legalizing  he  subjected  it  to  *^^  ^'^'®- 
perilous  temptations  not  before  experienced  even  in  the  times  of 
fiercest  persecution.  From  this  time  the  Church  took  on  a  form 
of  organization  before  unknown  to  it.  The  empire  as  a  political 
machine  was  now  transferred  to  the  rule  of  Christ ;  its  laws  and 
its  institutions  were  placed  on  a  Christian  foundation.^  The 
recognition  of  Christianity  as  the  established  faith,  the  protec- 
tion of  its  votaries,  and  the  patronage  of  it  by  the  govei*nment 
must  be  reckoned  among  the  most  powerful  influences  to  win  the 
mass  of  the  population  to  the  profession  of  Christianity.  The  ncAV 
system  could  now  count  the  emperor  as  its  chief  pontiff,  and  thus 
the  religious  sense  of  Rome  remained  true  to  its  traditions. 

From  the  fourth  century  the  extension  of  Christianity  must  have 

tion  du  Paganisme  dans  V Empire  d' Orient,  p.  36.  at  one  fifteenth  in  the  Western 
Empire,  and  one  tenth  in  the  Eastern ;  La  Bastie :  Du  Souv.  pontif.  des  Emp.  (Acad, 
d.  Inscr.  torn.  12,  p.  77),  at  one  tenth. 

'  V.  Reiiss :  History  of  the  Neiu  Testament,  2d  ed.  (translated  by  Houghton),  vol.  ii, 
p.  446. 

'  Merivale:   Conversion  of  the  Roman  Empire,  London^i864,  p.  14. 


28  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

been  rapid  indeed.  The  fear  of  persecution  having  been  removed, 
multitudes  who  had  before  been  intellectually  convinced  of  its 
Increase  of  Superiority,  and  multitudes  more  who  were  ever  ready 
monumental  to  be  identified  with  a  winning  cause,  swelled  the 
evidence.  number  of   the  converts.     From  this   time,  therefore, 

the  evidences  are  much  strengthened  through  the  preservation  of 
burial  monuments,  by  the  building  of  churches  and  their  richer 
adornment  and  furniture,  by  the  imperial  coins  that  contain  Christ- 
ian symbols,  and  by  other  remains  of  j^lastic  and  epigraphic  art. 

The  expectation  that  these  monuments  may  now  be  found  as 
These  obiects  widely  distributed  as  was  the  Church  of  the  first  four 
nevertheless    centuries  is  not,  however,  fulfilled.     In  this,  as  in  eveiy 

other  period  of  history,  the  important  and  substantial 
monuments  must  have  been  few  as  compared  with  the  total  number. 
Only  in  the  great  marts  of  trade  and  in  the  cities  of  wealth  and  of 
power  could  the  needed  means  for  the  erection  of  abiding  monu- 
ments be  found.  Only  these  centers,  therefore,  generally  furnish 
the  materials  for  monumental  stud}^  The  instances  of  chance 
preservation  are  necessarily  few  and  widely  separated.  Even  these 
must  have  been  largely  modified  by  climatic  influences  and  by  the 
civil  and  military  fortunes  of  the  difl^erent  provinces.  Within  a 
limited  belt  of  country  on  either  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  were 
the  chief  centres  of  the  civilization  of  the  first  six  Christian  cen- 
turies. The  advantages  of  climate,  of  soil,  and  of  easy  intercommu- 
nication are  the  manifest  reasons  of  this  concentration.  Moreover, 
the  geologic  and  climatic  conditions  were  most  favorable  to  the 
erection  and  preservation  of  monuments.  The  dryness  of  the  air, 
the  almost  complete  immunity  from  frosts,  the  abundance  of 
valuable  quarries,  the  superiority  of  the  beds  of  clay,  and  the 
excellence  of  the  materials  for  the  famous  cements,  contributed 
to  the  erection  and  preservation  of  many  structures  which  are 
invaluable  witnesses  to  the  civilization  of  the  times. 

But  the  ruthlessness  and  cupidity  of  men  have  proved  even  more 
Ruthless  de-  destructive  than  the  forces  of  nature.  The  fearful  in  va- 
st ruction  of  sions  of  the  Teutonic  tribes,  and  the  inroads  of  the  more 
monuments.  tt  ^  i    . ,     ^         ,    <•  i      t-»  it 

savage  Huns,  blotted  out  from  the  Roman  world  many 

of  her  noblest   monuments.'     Nor  must  it  be  forgotten   that  the 

'v.  Bunsen:  Bi'schreibuvg  der  Stadt  Rom-  Bd.  i,  ss.  234.  etc.  "But  the  damnge 
which  the  so-called  barbarians  caused  to  Rome  consisted  not  so  much  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  buildings  and  public  monuments  as  in  the  robbery  of  the  public  treasuries 
and  jewels." — s.  230.  Yet  it  must  be  remembered  that  tliese  very  objects  rather 
than  imposing  structures  often  supply  the  best  materials  for  writing  the  history  of 
civilization. 


CHRISTIAN  ART  >IONUMEXTS.  29 

edifts  of  the  Cliristian  emperors  resulted  in  tlic  loss  of  the  most  noted 
nionuinents  of  pagan  art.  Statues  of  incomparable  beauty,  and 
temples  of  matchless  grandeur  were  ruthlessly  destroyed  in  Syria, 
Egypt,  Italy,  and  Gaul.  Invaluable  materials  for  comparative 
studies  were  thus  hopelessly  lost.  The  edicts  of  persecution 
also  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  many  Christian  churches.  To 
these  must  be  added  the  still  more  sad  effects  of  the  wars  of  rival 
Christian  sects  and  factions.  The  squabbles  of  the  Green  and  the 
Red  at  Constantinople  often  resulted  in  conflagrations  in  which 
many  beautiful  churches  were  consumed. 

In  the  wretched  wars  over  image  worship  the  best  statuary  and 
paintings  of  the  early  Christian  world  were  irretrievably  lost.  The 
burial  places  of  Rome  were  terribly  devastated  by  the  Lombards 
under  their  king,  Astolpho,  in  A.  D.  757,  so  that  their  abandonment 
was  hastened,  and  the  remains  of  martyred  saints  were  gathered  into 
the  crypts  of  churches.^  The  iconoclastic  fury  of  the  Mohammedan 
invaders  further  despoiled  the  seats  of  Christian  power  of  their 
finest  Avorks  of  art,  while  the  Crusades  completed  the  destruction 
of  most  that  then  survived.  Only  by  the  more  kindly  treatment 
of  nature  have  some  of  the  most  precious  records  of  the  past  been 
preserved.  The  buried  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  and  the 
art  remains  that  were  hidden  in  the  obscurity  of  the  catacombs,  fur- 
nish some  of  the  most  valuable  monuments  that  continue  to  our  age. 

First  Century.  It  has  been  questioned  whether  any  well- 
authenticated  Christian  monuments  of  the  first  century  survive. 
Nevertheless,  some  of  the  ablest  Christian  archoeologists  Monuments  of 
find  satisfactory  evidence  that  parts  of  some  Roman  ^'''^t  century. 
catacombs  are  contemporary  with  the  apostolic  age.  "  Precisely  in 
those  cemeteries  to  which  both  history  and  tradition  assign  an  apos- 
tolic origin,  do  I,  in  the  light  of  the  most  exact  archaeological  criti- 
cism, see  the  cradle  as  well  of  the  Christian  catacombs  as  of  Christian 
art  and  epigraphy.  I  also  there  find  monuments  of  persons  who  ap- 
pear to  belong  to  the  time  of  the  Flavii  and  of  Trajan,  as  well  as 
inscriptions  that  date  fi-om  this  same  period.  Since  these  things  are 
so,  a  sound  understanding,  which  alone  can  be  a  safe  guide  in  all 
historical  as  well  as  archaeological  matters,  must  say  to  every  one 
who  is  free  from  preconceived  opinions,  that  such  a  mass  of  concur- 
rent indications,  monuments,  and  dates  cainiot  possibly  be  the  work 
of  chance,  that  we  accordingly  therein  may  find  a  warrant  for  the 
truth  of  the  origin  of  these  monuments  which  we  have  maintained  " 
(that  is,  the  first  century).'     The  sepulchres  of  the  Vatican,  certain 

'  de  Rossi:    Rom.  Sott.  t.  i,  p.  220.  "de  Rossi:  Horn.  Sott.,  i,  p.  185. 


30  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

inscriptions  in  the  cemetery  of  Santa  Lucina,  on  the  Via  Ostia,  near 
the  present  church  of  San  Paolo  fuori  le  mura,  the  decorations  of 
the  entrance  to  Santa  Domitilla,  the  Virgin  with  the  Child  and 
star,  and  portions  of  the  cemetery  of  Santa  Priscilla,  are  also 
believed  by  some  archaeologists  to  belong  to  the  first  century.' 
To  this  century  have  also  been  attributed  certain  portions  of  the 
walls  of  the  house  of  Pudens,  within  whose  area  stands  the  present 
church  of  Santa  Pudenziana,  at  Rome.  The  outer  wall  of  this 
palace  "  can  be  seen  behind  the  altar,  with  the  large  hall  windows 
in  it,  of  the  first  century."*  In  regard  to  the  chronology  of 
these  and  a  few  other  monuments  there  is  such  difference  of 
opinion  that  they  become  of  somewhat  doubtful  evidential 
value.' 

Second  Century.  In  the  second  century  the  zeal  of  modern 
archaeological  research  has  firmly  placed  a  number  of  most  interest- 
ing and  valuable  monuments.  Rome,  as  before,  furnishes  most  that 
has  been  preserved.  The  cemetery  of  Santa  Priscilla  on  the  Via  Sa- 
laria  Nuova,  of  Santa  Domitilla  (Nereus  and  Achilles)  on  the  Via 
Ardeatina,  of  San  Praetestato  on  the  Via  Appia,  and  of  San  Ales- 
sandro,  on  the  Via  Nomentana,  also  the  ceiling  decorations  in  San 
Gennaro  dei  Poveri  at  Naples  are  about  all  that  Avith  certainty  can 
be  referred  to  it.  In  the  frescos  of  these  cemeteries  is  noticed 
the  beginning  of  that  symbolic  treatment  of  art  which  in  the  next 

'Kraus:  Synchronistische  Tabellen  zur  christUchen  KunstgescMchie,  1880,  ss.  4,  5. 
Schultze:  Die  Katalwmhen,  1882,  s.  91.  Ch.  Leiiormant,  Les  Catacomhes,  1858,  does 
not  hesitate  to  place  the  paintings  of  Santa  Donaitilla  in  the  first  century.  For  like 
reasons,  namely,  the  essential  likeness  of  the  art  spirit  of  these  to  the  wall  decora- 
tions of  Pompeii,  and  to  the  paintings  in  the  pj'ramid  of  Gains  Cestius,  Raonl- 
Rochette  and  Welcker  agree  with  Lenormant. 

■■'  J.  H.  Parker:  The  House  of  Pudens  in  Rome.  v.  Archceological  Journal,  vol.  xxviii, 
pp.  42,  43.  This  is  a  most  interesting  fact,  since  we  are  led  at  once  into  the 
meeting-place  of  those  converts  to  Christianity  who  were  companions  of  Paul 
during  his  last  imprisonment. 

'The  chronology  of  these  monuments  is  most  thoroughly  examined  b}'  de  Rossi : 
V.  Rom.  Sott,  t.  i,  pp.  184-197.  Contra,  J.  H.  Parker:  The  Archaiology  of  Rome, 
1877,  12  vols.  V.  vol.  iv,  in  which  he  treats  of  the  Christian  catacombs.  He  does 
not  recognise  any  picture  of  a  religious  subject  as  of  earlier  date  than  the  fourth 
century.  It  must  be  evident  that  his  conclusions  are  not  the  result  of  careful  induc- 
tive processes,  but  are  somewhat  hastily  reached  from  almost  exclusively  one  kind 
of  evidence.  On  architectural  questions  Parker  is  an  authority  of  the  first  order,  but 
on  questions  relating  to  painting  his  opinion  cannot  be  regarded  as  decisive.  Renan, 
Marc-Aurele,  p.  543,  concludes  that  the  pictures  in  Santa  Domitilla  cannot  be  earlier 
than  the  third  century.  Th.  Mommsen,  than  whom  there  can  be  no  more  reliable 
authority  on  Latin  inscriptions,  would,  largely  on  epigraphical  grounds,  refer  the 
cemetery  of  Domitilla  to  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century;  v.  Contemporary 
Revieiu,  May,  1871. 


CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  31 

century  reached  its  climax.  In  the  second  century  some  archaeolo- 
gists have  likewise  placed  the  so-called  Abraxas  gems,  xhe  Abraxas 
By  some  these  are  believed  to  have  arisen  among  the  e«'"s. 
Basilidian  Gnostics,  by  others  they  are  regarded  as  the  product  of  the 
strange  syncretism  of  Indian,  Zoroastrian,  Egyptian,  Jewish,  and 
Gnostic-Christian  thought  which  was  so  prevalent  in  the  second 
century.  In  some  respects  they  resemble  the  early  Egyptian  Scara- 
bean  gems.'  While  comparatively  few,  these  monuments  are, 
nevertheless,  most  interesting  and  important  for  their  artistic  and 
doctrinal  suggestions. 

Third  Century. — By  the  third  century  Christianity  had  gained 
a  firm  foothold  in  nearly  every  province  of  the  empire.  The  claims 
of  the  Christians  for  protection  had  more  and  more  secured  the 
attention  of  the  government.  The  higher  social  position  of  the 
adherents  of  the  Church  further  conciliated  the  favor  of  gov- 
ernment. Clement,  Origen,  and  others  had  already  The  Aiexan- 
given  great  dignity  and  fame  to  the  theological  school  '^"^'^  school, 
at  Alexandria.  Before  the  middle  of  the  century  Egypt  had  more 
than  a  score  of  bishops.  In  A.  D.  258  Cyprian  assembled  in 
Carthage  a  synod  of  eighty-seven  bishops,  and  a  Latin  translation 
of  the  Scriptures  had  already  been  made  for  the  use  of  the  West 
African  churches.  Gaul  had  been  visited,  and  by  the  progress  in 
third  century  influential  bishoprics  existed  in  Lyons,  Gaui. 
Vienne,  and  Marseilles.  There  is,  also,  sti'ong  evidence  that  by 
the  middle  of  this  century  the  Celtic  Church  had  a  vigorous  life 
and  organization.  In  Asia  Minor  and  Greece  were  Asia  Minor  and 
seats  of  many  influential  bishoprics,  presided  over  by  Greece. 
a  most  thoroughly  learned  clei'gy — the  forerunners  of  those  great 
theologians  who,  in  the  following  century,  were  to  give  form  to 
Christian  doctrine  in  the  councils  of  Nice,  Chalcedon,  and  Con- 
stantinople. 

The  monuments  which  survive  from  this  century  are,  as  might  be 
presumed,  more  numerous,  and  are  found  in  more  widely  extended 
districts  ;  Rome  is,  however,  still  the  seat  of  the  most  interesting 
and  instructive.  The  subterranean  burial  places  are  much  more  ex- 
tensive and  rich  in  art  remains  than  in  the  previous  centur3^ 
The  incorporation  of  brotherhoods  for  the  burial  of  the  Burial  broth- 
dead,  and  the  special  protection  accorded  to  places  of  erhoods. 
sepulture,  encouraged  the  Christians  to  greater  care  for  their  ceme- 

'  Bellcrmann,  J.  J.:  Drei  Programmen  uber  die  Abraxas- Gemmen.  Berlin,  1820. 
Kraus:  Op.  cit,  s.  7.  Among  the  earlier  expositors  of  these  curious  objects  were 
Gottfried  Wendelin,  Beausobre,  and  others.  Among  the  more  recent  are  Matter, 
King,  and  others. 


33  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

teries.  We  are  informed '  that  Callixtus  was  intrusted  with  the 
direction  of  the  clergy,  and  had  supervision  of  the  cemetery  that 
bore  his  name.  Doubtless  this  has  reference  to  the  fact  that  the 
Christian  congregations  of  Rome  took  advantage  of  the  legal  pro- 
vision '  to  care  for  property  held  by  them  in  common,  especially  for 
such  as  was  devoted  to  the  cemeteries  and  to  the  charities  of 
the  Church,  by  the  appointment  of  a  legal  representative.  This 
Cemetery  of  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  founding  of  the  celebrated  cemetery  of  San 
San  Caiisto.  Calisto,  on  the  Via  Appia,  in  which  so  many  martyrs, 
bishops,  and  popes  were  interred  ;  and  it  also  accounts  for  the  change 
of  the  burial-place  of  these  high  church  officials  from  the  Vatican  to 
this  cemetery. 

At  this  time,  also,  are  first  met  the  so-called  Fahrlcm  that  St.  Fabi- 
anus,  in  A.  D.  238,  ordered  to  be  constructed.  These 
appear  to  have  been  small  buildings,  placed  near  to,  or 
over  the  entrance  to  the  cemeteries;  they  were  used  as  oratories  and 
for  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  All  these  probably  disappeared 
during  the  persecutions  of  Decius  and  Valerian,  when  the  necessity 
for  concealment  of  the  entrances  to  these  places  of  Christian  sepul- 
ture was  first  felt.  Notwithstanding  these  persecutions,  and  the  still 
more  sweeping  edict  of  Diocletian,  in  A.  D.  303,  by  Avhich  all  Chris- 
tian cemeteries  were  confiscated  and  all  Christian  churches  were  or- 
dered to  be  razed  to  the  ground,  the  catacomb  of  San  Calisto  has 
continued  to  our  day,  a  marvellous  museum  for  the  study  of 
Christian  life  and  doctrines  in  the  third  century. 

Recent  excavations,  conducted  by  the  Abbe  Delattre  on  a  site 
called  Damous-el-Karita,  near  the  ancient  Carthage,  have  revealed 
an  open-air  cemetery  of  very  considerable  dimensions.  The  im- 
portance of  the  discovery  appears  from  the  fact  that  only  two  or 
three  other  open-air  cemeteries  are  known.  Delattre  considers  the 
date  of  this  area  as  the  end  of  the  third  or  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century.^ 

Surviving  The  Only  remains  of  churches  in  Rome  from  this 
this'centur*  at  ^^'^tury  are  possibly  portions  of  the  subterranean  San 
Rome.  Clemente,    a    small    part    of    Santa    Croce     in     Geru- 

salemme,  and  of  Santa  Pudenziana."    By  some  authorities  the  beauti- 

'  PJiilosophumema.  This  hns  been  woll-nigh  demonstratei.l  to  be  the  work  of 
Hippclytus,  and  not  of  Origen,  as  was  thouglit  by  the  Benedictines  and  otliers. 

^  Digest,  iii,  4,  1,  §  1,  de  CoUegiis.  "  Quibus  autem  pcrmissnin  est  corpus  collegi 
societatis,"  etc. 

'■^  V.  Delattre:  Archeologie  chretienne  d'i  Carthage. — Fouilles  de  la  Ba.silique  de 
Damnus-el-Karita.     Lyon:   18SG. 

■*  As  we  have  before  seen  (p.  30),  Mr.  Parker  refers  portions  of  tiiis  Church  to  the 
first  century. 


CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  33 

ful  statue  of  the  Good  Shepherd  (Fig.  45),  now  in  the  Lateran  ^lu- 
seum,  a  marble  sarcophagus  discovtyed  in  1853  in  the  cemetery  of  Sun 
Pretestate  at  Rome,  and  the  statue  of  St.  Hippolytus,* 
also  in  the  Lateran  Museum,  are  placed  in  this  century. 
From  this  century  a  large  class  of  symbols,  many  allegorical  pictures, 
and  biblical  scenes  of  symbol ico-allegorical  significance  have  also 
been  preserved.     A  limited  number  of  historical  and  liturgical  rep- 
resentations are  likewise  believed  to  date  from  the  latter  part  of 
it.     Figures  wrought  in  gilt  upon  glass  vessels,  found   Glass  vessels 
in  the  Roman  catacombs  and  at  Cologne,  and  a  few  and  gems. 
gems  of  clearly  recognised  Christian  origin,  have  been  referred  to 
this  period. 

In  Africa,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Castellum  Tingitanum,  the 
modern  Orleansville,  are  found  the  remains  of  the  Church  of  St.. 
Reparatus,  some  parts  of  which,  from  an  inscription  still  extant,, 
are  by  some  believed  to  date  from  the  year  A.  D.  252.*  Architectural. 
By  some  archaeologists  the  churches  found  at  Djemlia  monuraeuts.. 
and  at  Announa  in  Algeria,  at  Ibrim  in  Nubia,  and  at  Arnient  or' 
Erment,  the  ancient  Hermonthis,  in  Egypt,  have  been  referred  to 
the  third  century.  The  excavations  on  old  sites  in  Asia  Minor,^  in 
Syria,  and  in  the  Hauran,  are  bringing  to  light  remains  of  old  Chris- 
tian churches  whose  age  has  not  yet  been  fully  determined,  but 

'  Much  discussion  has  been  had  over  this  statue  and  the  bronze  statue  of  St.  Peter 
in  San  Pietro  Vaticano,  at  Rome.  Many  deny  to  both  a  Christian  origin  and  character. 
But  the  Easter  cycle,  engraved  upon  the  chair  of  the  statue  of  St.  Hippolytns,  is  a 
significant  circumstance,  and  seems  to  furnish  a  strong  argument  for  its  Christian  origin 
and  genuineness,  v.  Salmon:  Chronology  of  Hippolytus,  in  Hermathena,  for  1873. 
pp.  82-85;  also  Dollinger  :   Ilippolytiis  und  CaUistus,  ss.  23-27. 

*  Tiie  inscription  bears  the  year  285  of  the  Mauritanian  era.  If  we  are  to  follow 
some  of  the  archieologists  and  epigrapjiists  this  era  began  thirtj^-tliree  years  before 
the  Christian  era  {v.  Prevost);  according  to  others  it  began  forty  years  after  the 
Christian  era  {v.  Henzen,  on  Nos.  5337,  5338,  and  5859  of  Orelli's  Inscript.  hit).  In 
the  former  case  the  date  of  tiie  inscription  would  point  to  A.  D.  252;  in  the  latter, 
to  A.  D.  325.  Fergussou:  Hist,  of  Arch.,  vol.  i,  pp.  403,  40-i;  Mothes,  0.:  Basiliken- 
form,  s.  30;  Kugler:  Gesch.  der  Baukunst,  Bd.  i,  s.  372,  and  others  accept  the  ear- 
lier date.  Schnaase:  Geich.  der  bildende  Kiimte.  2te  Aufl.,  Bd.  iii,  s.  3,  note  4;  Kraus: 
Sijnchron.  Tab.,  etc.,  s.  18,  and  others  hold  to  the  later  date. 

^  V.  J.  T.  Wood:  Discoveries  at  Ephesus,  Boston,  1857,  pp.  58,  59.  He  believes 
that  he  lias  discovered  tiie  tomb  of  St.  Luke,  that  seems  to  belong  to  the  lost  part  of 
the  third  or  to  the  early  part  of  the  fourtii  century.  Near  this  was  found  what  ap- 
peared to  be  a  basilica,  one  of  the  earliest  churches  in  Ephesus.  v.  pp.  99,  100. 
Many  of  the  sarcophagi  bear  tlie  well  known  monogram,  A  ^  il,  oi  the  fourth  or 
fifth  century,  v.  p;  120.  E.\cavalions  on  tlie  sites  of  "  the  seven  churches  which 
are  in  Asia,"  promise  well  for  tlie  illustration  of  the  history.  Much  has  already 
been  done,  but  comparative  studies  arc  still  greatlj'  needed. 
3 


34  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

which  seem  to  date  back  as  early  as  to  the  close  of  the  third  or  to 
the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century.' 

Fourth  Century. — The  able  reign  of  Diocletian  Avas  to  close 
in  disgrace  and  most  cruel  injustice.  The  fourth  century  opened 
with  the  last  but  most  fearful  trial  by  persecution  to  which  the 
Church  was  to  be  subjected.  Except  in  Gaul,  Britain,  and  Spain, 
where  the  co-regent  was  more  lenient,  the  emperor's  cruel  edicts 
Destruction  of  were  most  mercilessly  executed.  The  imposing  houses 
"^d' -"m'V^  of  worship  were  despoiled  of  their  collections  of  sacred 
tian.  wa-itings,  of  their  costly  decorations,  and  of  the  numer- 

ous vessels  of  gold  and  silver  which  were  used  in  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments.  What  treasures  of  art,  what  invaluable  man- 
uscript copies  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  what  wealth  of  materials  for 
the  history  of  the  early  Church,  which  had  been  accumulated  through 
the  previous  forty  years  of  peace,  were  forever  lost  must  remain  a 
matter  of  mere  conjecture.  It  is  only  certain  that  scarcely  a  church 
escaped  this  visitation. 

In  A.  D.  311,  Galerius  issued  his  unlooked-for  edict  of  toleration, 
which  was  followed,  in  A.  D.  313,  by  the  edict  of  the  co-regents, 
Constantine  and  Licinius.  By  its  provisions  all  confiscated  church 
property  was  restored  to  the  Corpus  Chrlstlanorum  at  the  expense 
Restoration  of  ^^  ^^^^  imperial  treasury,^  and  complete  toleration  of 
church    prop-    worship    and   belief   was    granted.     By  the  defeat  of 

^'  Licinius  in  A.  D,  323,   Constantine  became  sole    em- 

peror. From  this  event  dates  a  new  period  of  monumental  art  as 
Avell  as  of  church  history. 

From  the  last  three  quarters  of  the  fourth  century  numerous  in- 

1  "  Recent  researches  in  Africa  have  shown  that  when  properly  explored  we  shall 
certainly  be  able  to  carry  the  history  of  the  Romanesque  stj'le  in  that  country 
back  to  a  date  at  least  a  century  before  his  (Constantine's)  time.  In  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor  so  many  early  examples  have  come  to  light  that  it  seems  probable  that  we 
may,  before  long,  carry  the  history  of  Byzantine  art  back  to  a  date  nearly  approach- 
ing that  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus."  v.  Fergusson:  History  of  Arch., 
vol.  i,  pp.  403,  404.  Hiibsch :  Die  alkhristlichen  Kirchen,  etc.,  Carlsruhe.  186H,  fol., 
ss.  xxiv,  XXV,  etc.,  believes  that  besides  the  so-called  chapels  of  the  catacombs,  the 
churches  San  Alessandro,  San  Steffnno,  San  Andrea  in  Barbara,  the  basilica  in  Or- 
leansville,  San  Agostino  in  Spoleto,  and  tiie  oldest  part  of  the  cathedral  in  Treves,  are 
to  be  referred  to  the  pre-Constnntine  period.  Also.  v.  Motlies,  0. :  Die  Baukumt  des 
MitteJalters  in  Italien,  Jena,  1884,  2  vol"*.,  8vo,  who  holds  to  nearly  like  views.  On  the 
contrary,  Schnaase,  C. :  Gesch.  d.  bilden.  Kilnsle,  2te,  Aufi.  1869,  Bd.  iii,  s.  37,  claims 
that  no  cliurches  which  have  been  preserved  to  our  day  are  older  than  the  time  of 
Constantine.  Of  nearly  like  opinion  is  Bunsen :  Beschreihimg  d.  Stadt  Rom.,  Bd.  i, 
ss.  418,  419. 

"^  For  the  account  of  large  sums  given  to  the  African  churches  in  A.D.  314,  v. 
Eusebius:  Eist.  Eccles.,  x,  6,  and  de  Vit.  Const,  iv,  28. 


CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  35 

teresting  monuments  still   survive.     In   all  the  chief  cities  churches 
were    now  built  under  imperial  patronage,  and    orna-    Revival  of 
mented  and  furnished  with   the  utmost  magnificence,    church   buUd- 
The  monuments  are  now  more  widely  distributed  and 
varied  in  character.     From  this  time  numismatics  and  epigraphy 
become  important  aids  in  the  interpretation  of  Christian  life  and 
doctrine.     To  the  fourth  century  can  probably  be  referred  the  fol- 
lowing basilicas  at  Rome  :  San  Giovanni  in  Laterano,  founded  about 
A.  D.  340;   Santa  Pudenziana,  enlarged  about   A.  D.    Architectural 
345  (?);  San  Pietro  in  Vaticano,  about  A.  D.  350;  San    monuuients. 
Paolo  fuori  le  mura,  about  A.  D.  386  ;  San  Clemen te,  rebuilt  before 
A.  D.  392. 

The  catacombs  were  now  less  used  for  interment,  and  less  fre- 
quented by  visitors.  During  the  last  quarter  of  the  catacombs  less 
century  burial  in  subterranean  recesses  seems  to  have  "sed. 
been  almost  discontinued.  Basilicas,  built  over  or  near  the  entrances 
to  the  catacombs,  supplied  their  place.  ^  Portions  of  the  catacombs 
of  Naples  probably  belong  to  a  very  early  date  in  Monuments  in 
this  century.  They  are  especially  valuable  for  their  Naples. 
paintings,  and  for  the  information  which  they  furnish  relative  to 
the  early  })ractice  of  Christian  burial. 

Slight  remnants  of  the  Neapolitan  churches,  San  Gennaro  dei  Poveri, 
Santa  Maria  della  Sanita,  and  Santa  Maria  della  Vita,  also  survive.* 

The  catacombs  of  old  Syracuse  have  awakened  much  careful  in- 
quiry as  to  .their  origin  and  age.  Nearly  one  hundred  catacornhs  of 
inscriptions  and  several  paintings  have  been  discovered  Syracuse 
and  described.  The  museum  of  Syracuse  contains  more  than  a  hun- 
dred Chi-istian  lamps  found  in  the  catacomb  of  San  Giovanni  of 
that  ancient  city.  The  form,  the  orthography,  and  general  contents 
of  the  inscriptions,  as  well  as  the  symbols  on  the  lamps,  clearly 
indicate  that  they  belong  to  the  last  half  of  the  fourth  century.  A 
few  may  be  of  the  time  of  Constantine.^ 

The  records  establish    the  belief  that   in   the   East  a  very  large 
number  of  churches  were  built  under  the  special  patron-    j^f^^y  ,.,^„r(.j,es 
age   of    Constantine,   his   family,    and    his    immediate    have  di sap- 
successors.    Unfortunately,  nearly  all  of  these  have  per-    p^''*'"'^'^^- 
ished.     The   basilica    of   the    Nativity  at    Bethlehem,  St.    Mary's, 

'  Kraus:  Roma  F^off'-rranen,  s.  98. 

'Scluiltze:  Die  Kalakomben  von  San  Gvnnaro  dei  Poveri  in  Keapel.  Forster: 
Mittel-n.   Unter  Italien,  ss.  414,  42!). 

^Scluiltze:  Archcelogische  Studien  iiber  altchrisf.liche  Momimente,  ss.  134-1  :?0:  de 
'^o?.^\:  Bull.  Arch,  crist,  1877.  T;iv.  x,  .\i.  Con/ra  and  in  favor  of  a  pre-Christian 
origin  v.  Qnatremfere  dc  Qiiincy,  Hirt,  and  Schubring. 


36  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

remains  to  illustrate  the  cliaracter  and  style  of  these  churches.' 
Some  interesting  Christian  inscriptions  have  been  found  amidst  the 
massive  ruins  of  Baalbec.  They  seem  to  date  from  about  the  time 
of  the  founding  of  the  Basilica  of  Theodosius,  A.D.  379-395.* 

1"'he  catacombs  of  Malta  must  be  assigned  to  the  fourth  or  fifth 
century.  While  Caruana'  holds  that  these  are  of  pagan  origin,  and 
were  transformed  into  a  place  for  Christian  burial  during  the  period 
of  Arabian  dominion,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth  century,  his 
argument  seems  to  be  entirely  unsatisfactory.  The  reference  of 
these  burial  places  to  a  Christian  origin  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century 
is  much  more  consistent  with  the  facts.  They  suggest  nearly  the 
same  cycle  of  artistic  and  religious  thought  as  the  Roman  catacombs, 
although  the  number  of  objects  is  comparatively  small.  Christian 
inscriptions  of  the  fourth  century,  and  well-})reserved  figures  in 
sculpture,  have  been  found  at  Tripoli  in  Asia  Minor.  One  of  these 
is  a  figure  of  Christ  with  the  hammer,  probably  representing  the 
carpenter's  son.^ 

Traces  of  churches,  probably  from  this  century,  have  been  found 
„  ^    in  Egypt  and  in  the  country  bordering  on  the  West 

Traces     of  .^'^  .  .  ■  *" 

churches  in  Mediterranean  in  Africa  ;5  also  a  few  other  monuments 
Egypt    and    Qf  Christian  origin  have  been  recently  excavated  in  these 

Fi-ance.  .  .... 

regions.  Likewise  in  middle  and  southern  France,  at 
Aries,  Marseilles,  Narbonne,  Toulouse,  etc.,  Christian  monuments 
dating  from  the  fourth  century  have  been  discovered.  Some 
beautiful  sarcophagi  with  Christian  symbols  and  biblical  historic 
scenes,  found  in  these  cities,  are  from  this  time,  while  others 
more  probably  belong  to  the  Merovingian  period. °     Connected  with 

the  churches  of  this  century  are  found  some  beautiful 

Mosaics.  .  1  M        1  1         "     T  1        •  n  o 

mosaics,  while  the  sculptured  sarcophagi  and  a  few 
mural  paintings  in  the  cemeteries  fairly  illustrate  the  condition  of 
Christian  art.  The  numerous  inscriptions  from  the  tombs,  cata- 
combs, and  churches  furnish  interesting  and  valuable  epigraphic 
material,  and  the  coins  of  the  emj^erors  contain  many  rich  sugges- 
tions. 

Fifth  Century. — The  brief  but  earnest   attempt  of  Julian  to 

'  De  Vop:ue  maintains  that  the  present  Cluirch  is  the  original  structure.  He  ar- 
gues tliis  from  tlie  simplicity  of  the  style,  and  the  entire  absence  of  features  that  arc 
peculiar  to  the  buildings  of  Justinian's  day,  as  well  as  from  the  lack  of  references  in 
literature  to  any  clianges. 

^v.  Survey  of  Western  Palestine,  special  papers,  1881,  pp.  135,  136. 

2  Caruana  :  Hypoyeum  Tal-Liehru.  Malta.     Malta,  1 884. 

*  Survey  of  Western  Pah'stine,  pp.  152,  153. 

'  Fergusson :    Op.  Cit,  vol.  i,  pp.  403,  stq. 

^  dcCaimiont:  Ahecedaire  d' Archeologie ;  Era  Galh-Romaine.  pp.  350-352. 


CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  37 

revive  the  decaying  heathenism  had  proved  utterly  aboi'tive.  Him- 
self a  pervert  from  Christian  teaching,  his  misdirectetl  effort  brought 
to  hira  deepest  sorrow  and  disappointment.  Notwithstanding  the 
tenacious  life  of  pagan  institutions,  Christianity  was  now  the  ac- 
cepted belief,  and  the  Roman  world  was  thoroughly  pervaded  with 
Christian  thought.  The  Church  had  put  on  the  strength  of  a  long- 
organized  institution.     The  monuments  are  now  greatly  multiplied. 

While  this  was  a  century  of  waning  political  power  and    ^        ,  ^ 

•^  ,  °  ^  ^  General  deoa- 

of  general  art  decadence  in  the  West,  and  the  destruc-    dence  in  tbe 
tive   incursions   of   the   Teutonic   hordes    swept   away    ^®^''* 
many  of  the  most  noted  and  beautiful  churches,  enough  survives  to 
furnish  highly  valuable  monumental  evidence. 

In  Rome  this  century  is  represented  by  Santa  Sabina  on  the  Via 
Aventina,  built,  as  the  mosaic  inscription  informs  us,  about  A.  D. 
423  by  Pope  Celestine;  and  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  tirst  built  in  A.  D. 
352,  but  rebuilt  by  Sixtus  III.  in  A.  D.  432.  This  is  probably  the 
earliest  church  of  Rome  that  was  dedicated  to  the  Vii'gin.  It  con- 
tains some  noteworthy  original  mosaic^  and  sarcophagi  which  become 
valuable  aids  in  the  illustration  of  the  Christian  sculpture  of  the 
fifth  century. 

San  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  built  by  Eudoxia  between  A.  D.  440  and 
462,  has  well  preserved  the  form  and  general  appearance  other  church- 
of  the  early  Christian  basilica.*  In  a  very  few  in-  es  of  Rome, 
stances  the  furniture  of  the  churches  still  survives.  The  mosaics, 
altars,  ambos,  sarcophagi,  etc.,  which  still  remain  in  these  churches, 
are  of  inestimable  value.  Coins  of  both  the  Eastern  and  the  West- 
ern Em})ire  now  are  found.  Numismatics  now  becomes  of  real 
confirmatory  service,  especially  in  correcting  chronology.  The 
number  of  Christian  inscriptions  is  very  greatly  increased,  and  they 
assume  more  of  a  dogmatic  character,  thus  clearly  reflecting  the 
strifes  and  controversies  of  the  times. 

During  this  century  Ravenna  ^  becomes  a  most  interesting  center 

'  For  a  full  and  generally  reliable  account  of  the  basilicas  of  Rome  v.  Bunsen  and 
Plattner:  Btschreibang  Boms.  5  Bde.,  with  magnificent  illustrations  by  Gutensohn 
and  Knapp. 

Hul)sch:  Die  altchristliche  Kirrhen,  1803. 

H.  Gaily  Knight:    The  Ecclemiitical  jh-chitednre  of  Italy. 

^  For  a  careful  scientific  description  of  the  Christian  monuments  of  Ravenna,  see 
among  others,  Quast:  Die  alt-christlichen  Bawverke  von  Ravenna.  1  Bd.  fol.,  Berlin, 
18-42. 

Richter,  J.  P.:  Die  Mosoiken  Ravennas.     Wien,  1878. 

R;ilin:  Ravenna,  Eine  kiuisUie-schiclttliche  Sludie.     Leipzig,  1869. 

Berti:  SuW  antico  duomo  di  Ravenna.     Ravenna,  1880. 

Miiutz:   Lost  Mosaics  of  Ravenna,  in  Am.  Journal  of  Arch<£ology,  vol.  i,  pp.  115-120. 


38  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

of  Christian  moiuunents  which  greatly  aid  in  understanding  the 
Monuments  of  condition  and  progress  of  Christian  art  in  nearly  every 
Raveuna.  department.      Among  the  most   interesting   buildings 

which  survive  are  the  Baptister}^,  Baptisterium  Ecclesias  Ursianae, 
probably  first  erected  in  the  fourth  century,  but  restored  in  A.  D. 
451  by  Archbishop  Nero  ;  San  Francesco,  from  about  the  middle 
of  the  century;  San  Giovanni  Evangelista,  a  votive  three-naved 
church,  built  by  Galla  Placidia  in  A.  D.  420;  SS.  Nazario  e  Celso, 
the  place  of  sepulture  of  Galla  Placidia,  which  was  erected  before 
A.  D.  450,  and  is  well  preserved  and  most  instructive;  Santa  Maria 
in  Cosmedin,  an  Arian  baptistery,  very  like  in  form  and  mosaics  to 
Baptisterium  Ecclesiae  Ursianae.  These  churches  are  rich  in  sarco- 
phagi, altars,  ambos,  and  mosaics. 

In  the  B^J-zantine  Empire  very  considerable  archfeological  material 
The  Byzantine  f I'om  the  fifth  centur}^  has  survived.  In  Egypt  and 
Empire.  West  Africa  many  interesting   objects   have  recently 

been  discovered  on  the  sites  of  old  monasteries  which  prove  of 
invaluable  aid  to  the  history  o£  monasticisra. 

In  southern  and  middle  France  is  found  a  large  number  of  inter- 
esting monuments,  especially  sarcoj^hagi,  which  probably  belong  to 
France  and  the  fifth  century.'  Roman  Judea  and  Samaria,  called 
Palestine.  j,^  the  fifth  century  Palestina  Prima,  had  thirty-three 

episcopal  towns.  The  expectation  that  a  region  so  permeated  with 
Christian  influence  would  furnish  many  monuments  of  its  former 
prosperity  is  largely  disappointed,  since  the  number  of  churches  and 
other  objects  connected  with  Christian  history  hitherto  brought  to 
light  is  comparatively  small.  What  treasures  more  extensive  sys- 
tematic excavations  in  the  old  centers  of  Christian  activity  may  j^et 
reveal  can  only  be  conjectured.  From  the  rich  finds  at  Troy, 
Olympia,  Larnica,  Pompeii,  etc.,  we  may  hope  that  equally  valuable 
results  may  repay  the  Christian  explorer  in  Palestine. 

Remains  of  many  Christian   churches  and  other  antiquities  ai'e 

found  at  various  points  in  Syria.     Their  chronology  has 
Syria.  i  ./  ^*j 

not  been  fully  determined;  yet  some  able  archaeologists 
place  them  as  early  as  the  fourth  century.^     They  promise  much 

'  V.  de  Caumont :   Op.  Cit.,  Architecture  Religieuse,  pp.  48-56. 

Laborde:  Plate  cviii. 

And  very  excellent  and  thoroiifrh,  Le  Blant:  Ehide  sur  les  Sarcophages  Chretiens 
antique  de  la  ViUe  (V Aries.     Paris,  1878.     1  vol.  4to,  with  numerous  plates. 

Inscriptions  ch7-e(iennes  de  la  Gaule.     2  vols.  4to,  Paris,  1856-65. 

His  Epigraphie  chretienne  is  a  most  convenient  and  instructive  manual. 

-  "  We  are  transported  into  the  midst  of  a  Chrisiiau  society ;  we  are  surprised  at  its 
life.  It  is  not  the  concealed  life  of  tiio  catacomb.s,  nor  a  humiliating,  timid,  and  suf- 
fering e.xistence  that  is  generally  represented  here ;  but  a  life  generous,  opulent, 


CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  39 

for  the  illustration  of  Christian  architecture  in  a  period  hitherto  en- 
veloped in  much  obscurity.  Especially  the  trans-Joi'danic  region  must 
hereafter  become  a  most  inviting  held  to  the  Christian  archteologist.' 

During  the  excavations  at  Olympia,  in  Greece,  a  Byzantine  church 
was    discovered,    also    many    Christian   graves.     This 
church  was  built  on  what  Pausanias  describes  as  the  ymp'a. 

"  workshop  of  Phidias."  Its  entire  plan  as  well  as  the  rich  details 
seem  to  indicate  a  marked  revival  of  art  in  the  Byzantine  Empire 
during  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century.^ 

The  archaeological  remains  found  on  numerous  sites  in  Italy,  Al- 
bania, Hungary,  etc.,  which  aid  to  illustrate  the  history  of  the  fifth 
century,  cannot  be  further  described.  They  are  interesting  and  im- 
portant.' 

Sixth  Century.  Numerous  monuments  still  survive  from  the 
sixth  century.  Notwithstanding  the  general  decadence  of  art  and 
the  fearful  political  upheavals,  several  imjjosing  churches  are  be- 
lieved to  have  been  built  in  Rome  during  this  century.  ^^^^^^  century 
The  older  parts  of  San  Lorenzo  and  of  Santa  Balbina  ciniiobes  iu 
are  generally  referred  to  this  period.  In  Ravenna  por-  '''"'"'^• 
tions  of  the  churches  of  San  Apollinare  Nuovo,  Santa  Maria  della 

artistic,  in  grand  houses  .  .  .  and  magnificent  churches,  flanked  witli  towers  and 
surrounded  with  elegant  tombs.  .  .  .  Tlie  clioico  of  (Scripture)  texts  indieutL-s  an 
epoch  near  to  tlie  triumph  of  the  Church;  there  prevails  an  accent  of  victory.  .  .  . 
The  date  of  the  Roman  epoch  is  given  not  only  by  the  style  of  the  architeciure,  but 
by  inscriptions  of  considerable  number  which  form  an  almost  continuous  chain  from 
the  first  to  the  fourtli  century." — De  Vogue:  Syrie  Centrale;  Architecture  Civile  et 
Eeligieme,  vol.  i,  pp.  7,  8. 

W.  Waddington,  who  accompanied  De  Yogiie  on  his  tour  of  discovery,  has  given 
the  archfeoiogy,  the  history,  and  the  inscriptions  of  tiiis  interesting  region  under  the 
title  of  Inscriptions  G7-ecques  et  Latines  de  la  Syrie.  1370. 

'  "That  the  Ciiristians  were  in  the  fourth,  fiftii,  and  sixth  centuries  spread  through 
the  whole  country,  the  surs'ey  abundantly  testifies  ;  from  the  deserts  of  Beersheba 
to  the  slopes  of  Hernion  we  have  come  across  innumerable  churclios  which  cannot  be 
dated  later  than  that  period.  The  nomenclature  of  the  country  bears  witness  to  the 
existence  of  flourishing  communities,  charitable  convents,  and  holy  Christian  siies. 
in  every  part;  and  the  titles  given  to  many  ruins  show  the  fate  they  finally  luider- 
went  in  p'rishing  by  fire."     v.  C.  R.  Conder:   Survey  of  Western  Palestine. 

Special  Papers:   Christian  and  Jewish  T>-aditions,  p.  232. 

V.  also,  Merrill:  East  of  the  Jordan. 

'  V.  Curtius,  Hirschfeld,  etc.:  Ausgrahungen  zu  Olympia.  Bd.  ii,  ss.  6  and  18.  For 
description  of  Church  v.  Bd.  iii.  ss.  29-32.     For  plans,  etc.,  v.  Bd.  iii,  Taf.  xxxvi. 

^v.  especially  Garrucci:  Isloria  deW  Arte  Christiana.  Prato,  1875-79.  .'i  vols. 
fol.  Vol.  i,  Text;  vol.  ii.  Burial  monuments,  plates,  and  explanations;  vol.  iii,  Mon- 
uments otlier  than  burial;  vol.  iv.  Mosaics  in  catacombs  and  elsewhere;  vol.  v,  Sar- 
cophagi in  cemeteries.  Magnificently  executed,  and  a  latest  authority  from  the 
Catholic  standpoint,  yet  extreme  in  his  theory  of  Christian  symboli.sm. 


40  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

Rotoncla  (the  burial  chapel  of  Theodoric),  San  Apollinare  in  Classe, 
Ravenna  and   the   most   interesting  and  instructive  of   all,  San 

churches.  Vitale,  are  yet  preserved.     Though  it  has  been  much 

tampered  with,  the  dome  of  the  small  baptistery  of  San  Giovanni 
in  fonte  in  Naples,  contains  some  very  rich  mosaics  of  the  latter 
Byzantine  half  of  this  century.     In  Constantinople  St.  Sophia  is 

churches.  ^]^g  most  magnificent  monument.     Traces  of  two  other 

churches  are  still  seen  in  this  capital.  Some  of  the  original  portions 
of  St.  George  in  Thessalonica,  the  modern  Salonica,  survive,  with  some 
of  the  richest  mosaics  of  the  century.'  St.  Catharine,  on  Mount  Sinai, 
must  also  be  referred  to  tliis  century.  A  few  other  churches  of 
this  period  which  retain  some  parts  of  their  original  structure  are 
found  scattered  over  the  old  empire,  both  east  and  west.  Numerous 
sites  furnish  individual  objects  of  great  interest.  In  Syria,  Asia 
Minor,  Greece,  Hungary,  Egypt,  Numidia,  Cyrene,  Carthage,  Spain, 
and  southern  France  explorations  are  yielding  rich  results  which 
happily  illustrate  the  stage  of  art  advancement  and  the  condition 
of  religious  and  ecclesiastical  thought  of  the  early  Chiistian 
centuries. 

The  archaeological  societies  of  Germany  and  Great  Britain  have 
been  most  diligent  and  zealous  in  the  discovery  and  description  of 
much  that  has  enriched  the  materials  for  writing  the  history  of  the 
christianization  of  the  original  dwellers  in  those  lands.  Especially 
along  the  borders  of  the  Rhine  and  its  immediate  tributaries  these 
archffiological  researches  have  been  abundantly  rewarded,  while 
in  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  unexpected  treasures  have 
been  discovered.'' 

Some  beautifully  illuminated  manuscripts  from  the  sixth  century 
have  also  been  preserved,  which  show  the  complete  subjection  of  art 
to  ecclesiastical  service,  especially  in  the  Greek  Church.  A 
regular  series  of  illustrations  of  the  Book  of  Genesis,^  in  ten  plates, 
is  found  in  a  manuscript  preserved  in  Vienna.  Also  in  the  Codex 
Syriacus,  now  in  the  Laurentian  library  of  Florence,  are  plates  from 

'  Texiere  &  Piillan:  Byzantine  Architecture,  Plates  xxx,  xxxi,  xxxii,  xxxiii,  xxxiv, 
XXXV,  and  pp.  136-141.  These  authors  also  hold  that  St.  Sophia  of  Thessalonica 
also   belongs   to  this  century. 

'^Invaluable  materials  have  been  collected  in  the  art  journals  of  Germany,  as  the 
Zeikchrift  filr  christl.  Archceologie  und  Kunst,  the  Orgmi  fur  christl.  Kunst,  the  Chris- 
liche  Kunsthlatt,  etc.,  and  in  the  proceedings  of  the  local  art  and  archieological 
societies.  The  Christian  inscriptions  found  in. the  British  Islands  have  been  col- 
lected and  edited  by  Huebner :  Inscriptiones  Britanniae  Christians.  Berlin  and 
London,  1876. 

^v.  Garrucci:  Op.  cit,  vol.  iii.  Tliese  have  been  described  by  Daniel  de  Nessel,  v. 
also  d'Agincourt:  t.  ii,  pp.  49,  50,  and  plate  xix. 


CHRISTIAN  ART  MONUMENTS.  41 

the  sixth  century,'  in  which  the  life  of  Christ  and  the  events  of  the 
Church  to  the  day  of  Pentecost  are  pictured.  In  the  Codex  Vati- 
canus  are  eleven  plates  devoted  to  Old  Testament  scenes.  A  series 
of  paintings  illustrating  the  book  of  Joshua''  and  thirty-six 
pictures,  in  gold  and  colors,  of  ecclesiastical  vessels,  etc.,  are  in  the 
Vatican  library. 

The  number  of  art  monuments  belonging  to  the  first  six  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  era  is  very  great.  They  furnish  illustrations 
of  nearly  every  branch  of  Christian  art,  and  become  the  silent 
and  unconscious  witnesses  to  the  life,  the  belief,  and  the  social  con- 
dition of  the  early  Church.  Many  have  been  arranged  in  museums 
for  purposes  of  convenient  study,  and  the  zeal  of  investigators  seems 
never  to  abate.  While  it  is  very  difficult  to  give  these  monuments 
a  classification  according  to  chronological  order,  and  different  ar- 
chaeologists differ  widely  in  opinion  with  regard  to  their  age,  they 
must,  nevertheless,  be  regarded  as  invaluable  auxiliaries  to  the  com- 
plete understanding  of  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church.^ 

'Some  refer  tliis  manuscript  to  tlie  fourth  century,  v.  d'Agincourt:  t.  ii,  pp.  52, 
53,  plate  xxvii.     Others  ns-ign  it  lo  a  later  date  than  the  sixth  centur}'. 

'•^  d'Agincourt:   t.  ii,  pp.  53,  54,  plaie  xxxviii.     Garrucci :   Op.  aY.,  vol.  iii. 

These  interesting  manuscripts  are  more  fuhy  described  under  cliapter  iv. 

^An  immense  amount  of  materials  has  been  accumulated  in  the  tran.sactions  of 
learned  societies,  and  in  the  journals  that  are  especially  devoted  to  Christian  ar- 
chaeology. Probably  the  foremost  among  the  latter  are  the  Bulltttino  Archiwloyia  crw- 
tiano  of  Rome,  which  has  been  the  special  organ  of  de  Rossi  and  his  learned  and  en- 
thusiastic associates,  and  the  Beviie  Archceologique,  which  has  been  conducted  with 
marked  ability  for  many  years. 


43  ARCHxEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  RELATIONS  OF  CHRTSTIANTTY  TO  ART  DURING   THE   FIRST  SIX 

CENTURIES. 

It  has  been  common  with  one  class  of  writers  to  represent  the  early 
Christian  Church  as  indifferent  or  even  hostile  to  the  fine  arts.  By 
some  the  teaching  of  the  Christian  fathers  has  been  declared  antag- 
onistic to  art;  by  others  this  view  has  been  controverted.'  Much  of 
Chrstianitv  ^^^^^  contrariety  of  opinion  is  plainly  attributable  to  a 
not  hostile  to  failure  to  notice  the  var^ang  condition  and  the  ever 
^'^'  shifting  environment  of  the  Church  of  the  first  three 

centuries.  Three  questions  need  to  be  considered:  1.  The  Jewish 
Three  chief  origin  of  the  first  Christian  converts,  and  the  peculiarity 
questions.  q£   ^.j^g  Semitic   imagination.     2.  The  diverse  opinions 

held  by  the  Jews  and  the  Greeks  with  resi)ect  to  the  nature  and  rev- 
elation of  God.  3.  Tlie  growing  influence  of  Christianity  through 
the  conversion  of  cultivated  and  wealthy  pagans,  and  its  final 
adoption  as  the  state  religion. 

1.  Christ  and  his  first  apostles  were  Jews.  For  nearly  a  gen- 
eration after  the  ascension  many  of  the  adherents  to  the  new  faith 
were  of  Jewish  origin,  felt  the  obligation  of  the  Jewish  law,  and 
loved  the  Jewish  ritual.     In  their  earlier  historv  the 

First  Christ-  .  *    . 

lans  of  Jewish  Hebrews  had  been  a  pastoral  people.  Prior  to  the  time 
origin.  ^^£  ^i^g  kings  their  intercourse  with  other  nations  had 

been  very  limited.  These  circumstances  were  unfavorable  to  art 
origination  and  culture.  After  their  return  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity,  the  custom  of  carefully  refraining  from  intermarriage  with 
the  surrounding  peoples  made  their  isolation  still  more  complete, 
Jewish  exciu-  From  tliis  time  Judaism  assumed  an  exclusiveness  be- 
siveness.  fore  entirely  unknown.     While  a  nominal  dependency 

of  Persia,  the  Jews  had  been  content  to  ]>urchase  peace  and  quietude 
by  prompt  ])ayment  of  tribute  mone}' .  Tlieir  influence  seemed  so  ir- 
significant  that  the  Jews  of  Palestine  were  scarcely  thought  worthy  oi' 
mention  by  the  Greek  historians  of  Alexander's  time.  Those  who  had 
been  transported  to  the  newly  founded  African  metropolis  furnish  a 
partial  excej)tion  to  this  exclusiveness;  nevertheless  their  attempt  to 
harmonize  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  with  the  current  Greek  thought 

'  Dorner :  Lehre  von  der  Person  Christi,  i,  s.  290,  note. 


,4 

RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.         •         43 

awakened  in  the  minds  of  theMews  of  Palestine  a  hatred  scarcely 

less  hitter  than  was  felt  tow'fW  the  Samaritans  them-    _  . 

^^B  Depressed  con- 

selves.    *'  The  founding  of  th^«i'o-Grecian  kingdom  by    dition  of  Jew- 

Seleiicus  and  the  establishmt^Bf  the  capitol  at  Antioch  ^^^  '"^''^'^* 
brought  Judea  into  the  unf^Bnate  situation  of  a  weak  province, 
|)laced  between  two  great  co^^^ig  monarchies."  '  From  this  time 
the  condition  of  the  Jewish  j^^^b  became  deplorable  in  the  extreme. 
It  was  one  continuous  stru|^B  for  existence  from  without,  a  state 
of  fierce  contentions  and  rivalries  within.  Even  the  patriotism 
of  the  Maccabean  princes  proved  only  the  brilliant  flicker  of  an  ex- 
piring national  life. .  True,  the  Jews  were  no  insignificant  factor  in 
the  society  and  business  of  many  of  the  cities  of  the  empire.  In 
Alexandria  and  in  Rome  a  separate  quarter  was  assigned  to  them.* 
Hellenizing  influences  had,  indeed,  been  marked  and  powerful.  Nev- 
ertheless, they  remained  essentially  isolated  in  religion  and  in  social 
customs;'  while  the  partial  synei'etism  of  thought  and  style  which 

sometimes  resulted  must  be  regarded  as  unfavorable  to    „,,  .       .... 

*  Theirconduion 

a  healthy  art  development.     From  the  time  of  their    unfavorable  to 
return  from  Babylon  to  the  days  of  Christ,  therefore,    ^^  culture. 
their  conditions,  social,  financial,  commercial,   and  religious,   were 
least  favorable  to  the  successful  cultivation  of  the  fine  arts. 

While  the  second  commandment  evidently  acted  as  a  check  to 
the  encouragement  of  painting  and  sculpture,  its  prohibition  of  art 
representation  cannot  be  regarded  as  absolute.^  It  must  apply 
mainly  to  images  which  tempt  to  idolatry.  The  sub-  The  second 
sequent  histoiy  of  the  Hebrews  and  their  divinely  ^"["biJoJy 
instituted  ritual  justify  this  opinion.  The  injunction  to  of  art. 
Moses  "  to  destroy  the  altars  of  the  people,  to  break  their  images, 

'  Milman:  History  of  the  Jews.     4th  edition,  London,  186G,  vol.  i,  pp.  450,  45L 

"^  For  tlieir  numbers  and  iufiuence  in  Cicero's  d.i}-.  v.  pro  Flacco,  28;  in  the  reigns 
of  Julius  and  Augustus,  v  Suetonius,  Ccesar,  84;  Tiberius,  36;  Josephus,  Antiq., 
xvii,  11,1;  xviii,  3,  5. 

'  On  their  social  standing  at  Rome  v.  Hausrath :  Neutestamentliche  Zeitgeschichte, 
2te  Aufl.,  Bd.  iii,  ss.  11-81. 

For  the  epigraphic  evidence  of  the  constitution  of  the  Jewish  society  at  Rome  v. 
Schiirer's  valuable  monograph,  Die  Gtmeindeverftissung  der  Juden  in  Bom.  Leipzig, 
1879. 

*  "  It  may,  perhaps,  be  admitted  that  the  prohibition  expressed  in  our  verse  [K.xod. 
XX,  4]  has  exerted  a  retarding  inHuenco  upon  the  progress  and  development  of  the 
plastic  arts  among  the  Hebrews,  as  a  like  interdiction  in  the  Koran  has  produced 
a  similar  effect  among  the  Arab  tribes;  for  plastic  art,  in  its  beginnings,  equally 
stands  m  the  service  of  religion,  and  advances  by  the  stimulus  it  affords.  But  it  is 
an  incompreiiensible  mistake  if  it  is  believed  that  plastic  arts  in  general,  sculpture 
and  painting,  are  forbidden  in  our  text." — Ivaliscii:  Historical  and  Critical  Commen- 
tary of  the  Old  Testament. 


44  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISllAN  ART. 

and  ciit  down  their  groves"  (Exod.  xxiv,  13),  and  the  sweeping  pro- 
hibition, "Thon  shalt  make  thee  no  molten  gods"  (ver.  17),  are 
conpled  with  the  reason,  "  For  thou  shalt  worship  no  other  god, 
for  the  Lord  whose  name  is  Jealous  is  a  jealous  God"  (ver.  14).  It 
was,  therefore,  "  images  of  gods  "  and  not  every  species  of  art  repre- 
sentation whose  making  was  here  forbidden.  The  preparation  of  the 
tabernacle  and  of  its  furniture  were  of  divine  ajipointment  and  after 
a  divinely  given  pattern  (Exod.  xxv,  9).  The  artificers  of  the  work, 
Bezalel  and  Oholiab,  were  called  and  inspired  of  God  (Exod.  xxxv, 
30,  31,  and  xxxvi,  1).  This  was  the  prevalent  opinion  among  the 
Jews  in  the  time  of  Christ  (Heb.  viii,  5).  Yet  on  the  furniture 
A  heavenly  of  the  tabernacle  were  representations  of  vegetable 
pattern  for  the    fyj.,^g  ^s  the  almond-shaped  bowls  of  the  candlesticks 

tabernacle  fur-  '  ^ 

niture.  (Exod.  XXV,  33),  and  the  pomegranates  and  bells  of  gold 

on  the  hem  of  the  priest's  ephod  (Exod.  xxviii,  33,  34) ;  also  of 
animal  forms,  as  the  golden  cherubim  (Exod.  xxv,  18-20),  and 
the  embroidered  cherubs  upon  the  particolored  veil  dividing  "be- 
tween the  holy  place  and  the  most  holy  "  (Exod.  xxvi,  31-33). 

Four  and  a  half  centuries  later,  when  the  government  had  taken 
on  the  form  of  an  hereditary  monarchy,  David  essayed  to  build  a 
resting-place  for  the  ark  of  God.  The  scriptural  account  conveys 
the  impression  that  this  temple,  built  by  Solomon,  was  after  a  pat- 
tern revealed  by  God  to  David  (1  Chron.  xxviii,  6,  10,  12,  19,  and 
2  Chron.  vi,  10;  per  contra,  1  Kings  v,  6;  2  Chron.  ii,  3,  V;  1  Kings 
vi,  2;  2  Chron.  vi,  2).  The  connection  of  the  choice  of  the  site 
The  temple  with  the  terrible  punishment  of  the  sin  of  taking  the 
site.  census  of  Israel  gave  to  this  temple  a  most  solemn  in- 

terest. This  threshing-floor  of  the  fallen  Jebusite  king,  where  first 
was  given  the  vision  of  the  coming  pestilence,  became  the  center  of 
the  national  worship  for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  and  to-day  is 
held  in  equal  veneration  by  the  conquering  sons  of  Ishmael.  The 
temple  hereon  erected  was  far  more  than  an  architectural  display. 
It  supplied  the  framework  of  the  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 
It  was  the  center  of  the  whole  religious  life  of  Israel.'  Slight  as 
is  our  knowledge  of  the  details,  it  is  plain  that  "  its  general  arrange- 
ments were  taken  from  those  of  the  tabernacle."'^  Such  Avas  the 
Jewish  opinion  to  a  very  late  period  of  their  national  history.  Its 
form  and  size  were  similar  to  those  of  the  tabernacle.'  It  is  certain 
that  the  introduction  of  vegetable  and  animal  forms  into  the  structure 
and  furniture  of  the  temple  of  Solomon  was  still  more  free  thanin 

'  Stanley:  IIM.  of  the  Jewish  Church,  2d  series,  p.  150. 

^  Ewald :  Hist,  of  Israel,  vol.  iii,  p,  247. 

2  Fergiissou:  v.  article  "Temple,"  in  Smitli's  he  Bihie. 


RELATIONS  OF  CURISTIANITY  TO  ART.         ^  45 

the  case  of  the  tabernacle.  Besides  the  golden  cherubim  were  now 
found  the  twelve  oxen  or  bulls  of  brass,  supporting  the  vegetable  and 
great  brazen  laver,  while  the  lesser  lavers  rested  ""'™'^^  toTms. 
upon  forms  of  cherubs,  lions,  and  bulls.  In  addition  to  almonds 
and  pomegranates  lilies  are  now  found,  or,  as  some  understand 
the  text,  the  great  laver  itself  was  in  the  form  of  a  flower  of  the 
lily. 

These  arrangements  plainly  show  that  the  second  commandment 
could  not  have  been  sweeping  in  its  denunciation  of  the  arts  of  form, 
or  else  there  is  in  both  the  tabernacle  and  temple  a  like  wide  depart- 
ure from  the  spirit  of  the  law.  The  latter  alternative  opinion  can 
hardly  comport  with  the  manifest  claims  of  each  structure  to  a 
divine  origin.  While  we  must,  therefore,  doubt  the  exclusiveness 
of  the  prohibition  expressed  in  the  second  commandment  with 
reference  to  the  use  of  art  forms  in  the  sacred  edifices  and  ritual 
of  the  Jews,'  there  can  be  as  little  doubt  that  this  law  greatly 
discouraged  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  of  form.  Where-  The  command- 
ever  religion,  which  is  the  chief  inspiration  and  patron  ™ent  never- 
of  high  art,  is  hostile  or  indifferent,  the  cultivation  of  (jerance  to  an 
art  must  languish  and  the  character  of  its  products  patronage. 
become  indiffei'ent. 

We  must,  however,  find  the  solution  of  the  slender  products  of 
this  people  in  sculpture,  painting,  and  architecture  chiefly  in  the 
peculiar  character  of  the  Semitic  imagination.  This  The  peculiarity 
has  been  noticed  by  students  of  general  art  history,  as  of  the  Semitic 
well  as  by  writers  on  Hel)rew  poetry  and  music.''  imagination. 

This  people  was  not  wanting  in  imagination  or  in  art  suscepti- 
bility. Few  came  nigher  to  the  heart  of  nature,  none  were  more 
sensitive  to  her  subtler  beauties.'  But  the  Semitic  imagination  was 
wild  and  restless;  it  was  strong,  daring,  and  impetuous.     It  had  a 

'  "  Even  tlie  principle  of  the  second  commandment,  tliat  Jeliovah  is  not  to  be 
worshipped  by  images,  which  is  often  appealed  to  as  containing  the  most  cliaracter- 
istic  pecnliarity  of  Mosaism,  cannot,  in  tiie  light  of  history',  be  viewed  as  having  had 
so  fundamental  a  place  in  the  religion  of  early  Israel.  Tiie  state  worship  of  the 
golden  calves  led  to  no  qnarrel  between  Elisha  and  the  dynasty  of  John  ;  and  this 
one  fact  is  sufficient  to  show  that,  even  in  a  time  of  notable  revival,  the  living  power 
of  the  religion  was  not  felt  to  lie  in  tlie  principle  that  Jehovah  cannot  be  represented 
by  images." — W,  Robertson  Smith,  The  Prophets  of  Israel,  pp.  62,  63. 

^  Hotho:  Geschichte  d.  ch.  Malerei.    Stuttgart,  1867.  Iten  Absch.,  Ite  cap.,  ss.  24,  5f(?. 

Schnaase:  Geschichte  d.  bildenden  Kiimte,  2te  Aufl.  Dusscldorf,  1866-78.  Bd.  i, 
3te  Bd.  cap.  3,  ss.  232,  seq. 

Bp,  Lowth:   Sacred  Poetry  of  (he  Tlehrews.     London,  1847,     Lect.  13,  et  al. 

^Comp.  Psa.  viii,  3,  4;  xi.x,  1,  4,  5;  civ,  1,  2,  24;  Isa.  xl,  22;  IIos,  v,  7  ;  Sirach 
xliii,  1,  9,  11,  12;  Matt,  vi,  28,  29;  1  Cor.  xv,  41,  etc. 


46  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

direct  and  manifest  influence  upon  the  logical  faculty.'  It  gave 
tone  and  hue  to  much  of  their  sacred  literature.  This  inquietude 
causes  every  figurative  representation  that  flits  before  the  mind  to 
Eflect  of  its  ^c  quickly  supplanted  by  another.  Either  the  first  is 
impetuosity.  inadequate  for  the  metaphorical  purpose,  and  the 
second  is  summoned  to  complete  it;  or  through  the  manifoldness  of 
its  appearance  it  brings  to  mind  yet  something  else  that  is  closely 
related  to  the  subject  in  hand,  which  thus  becomes  blended  with 
the  first  picture  of  the  fancy,  only  to  obscure  and  weaken  the 
sharpness  of  its  outline. ^  Hebrew  poetry  furnishes  numerous 
illustrations  of  this  principle,  and  the  writings  of  the  Prophets  con- 
firm it.'  Take  the  passage  in  1  Kings  xiv,  15,  as  an  example  of 
Examples  from  the  restlessness  and  impetuosity  of  the  Hebrew  imag- 
scripture.  inatiou.     Israel  is  here  represented  as  a  person  who  is 

to  receive  chastisement  at  the  hand  of  the  Lord.  Its  infliction 
causes  him  to  reel,  which  effort  suggests  the  slender  reed  shaken  by 
the  resistless,  blast.  This  new  object  to  which  the  attention  is 
directed  is  now  the  recipient  of  a  further  action — the  rooting  out 
of  the  land — thus  calling  up  the  promised  inheritance.  The 
further  effect  of  the  chastisement  is  not  only  the  removal  to 
another  place,  but  the  scattering  beyond  the  river,  and  the  dis- 
solution of  this  personified  Israel  into  its  individual  members.^ 
The  picture  of  the  blessings  of  Christ's  kingdom  as  given  in  Isa. 
xxxii,  2,  is  another  example  of  the  same  restlessness  of  fancy.  The 
primal  notion  of  safety  and  nourishment  is  plain  and  simple;  but 
the  imagination  rushes  from  "  a  hiding-place  from  the  wind  and  a 
covert  from  the  storm  "  to  "  rivers  of  waters  in  a  dry  place,"  and 
thence  to  "  a  great  rock  in  a  weary  land."  Here  is  unity  of  thought, 
but  we  attempt  in  vain  to  reproduce  by  arts  that  appeal  to  the  eye  the 
diverse  objects  here  presented.  Of  Isa.  xiv,  4,  27,  an  enthusiastic 
admirer  and  commentator  of  the  Hebrew  poetry  has  written,  "  How 
forcible  is  this  imagery,  how  diversified,  how  sublime  !  How  ele- 
vated the  diction,  the  figures,  the  sentiments  !  The  Jewish  nation, 
the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  the  ghosts  of  the  departed  kings,  the  Baby- 
lonish monarch,  the  travelers  who  find  the  corpse,  and,  last  of  all, 

'  e.  g.,  the  curious  and  repeated  involutions  of  tlie  argument  in  tl)e  Epistle  to  the 
Romans;  thus  greatly  adding  to  the  difificulties  of  its  exegesis.  This  was  noticed  by 
Irenaeus  (Adv.  Haer.,  iii,  7,  §  2)  who  attributes  the  irregularities  of  Paul's  style  to 
the  iinpetuosUy  of  the.  spirit  icithin  him. 

''Schnaase:  Op.  cit.,  Bd.  i,  s.  236. 

*«.  1  Kings  xiv,  15;  Psa.  xviii;  Isa.  xiv,  4,  27;  xxxii,  2;  xxxviii,  11,  14,  and 
numerous  other  passages, 

*  V.  Schnanse:   Op.  cit,  ibid. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  47 

Jehovah  himself,  care  the  cliaracters  that  suj)port  this  lyric  drama."' 
While  the  imagery  is  i)Oetic,  it  is  incapable  of  representation  by 
painting  or  sculpture.  Tliis  restless  impetuosity  of  imagination  is 
found  not  only  in  warnings  and  prophecies  of  destruction,  but  in 
depicting  peaceful  scenes,  holy  triumphs,  pastoral  simplicity,  and 
even  in  historic  narration. 

It  is  a  well  accepted  principle  of  formative  art  that  it  requires  a 
measure  of  fixedness  and  repose.  This  limits  the  im-  Accepted  a  r  t 
agination  to  a  single  and  well  defined  subject.  A  paint-  principle. 
ing  implies  limitation  in  time  and  place  ;  a  statue  is  the  crystalliza- 
tion of  one  leading  thought  ;  high  architecture  obeys  the  laws  of 
symmetry  and  proportion.  These  arts  demand  unity,  sharpness 
of  outline,  and  obedience  to  well  settled  principles  of  execution. 
We  have  only  to  refer  to  the  above-mentioned  products  of  the 
Jewish  imagination,  or  recall  some  of  the  invocations  to  praise,  or 
the  description  of  God's  majestic  ways  in  nature,  as  found  in  the 
Book  of  Job,  the  Psalms,  or  the  Prophets,  to  be  convinced  that  the 
Semitic  imagination  was  too  restlessly  nervous,  or  too  daring  in  its 
flights,  to  obey  the  canons  imposed  on  sculpture,  painting,  and  archi- 
tecture. 

Like  I'esults  are  reached  from  the  study  of  the  Solomonic  temple 
and  the    sculptured    and   pictorial    forms  which    were    confirmation 
admitted  into  the  ornamentation  of  its  furnitm-e.     The    ^'^"'^  «^«>"p'ps 

of  the    forma- 

outline  of  this   sacred    building  was    that  of    a  mere    tivearts. 
box,  destitute  of  artistic  proportions  or  elegance."     The   beautiful 
symmetry,  the  harmony  of  color,  and  the  perfection  of  details,  met 
in  the  Greek  temple  of  the  golden  age,  are  in  marked  contrast  with 
the  baldness  of  form  and  the  barbaric  splendor  of  Solomon's  tem- 
ple.    Even  more  striking  is  the  difference  between  the    xhe  Jewish 
few  artistic  forms  which  were  allowed  in  the  one  and    temple, 
those  adorning  the  temple  of  a  Zeus  or  of  an  Athene.     The  figures 

'  T?p.  Lowth :   Spirit  of  Hebreiv  Poetry,  Lcct.  1 3. 

2  Dean  Jililmaii  seems  to  convej'^  an  erroneous  impression  of  the  architectural  pecu- 
liarities of  Solomon's  temple  when  he  says,  "  Yet  in  some  respects,  if  tlie  measure- 
ments are  correct,  tlie  temple  must  ratlier  have  resembled  tlie  form  of  a  simple  Gothic 
ciuirch." — Ilifit  of  the  Jews,  Book  vii.  It  is  difficult  to  trace  an}- likeness  in  these 
two  widely  separated  and  ver}'  diverse  styles  of  architecture.  Indeed,  we  could 
hardly  find  a  stronorer  contrast  than  exists  between  Solomon's  temple  and  a  Gotliic 
church.  More  correct  is  his  statement,  p.  311:  "The  temple  itself  was  rather  a 
monument  of  the  wealth  than  of  the  architectural  skill  and  science  of  the  people." 
Dean  Stanley's  estimate  is  certainly  justified  by  the  best  results  of  modern  investi- 
gation: "  The  outside  view  must,  if  we  can  trust  the  numbers,  have  been,  according 
to  modern  notions,  strangely  out  of  proportion." — The  Jewish  Church.,  London,  1875, 
vol.  i,  p.  174. 


48  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

of  the  clu'rubim  wliicli  overshadowed  the  mercy-seat  were  of  olive- 
Examples  of  wood,  overlaid  with  gold  (1  Kings  vi,  23-28).  These 
sculpture.  figures  were  colossal,  but  were  wanting  in  symmetry, 

while  their  lack  of  adjustment  to  the  containing  space  manifested 
an  indifference  to  artistic  harmony.  In  the  descriptions  of  the 
seraphim  in  the  vision  of  Isaiah  (Isa.  vi),  and  of  the  cherubim  in 
the  A'ision  of  Ezekiel  (Ezek,  xli),  all  is  wild  and  involved.  In 
these  forms  is  noticed  an  absence  of  unity  and  proportion, ,  an 
impatience  of  boundary  and  definition.  They  transcend  the  limits 
of  the  human,  and  are  allied  to  the  mysterious  and  the  supernatural. 

This  idiosyncrasy,  so  unfavorable  to  arts  which  appeal  to  the  eye, 
is  not  incompatible  with  high  excellence  in  poetry  and  music.  Nev- 
GreekandHe-  ertheless,  a  like  diversity  may  be  traced  in  the  poetry 
brew  poetry  of  the  Jews  and  of  the  Greeks.  This  is  manifest  from  a 
contraste  .  careful  comparison  of  passages  from  the  Hebrew  bards 
with  those  taken  from  Homer,  where  like  objects  are  described,  or 
like  poetic  images  are  involved.  Homer  treats  each  element  of  the 
figure  consecutively  and  exhaustively;  the  Hebrew  bard  flits  from 
point  to  point  in  rapid  succession.  Homer  gives  many  elements  of 
one  view;  the  Hebrew  presents  single  elements  of  many  views.' 

2.  The  relations  of  the  divine  to  the  human  as  conceived  by  the 
Semitic  mind  were  very  different  from  those  recognized  by  the 
Hellenic  peoples.  The  monotheism  of  the  Hebrews  was  peculiar. 
The  Hebrew  Their  Jehovah  was  not  merely  the  one  living  and 
monotheism.  ^j.^^g  God,  but  he  was  at  the  same  time  the  illimitable 
and  unfathomable  Mystery,  the  Unapproachable,  whom  no  form 
can  contain,  no  symbol  may  adequately  represent.  The  assurance 
given  to  Moses,  "  Thou  canst  not  see  my  face,  for  no  man  shall  see 
me  and  live"  (Exod.  xxxiii,  20),  inspired  in  the  worshiper  a  pervad- 
ing awe.  The  infinity  of  the  attributes  of  One  whom  "  the  heaven 
and  the  heaven  of  heavens  cannot  contain  "  (2  Chron,  ii,  18),  "  the 

'  Oftlic  Hebrew  lyi'ic  poclry.  as  an  exhibition  ot'  tlie  Hebrew  imagination,  Lotze 
says : 

"Here  the  mind  dwells  upon  its  communion  witli  God,  and  extols  with  all  the 
power  of  the  most  passionnte  expression,  as  proof  of  diviue  omnipotence,  every  deep- 
Lotze's  opin-  fell  individual  feature  of  cosmic  beauty.  For  among  the  divine  attri- 
'on.  butes  it  is  certainly  omnipotence  which,  above  all,  is  felt,  and  gives 

a  coloring  to  aisthciic  imagination;  we  do,  indeed,  meet  with  innumerable  pictures 
of  nature  which,  taken  separately,  have  often  that  inimitable  beauty  and  charm 
whicii  civilization,  entangled  by  a  thousand  unessential  accessories  of  thought,  finds 
it  sodifBcult  to  attain;  but  these  pictures  are  not  utilized  for  the  development  of  a 
progressive  course  of  thought,  but  merely  juxtaposed  as  though  to  magnif|v  from  dif- 
ferent but  corresponding  sides  the  omnipresent  influence  of  tliat  divine  activity  which 
they  depict."     v.  Microcosmus,  translation.  New  York,  1885,  vol.  ii,  p.  403. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  49 

King  eternal,  immortal,  invisible,  the  only  wise  God  "  (1  Tim.  i,  IV), 
made  the  fitting  representation  of  Jehovah  throngh  form  or  symbol 
inconceivable  and  self-contradictory.  Of  all  the  Oriental  j)eoples 
the  Jews  most  abhorred  the  degradation  of  Deity  to  the  plane  of 
nature.  In  their  conception  the  forces  of  nature  were  only  the 
agents  and  instruments  of  God  Avhich  he  used  to  accom])lish  his 
will.  These  views  of  God  and  nature  tended  to  drive  the  Jew 
back  upon  himself,  and  to  encourage  the  study  and  development 
of  a  subjective  life.  Lacking,  therefore,  a  religious  sanction  and 
encouragement,  art  among  the  Jews  could  have  hut  a  partial  devel- 
opment, since  all  history  and  philosophy  are  accordant 
in  teaching  that  ai't  has  achieved  its  grandest  tri-  representative 
umphs  when  inspired  by  the  truths  of  religion,  while  ^^'^' 
religion  has  found  in  art  its  closest  handmaid  and  successful  inter- 
It  re  ter. 

How  diffei-ent  was  the  thought  of  pagan  Greece  and  Rome  ! 
While  in  their  early  history  both  these  peoples  were  eminently  re- 
ligious, their  conceptions  of  the  divine  were  nevertheless  in- 
distinct and  shifting.  The  most  devout  Greeks  could  The  Greek  my- 
afRrm  without  public  offence  that  Hesiod  and  Homer  thoiogy. 
were  the  authors  of  their  mythology.  Their  opinion  of  the  deities 
was  fixed  neither  by  law  nor  by  the  authority  of  a  divinely  insti- 
tuted priesthood.  The  priests  were  not  a  favoured  class,  but  were 
generally  chosen  from  year  to  year  to  minister  to  the  ])eo])le  and 
communicate  the  will  of  the  gods.  Nature  was  not  merely  an  instini- 
ment  by  which  the  one  infinite  Ruler  accomplishes  his  purposes,  but 
Avas  apportioned  to  a  multitude  of  divinities  whose  domain  was 
limited  and  defined.  Natural  forces  were  pei'sonified,  and  these 
})ersonifications  Avere  the  products  of  the  popular  fancy,  or  Avere  tra- 
ditions Avhich  Avere  invested  Avith  no  supreme  authority.  It  has  been 
said  that  the  Greeks  idealized  nature.  In  comparison  with  the  low 
materialistic  tendencies  of  many  Oriental  peoples  this  claim  is  fairly 
just.  Certainly  their  religion  Avas  for  the  most  part  l)right  and 
cheerful.  It  turned  toAvard  the  outAvard.  The  deep  subjective  ele- 
ment of  the  Hebrew  faith  Avas  feeble  in  both  the  heathen  Greek  and 
Roman.  While  the  earlier  Greek  religion  had  been  Extern,  rtv  of 
characterized  by  freedom  of  thought,  and  the  Roman,  tiio  heathen 
on  the  contrary,  Avas  to  the  last  degree  prescribed,  these  '■•^'^p'""^- 
religions  nevertheless  agree  in  the  common  quality  of  externality, 
Paul's  masterly  summary  was  descriptive  of  all  jiagan  systems  alike; 
"  They  Avorshipped  and  serA'ed  the  creature  more  than  the  Creator  " 
(Rom.  i,  25).  To  the  Greek  there  was  no  holy  God;  all  divinities 
Averc  alike  subject  to  the  Aveakness  of  change,  and  to  the  sAvay  of 
4 


50  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

passion.  "Instead  of  holiness,  beauty  took  the  supreme  pLace."' 
Loyalty  to  the  family  and  to  the  state  was  to  the  Roman  the  high- 
est ideal  of  piety.  To  represent  their  gods  in  beautiful  and  per- 
fected forms  seemed  appropriate  to  peoples  whose  conceptions  of 
deity  shifted  with  their  own  varying  history.  Hence  their  relation 
Results  of  to  the  formative  arts  must  have  been  widely  different 
these  differ-    ^^,^^^  ^^^^^  ^£  ^|^g  Hebrews.    While  to  the  Jew  the  divine 

ences    to    art  t      i        i  p  i  • 

culture.  worship  and  the  house   of  worship  must  be  only  sym- 

bolic of  the  m^^sterious  power  and  presence  of  Jehovah ;  while,  there- 
fore, proportions  and  outlines  need  not  be  subject  to  strict  law  or 
definition,  but  might  defy  the  principles  which  govern  mere  finite 
existence  ;  the  worship,  the  statues,  and  the  temples  of  the  Greeks 
had  a  clearness  and  a  distinctness  which  were  entirely  consonant 
with  the  nature  of  gods  who  were  merely  a  projection  of  finite 
thought,  and  the  embodiment  of  what  was  best  and  highest  in 
humanity.  By  a  method  of  limitation  and  degradation  of  their  di- 
vinities to  an  image  or  statue,  the  Greeks  used  the  arts  of  form 
as  didactic  means  of  a  religious  education.  Thus  as  minister  and 
illustrator  of  religion  formative  art  among  the  Greeks  found  its 
richest  themes  and  its  highest  inspiration,  while  among  the  Hebrews 
its  isolation  from  religious  thought  and  religious  service  resulted  in 
an  imperfect  development  and  a  languishing  life. 

We  have  a  most  conspicuous  illustration  and  proof  of  this  Jewish 
indifference  to  the  arts  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture  in  the 
person  of  St.  Paul.  Born  in  Tarsus,  the  seat  of  advanced  Greek 
St.  Paul  an  11-  culturc,  where  objects  of  exquisite  taste  adorned  the 
lustration    of    markets   and   public    squares,   he    must    have   enioved 

Semitic   indif-  '  .         p  -,         c      ^        p  • 

ference  to  the  abundant  opportunity  for  the  study  of  the  formative 
flnearts.  arts  of  the  period.    Yet,  in  the  account  of  his  mission- 

ary visit  to  Athens  is  found  no  single  expression  of  friendl}^ 
interest  in  the  matchless  works  with  which  that  noted  city  still 
abounded,  not  one  intimation  of  oesthetic  pleasure  awakened  by 
their  study.''     Rather  did  he  see  in  these  richest  and  grandest  pro- 

'  Uhlliorn  :  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Ilcafhenism.  Translation,  revised  edition 
1879.  P.  3;?. 

^"  An\-  sense  of  the  dignity  and  beauty  of  pagan  art  was  impossible  to  one  who 
had  been  trained  in  the  school  of  the  rabbis.  There  was  nothine:  in 
jj^yjjj    '  '  his  education  (we  might  add,  in  his  people)  which  enabled  him  to  ad- 

mire the  simple  grandeur  of  the  Propylsea,  the  severe  beauty  of  the 
Parthenon,  the  massive  proportions  of  the  Theseum,  the  exquisite  elegance  of  the 
Temple  of  the  Wingless  Victory.  From  tiie  nude  grace  and  sinewy  strength  of  the 
youthful  processions  portrayed  on  frieze  or  entablature,  he  woiihl  have  turned 
away  with  something  of  impatience,  if  not  of  disgust." — Farrar:  Life  of  St.  Paul. 
London,  1882.     Vol.  i,  p.  527. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  51 

(lucte  of  tlie  Imman  imagination,  in  statuos  of  niatcrhlcss  beauty,  in 
altars  of  faultless  form,  in  temples  of  incomj)ar;i,ble  proportions, 
naught  but  the  plainest  proofs  of  a  mournful  departure  from  the 
one  true  God,  and  unmistakable  evidences  of  the  degradation  and 
helplessness  of  the  heathen  world. 

3.  While  the  Gospel  must  be  first  preached  at  Jerusalem,  and 
while  b_y  their  monotheistic  faith  and  Messianic  hopes  the  Jewish 
peojjle  formed  the  proper  point  of  union  between  the  old  and  the 
new,  the  spirit  of  universalism  taught  by  Jesus  could  universaiism 
not  be  limited  by  the  prevalent  exclusiveness.  Ilis  was  a  °^  the  Gospel. 
system  of  truth  and  salvation  for  the  race.  When  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas said,  "Lo,  we  turn  to  the  Gentiles"  (Acts  xiii,  46),  the  grandeur 
of  the  Gospel  mission  was  first  made  manifest.  Most  gladly  did  the 
poor  and  the  oppressed  of  heathendom  hear  the  proclamation  of 
deliverance  from  their  spiritual  bondage. 

The  estimated  number  of  converts  to  Christianity  at  the  close  of 
the  first  century  is  500,000;  at  the  close  of  the  second  ^y^ber  and 
2,000,000;  at  the  close  of  the  third  7,000,000  to  10,000,-  character  of 
000.  Even  at  the  close  of  the  first  century,  probal)ly  ''°'^^^''''^- 
the  majority  of  Christians  had  been  gathei'ed  from  heathen  peoples. 
The  Gentile  element  rapidly  increased.  By  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  Jewish  influence  and  tendencies  had  well-nigh  disappeared. 
After  the  second  century,  with  the  exception  of  some  isolated  com- 
munities, the  Church  consisted  essentially  of  converts  Avho  must 
have  been  thoroughly  familiar  with  pagan  art. 

It  is  impossible  to  believe  that  families  of  high  station,  that  had 
been  entirely  favorable  to  the  patronage  of  the  fine  arts,  could,  on 
embracing  Christianity,  immediately  change  their  tastes  and  practice, 
especially  since  nothing  inimical  to  the  cultivation  of  art  is  found 
in  the  teachings  of  Christ  or  in  the  writings  of  his  apostles. 

Every  chief  city  in  the  Roman  Empire  had  become  a  museum  into 
which  had  been  gathered  the  treasures  which  the  Greeks  powerful  art 
had  produced  during  a  long  period  of  art  activity  and  influences, 
origination.  Temples,  altars,  shrines;  vale,  grove,  and  mountain; 
public  squares,  market-palaces,  the  halls  of  justice,  private  houses — 
contained  objects  which  familiarized  the  looker-on  with  the  thought 
that  the  divine  may  l)e  represented  in  visible  form.  The  pagan 
moralists  regarded  these  images  as  most  helpful  means  of  instruc- 
tion, and  a  most  healthful  stimulus  of  the  faith  of  the  worshi))per. 
Like  the  Christian  ai)()logists  for  images  in  a  later  Art  works  re- 
century,  the  2)riests  of  i)aganism  taught  that  the  people  bv'tii'e  heL'iien 
could  thus  be  brought  near  the  i)erson  of  the  divinity,  moraiist.s. 
While  some  of  the  more  thoughtful,  as  Seneca,  rejected  this  view, 


53  ARCH/EOLOGY  OF  CHIUSTIAN  ART. 

the  majority  taught  that  the  gods  were  truly  present  in  the  images. 
The  untutored  multitude  believed  that  their  deities  had  as  many  differ- 
ent personalities  as  there  were  representations.  Herein  the  faith 
of  the  adherents  to  the  old  religions  was  strikingly  like  that  of  the 
Christians  during  the  most  flourishing  periods  of  image  worship.' 

Tims  had  art  been  made  the  illustrator  and  teacher  of  religion. 
They  had  become  so  closely  joined  that  the  protests  of  some  of  the 
Christian  fathers  against  its  practice  and  encouragement  sounded 
Causes  of  Christ-  lia*"'^h  and  discordant  to  the  pagan  moralists.  But  the 
ian  art  encour-  accessions  to  the  Cliurcli  of  families  of  wealth  and  high 
agemen  .  social  position,  the  cessation  of  the  fierce  struggle  of 

heathendom  for  re-establishment,  and  the  removal  of  the  dangers  that 
threatened  the  lapse  of  Christianity  into  heathen  idolatry,  furnished 
new  conditions  for  the  cultivation  and  patronage  of  the  fine  arts. 
The  inherent  love  of  the  beautiful  found  means  of  rational  gratifica- 
tion; the  new  religion  breatlied  into  the  old  forms  a  quickening  spirit, 
and  originated  a  treatment  peculiarly  Christian.  The  decadence 
everywhere  observed  in  the  pagan  world  from  the  blight  of  faith 
was  measurably  arrested  by  the  vital  union  of  the  true  and  the  beau- 
tiful in  Christianity.  The  changed  relations  of  the  Christian  to  the 
Jewish  Church,  the  juster  view  of  the  nature  of  God  and  his  gov- 
ernment of  the  material  universe,  and  the  recognition  of  Christianity  , 
as  an  important  factor  in  the  civilization  of  the  empire,  favored  the 
alliance  of  the  Church  with  art,  which  thus  received  a  truer 
inspiration. 2 

Some,  however,  who  had  been  converted  from  the  pagan  systenr 
Early  opposi-  were,  at  first,  scarcely  less  pronounced  against  the  use  of 
tion  to  the  arts    ^y^  forms  in  the  places  of  worship  than  the  Jewish  Christ- 

of     form      in     .  .  ... 

Christian  ser-  iaus  themselves.^  This  seeming  hostility  of  a  few  of  the 
^^•^s.  Christian  fathers  was  chiefly  occasioned  by  the  corrupt- 

ing associations  of  the  prevalent  art.  As  before  remarked,  the  Christ- 
ian and  pagan  views  of  the  divine  nature  and  government  were  in 
directest  contradiction.     The  one  believed  that  each  stream,  wood, 

'   Friedlander :   DarsteUnn^  aus  der  Sittengeichiclik  Roms,  Bd.  iii,  s.  5G5,  ei  al. 

This  aiitlior  compa|;es  the  heathen  belief  in  llie  diversit}'  of  the  nature  of  tlie  gods 
■with  that  of  the  NeapoHtans  respecting  the  Madonna  and  her  various  art  representa- 
tions. 

-  "  Christianity  only  diseourap:ed  art  so  long  as  art  was  the  handmaid  of  sin;  the 
moment  tliis  dau;4-er  ceased,  she  inspired  and  ennobled  art.'' — Farrar,  Life  of  St.  Paul, 
chap,  xxvii. 

"  Christianity  by  exalting  moral  above  physical  beauty,  the  soul  above  the  body, 
encourao^ed  the  development  of  ardent  and  passionate  men  of  genius  " — E.  Miintz: 
Les  Artistes  celehres.     Domitdlo.  i 

^  Piper:  Mijthologie  der  christlichen  Kunst.     Weimar,  1847.     Bd.  i,  s.  2.  \ 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  53 

and  mountain  was  governed  by  a  separate  divinity,  and  that  every 
act  and  event  ot"  human  experience  from  birth  to  death  was  under 
the  direction  of  some  special  deity;  the  other  regarded  the  universe 
as  the  work  of  the  one  true  God,  and  this  world  as  the  theatre  for 
the  display  of  the  divine  mercy  and  glory,  and  for  the  manifestation 
of  behavior  under  the  divine  government.'  Through  the  uni- 
versal decadence  of  belief  and  the  corresponding  corruption  of 
morals,  that  which  had  originally  been  inspired  by  strong  faith  in 
the  supernatural  had  become  the  minister  to  the  most  degrading 
rites  and  ceremonies.  Hence,  some  of  these  works  of  art  were 
at  first  doubly  repulsive  to  the  heathen  converts  themselves.  It 
was  originally  a  war  against  images  ;  subsequently  it  extended 
itself  by  a  law  of  association  to  all  decorative  and  art  Extent  of  this 
forms  connected  with  the  heathen  Avorship.  At  first  opposition, 
even  objects  in  free  statuary  and  paintings  used  to  beautify  private 
houses  and  household  furniture  were  forbidden.  The  artist  whose 
skill  was  employed  in  the  production  of  these  works  was  placed 
under  the  ban  of  the  Church.  On  assuming  church  membership 
he  was,  at  times,  compelled  to  abandon  his  craft.  The  Apostolic 
Constitutions  are  very  positive  in  their  teachings  on  this  point.  A 
maker  of  images  of  the  gods  who  shall  have  become  a  Christian  must 
either  abandon  his  business  or  be  excommunicated.^  Some  influen- 
tial Christian  fathers  were  most  outspoken.  So  late  as  the  beginning 
of  the  third  century  Tertullian  argued  the  case  with  great  vehe- 
mence. He  urges  that  while  the  Christian  artificer  TertuUian's 
did  not  himself  worship  these  images,  he  was  |)lacing  teaching. 
in  the  hands  of  others  objects  which  might  be  most  misleading.  One 
cannot  consistently  confess  the  one  true  God  with  the  mouth,  and 
yet  preach  polytheism  with  the  hand.  While  Christian  artisans 
themselves  may  not  offer  incense  to  these  images  of  the  gods,  they  are, 
nevertheless,  putting  into  their  work  their  powers  of  mind  and  soul, 
and  are  thus  consenting  to  derive  their  own  comfort  and  snppoi't  from 
a  soul-destroying  idolatry.'      Clement  of  Alexandria  was  of  like 

'  "  If  tlie  p:i2ran  religions  h.id  explained  the  proveniment  of  tlio  universe  b,v  the 
government  of  man,  thus  mnltiplvinpr  tlie  realms  of  law,  eacli  under  a  distinct  law- 
giver, the  Christian  had  achieved  that  highest  possible  generalization,  sublime  in  its 
simplicity,  of  a  single  realm  and  one  universal  divine  •government." — Holland:  Juris- 
prudence, p.  14. 

"  Ajwstolic  Comtiditions,  viii,  c.  32:  '•  Idolornni  opifc.x  si  accedat,  ant  desistat  aut- 
repollatnr." 

^  Df  liliibdria.  c.  6:  "Quomodo  enim  reninitiavimus  dinbolo  et  angelis  ejus,  si  eos 
facim\is?  .  .  .  Potes  lingua  ncgasse,  qnol  manu  conlUeris?  verbo  destruere,  quod 
facto  struis?  vmum  Deum  prjedicare,  qui  tantos  efficis?  verum  Deum  pnodicare,  qui 
f.ilsos  facis?  " 


54  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

mind.'  But  the  use  of  such  facts  to  prove  the  hostility  of  these  fathers 
to  art^^er  se,  and  the  indifference  of  the  early  Church  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  fine  arts,  is  manifestly  misleading.  Such  conclusions 
are  denied  by  the  evidence  of  the  senses.^ 

The  adornment  of  dress,  and  the  decoration  of  furniture,  utensils, 
and  wall-spaces  in  the  private  house,  have  generally  been  the  earliest 
product  of  the  sesthetic  faculty.  So  probably  with  the  art  of  the 
early  Christians.^  It  was  so  far  removed  from  the  associations 
Earliest  en-  of  heathen  worship  as  to  awaken  little  opposition.  This 
couiagernent      yj^^y  finds  confirmation  in  the   writinsrs  of  the  earlv 

or  decoiative  =•  " 

art.  Christian  fathers.     The  next  step  seems  to  have  been 

the  decoration  of  tombs  and  the  wall-spaces  of  crypts  in  the  cata- 
combs, which  often  seiwed  the  double  purpose  of  sepulture  and  of 
a  place  of  assembly  for  the  celebration  of  the  sacraments.  Hence 
the  archaeologist  must  betake  himself  to  the  careful  study  of  these 
burial  monuments  to  gain  the  truest  conception  of  the  nature  and 
mission  of  early  Chi'istian  art.^ 

Unquestionably,  the  Christian  Church  accepted  and  appropriated 
Originality  of  ^^  ^^^  ^^'^^  ^^^^  many  of  the  art  forms  that  were  at 
early  Christian  hand.  To  create  an  absolutely  new  school  was,  under 
^'■'-  the  circumstances,  impossible.      The  earliest   Christian 

painting  and  sculpture  follow  the  heathen  type  ;  no  wide  departure 
is  anywhere  observable.     The  originality  of  the  Christian  artists 

'  Among  other  passages  v.  Ptudagogus,  lib.  iii.. 

2  An  interesting  [larallel  may  be  drawn  between  tlie  teachings  of  the  Cliristian 
fathers  of  the  second  and  third  centuries  and  those  of  some  of  the  great  reformers 
of  the  sixteenth.  The  early  apologists  clearly  discerned  the  threat  to  the  purilj'  of 
Cliristian  life  and  doctrine  coming  from  the  indiscriminate  use  of  heathen  art; 
Luther,  Zwinglius,  Beza.  and  Calvin  would  exclude  images  from  churclies,  not 
because  they  did  not  love  art,  but  because  these  olijects  were  misleading  the  simple 
worshippers,  v.  Griineisen:  De  Protestantisnvi  artihus  hand  ivfesto.  Tub'ingtB,  1839. 
Also  an  essay,  Catholicism  and  Protestantism  as  Patrons  of  Cliristian  Art,  in  the 
Methodist  Quarterhj  Review,  January,  1877. 

"  What  modification  of  opinion  might  be  necessarj'  were  the  countless  objects 
that  have  been  lost  to  be  recovered,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  The  materials  are 
often  very  meagre,  and  sometimes  the  arclueologist  must  be  guided  by  analogical 
evidence. 

4  "  Probably  religions  representations  were  transferred  from  private  houses  to 
churches  at  the  end  of  the  third  century,  for  the  Church  of  Elvira,  A.  D.  .305,  protested 
against  this  use  of  images  in  the  churches." — Neander:  Church  Hist.,  Torrey's  trans., 
vol.  ii,  p.  508.  Tills  opinion  of  Neander  needs  very  important  qualification.  It  seems 
to  be  founded  upon  documentary  rallier  than  upon  monumental  evidence.  With  the 
latter  he  interested  himself  very  slightly.  Indeed,  nearly  everj'  great  work  on  church 
history  in  this  centuiy — for  example,  Neander,  Giessler,  Niedner,  Baur,  Kurtz,  etc. — 
is  strangely  silent  on  the  monuments.  Schafif,  in  his  last  edition,  forms  a  striking 
and  pleasant  exception. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  55 

consisted  essentially  in  pressing  into  the  service  of  tlie  now  faith 
what  before  had  ministered  to  the  religions  of  paganism.^  A  new 
spirit  was  infused  into  the  old  body,  not  immediately  to  modify 
and    transform   it,    but   to    teach    new    and   saving    truths.      The 

early  em])loyment  of  symbolism  indicates  the  chariness   ^       ,    , . 

*'  .  ,  .      .  Symbolism 

of  the  Church  in  the  use  of  free  statuary  and  painting,  among  the 
The  authority  of  Scri})ture  was  invoked.  The  Fathers  ^"^f  ''^niristiau 
assumed  that  to  represent  to  the  eye  what  the  ^^^^■ 
Scriptures  teach  by  word-symbol  was  not  idolatrous.  Jesus 
spoke  of  himself  and  of  his  saving  offices  under  the  symbol  of  a 
\  ine  ;  he  called  himself  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  his  followers  the 
sheep.  The  finally  saved  were  the  slieep  placed  on  his  right  hand 
in  paradise  ;  the  finally  impenitent  were  the  goats  which  were  to  be 
banished  from  his  presence  forever.  Thus  the  cycle  of  Christian 
symbolism  which  became  so  effective  in  teaching  was  greatly  en- 
larged, and  aided  to  introduce  the  arts  of  form  into  the  service  of 
the  Church. 

It  is,  therefore,  scarcely  philosophical  or  in  accord  with  historic 
facts  to  attribute  the  symbolic  character  of  the  pre-Constantine  art 
to  merely  outward  circunistances,  as  fear  of  persecution,  or  an  aversion 
to  exposing  to  profane  eyes  the  mysteries  of  the  Christian  religion. 
The  transition  from  the  symbolic  to  the  literal  representation  was 
rather  in  obedience  to  a  fundamental  law  of  art  devel-  Transition 
opment.  The  deep  spiritual  life  of  the  Church  must  J;'",",,.'.;;;"';^; 
precede  the  outward  expression.  The  decadence  of  resentation. 
religious  sentiment  in  the  pagan  world  had  caused  a  like  deca- 
dence in  all  forms  of  representative  art,  whether  poetry,  music, 
painting,  sculpture,  or  architecture.  The  higher  spiritual  life  of 
the  Christian  Church  must  supply  the  necessary  conditions  of  a 
completer  art  which  would  be  developed  whenever  the  outward 
circumstances  might  favor.' 

The  liistory  of  the  first  three  centuries  clearly  shows  that  just  as 
the  heathen  philosophical  thought  was  used  by  the  Church  fathers 
to  give  concise  expression  to  Christian  doctrine,  and  The  church 
the  Roman  state  furnished  the  type  for  an  ecclesiastical  ^v^mT'^wa^'^at 
hierarchy,  just  so  were  the  forms  of  pagan  art  and  its  hand, 
principles  of  expression  pressed  into  the  service  of  the  triumphant 
religion.^     This   appropriation    Avent   so    far   as   frqeuently  to   use 

'  Piper:  Mythologie  del  ch.  Kunst,  Bd.  i,  ss.  .5,  6. 

^  A  similar  contribution  of  heathen  thou'^ht  is  seen  in  llie  Roman  fruilds. 

'•  The  constitution  of  these  pruilds,  and  the  kind  of  Hfe  developed  witliin  tliem. 
have  been  of  tlie  greatest  importance  in  tiio  histor}-  of  Christian  charity  and  its  de- 
velopment.    Certainly  it  was  the  case  that  these  guilds  laid  down  the  recognised 


56  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

heathen  s^nnbols  for  Christian  purposes.  Confining  himself  at  first 
to  the  simple  but  significant  symbolism  of  the  biblical  cycle,  the 
artist  afterward  employed  any  heathen  emblem  which  had  conveyed 
an  analogous  truth.  It  must  be  supposed  thc,t  this  practice  in  some 
form  w^as  quite  general  in  the  Christian  Chui-ch.  But  the  remains 
of  this  earliest  art  industry  are  limited  to  a  very  few  centres.  Only 
in  Rome  is  the  cycle  at  all  complete.  These  Christian  symbols 
are  often  found  associated  with  burial  monuments.  So  long  as 
places  of  sepulture  were  under  the  special  protection  of  law  we  may 
suppose  that  there  was  no  necessit}^  for  concealment.  The  chapels 
erected  over  the  graves  of  Christians  eminent  for  piety  or  for  the 
services  they  had  rendered  were  adorned  with  works  which  have 
unfortunately  almost  entirely  disappeared.  But  when,  by  the  edict 
Decoration  of  ^^  Valerian  (A.  D.  257),  assemblies  in  these  burial 
burial  menu-  chapels  were  prohibited,  and  fierce  persecutions  were 
'^^^^-  practised,    the    Christians    were    compelled    to    betake 

themselves  to  places  of  concealment  for  worship  and  for  the  cele- 
bration of  the  sacraments.  Thus  originated  some  of  the  most  inter- 
esting portions  of  the  catacombs  which  have  been  so  rich  a  mine  for 
the  Christian  arehseologist.  The  preservation  of  these  treasuries  of 
Christian  art  seems  almost  providential.  They  remain  as  samples 
of  the  work  of  the  artists  of  the  early  Christian  centuries. 

"What  added  helps  might  have  been  furnished  for  the  elucidation 
of  Christian  art  in  the  first  six  centuries,  had  not  the  Avorks  out- 
side the  catacombs  so  generally  perished,  can  only  be  conjectured. 
The  catacombs  are  for  the  study  of  Christian  art  what  the  dis- 
coveries at  Pompeii  are  for  heathen  ;  they  furnish  invaluable 
information  relative  to  the  art  susceptibilities  and  spirit  of  their 
time.  Tlie  Roman  catacombs  furnish  the  only  examples  of  Christ- 
ian paintings  of  an  earlier  date  than  near  the  close  of  the  fourth 
century. 

Of  the  nearly  sixty  catacombs  which  have  been  already  exca- 
Tbe  Roman  vated,  those  of  SS.  Calisto,  Priscilla,  Domitilla,  Prtetes- 
catacombs.  tato,  Sebastiano,  and  Agnese  are  richest.  Their  narrow 
and  often  winding  passages  are  skirted  on  either  side  by  rows 
of  loeuU  or  recesses  for  receiving  the  dead.  On  the  faces  of  slabs 
of  stone  which  close  the  locnli  was  sculptured,  sometimes  painted, 
sometimes  scratched  in  the  soft  mortar,  a  symbol  or  epitaph 
to  reveal  the  belief  of  the  departed,  or  to  indicate  the  triumph  of 
Christian  faith.     At  the  place  of  intersection  these  passages  were 

forms  ill  accordance  wiih  whicli,  when  once  the  power  of  true  love  began  to  stir  the 
Christian  comni'inilies.  their  charitj-  was  to  be  exercised." — Uhlhorn:  Christian 
Charitij  in  the  Ancient  Churchy  p.  27.     New  York:   1883. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART. 


57 


frequently  widened,  and  their  height  increased  to  form  chambers 
which  were  sometimes  the  burial  place  of  martyrs  of  peculiar  sanctity. 
Upon  the  wall-spaces  and  ceilings  are  found  the  paintings  which 
most  clearly  reveal  the  artistic  taste  of  the  Christians  prior  to 
the  fourth  century.     In  the  oldest  catacombs  is  noticed   ^ 

•J  _  Decorative  art 

a  tendency  to  use  the  arts  of  mere  decoration.  In  in  the  cata- 
spirit  and  execution  the  paintings  quite  closely  re-  '^"^''^• 
semble  those  found  on  heathen  monuments  of  the  same  age.  'J'lie 
motive  is  not  essentially  different.  Birds,  flowers,  genii,  etc.,  are 
represented  in  the  most  easy  and  natural  style  of  drawing,  and  in  a 
spirit  Avorthy  of  the  best  periods  of  pagan  art. 

Some  of  the  vaulted  ceilings  of  the  cemetery  of  Santa  Domitilla  at 


I 


Fig.  1.— Ceiling  decoration  from  Santa  Domitilla,  Rome.    Probably  from  second  century. 
Rome  are  believed  to  belong  to  the  first  half  of  the  second  cen- 
tury.   On  one  portion  of  this  ceiling-surface  (Fig.  1)   the  vine  is 


58 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


treated  in  the  most  unconventional  manner,  with  leaves,  fruit,  and 
the  genii  of  the  vineyard.  There  seems  to  be  no  attempt  at  geomet- 
rical handling,  but  a  spirit  of  naturalism  inspires  the  whole  work.' 

A  little  later  in  the  century  the  principle  of  geometrical  division 
and  balancing  seems  to  supjjlant  in  a  measure  this  free  handling.  A 
very  striking  example  is  met  in  the  vaulted  ceiling  of  the  cemeter^' 
of  San  Prsetestato,  in  Home  (Fig.  2).    In  the  lower  section  a  reap- 


Fig.  2.— Ceiling  decoration  from  San  Prsetestato,  Rome.    Last  half  of  the  second  century. 

ing  scene  is  depicted  in  a  style,  equal  to  the  best  contemporarj'-  pagan 
art.  Above  is  a  beautiful  and  very  lifelike  sketch  of  vine  and  leaf  work 
in  the  midst  of  which  birds  are  sporting,  while  above  all  the  laurel 
branch  seems  to  be  introduced.  On  the  other  sides  of  this  room  in 
the  lower  zone  are  children  mIio  are  picking  roses,  a  vintage  scene, 
in  Avhich  the  gathering,  carrying,  and  treading  of  the  grapes  are  most 
vigorously  represented,  and  men  who  are  harvesting  olives.  The 
whole  artistic  design  seems  to  be  merely  decoratiA'e.'^  A  class  cf 
writers  would  see  in  all  these  a  symbolic  teaching,  but  this  is  man- 
ifestly pushing  the  principle  of  symbolism  to  an  unwarranted 
extreme. 


1  Roller:    Catacomhs  de  Ttomf,  PI.  xii,  No.  3.  Kraus :    B'lma  Sotterranea,  ss.  77,  78. 
^  V.  Roller:    Catacomhs  dn  Rome,  t.  i,  cliap.  xiv.     Nortlicote  &  Brownlow:  Roma 
iSotferranea,  vol.  i,  p.  138.     Kraus:  Roma  Sotterranea,  s.  83. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  59 

In  the  midst  of  otlier  figures  occasionally  appear  what  must  be 
regarded  as  distinctively  Christian  symbols.  These  de})art  so  widely 
from  the  prevalent  teaching  as  to  suggest  a  different  origin  and  in- 
spiration. This  commingling  of  subjects  and  motives  was  a  most 
natural,  and  we  may  say  necessary,  result  of  the  situation.  The 
beautiful  si)irit  of  purity,  gentleness,  brotherly  kindness,  fidelity  to 
princl})le,  the  quietness  and  love  of  the  family  life,  and  the  firm  at- 
tachment to  the  society  of  the  believers,  as  expressed  in  the  cele- 
bration of  the  love-feasts  and  eucharist,  could  continue  only  so  long- 
as  Christianity  held  itself  aloof  from  the  life  and  duties  of  the 
state.  So  soon,  however,  as  its  adherents  went  from  obscurity 
to  mingle  in  public  affairs,  they  necessarily  encountered  the  power 
and  resistance  of  heathen  customs  and  laws.  Christian  doctrine 
could  no  longer  remain  untouched  by  heathen  philos-  commingling 
ophy,  nor  its  life  be  uninfluenced  by  the  prevailing  ^-1^,^^^^^  ^ig. 
fashions.  No  less  could  its  art  be  developed  apart  from  meats. 
pagan  motives.  Hence  the  commingling  of  pagan  and  Christian 
elements  in  some  of  the  best  examples  of  Christian  art  during  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries.  Nevertheless,  in  the  strange  and 
almost  un})aralleled  syncretism  of  nationalities,  beliefs,  philosophies, 
rites,  and  ceremonies  then  prevalent  in  Rome,  it  is  noteworthy 
to  how  slight  a  degree  the  earlier  Christian  art  was  influenced. 
Only  by  comparison  of  the  subjects,  the  symbols,  and  the  execution 
of  the  art  of  the  catacombs  with  contemporary  works  of  Rome 
can  a  just  conception  of  the  restraining  and  modifying  power  of 
Christianity  be  gained.'  That  early  Christian  art  should  be 
of  the  highest  order  of  excellence  is  not  to  be  antici-  vet  Christum 
l)ated.     Christianitv  made    its  advent  at  a  time  when   ^'^^   retained 

•..*'.,  .  an  exceptional 

art  was  in  a  condition  of  decadence  which  marked  all   purity. 

its   forms,    poetry,    music,    painting,    sculpture,    and    architecture. 

'"  The  artist  lias  loiifj  chorislied  a  secret  gnuljiG  ajjainst  iiioralit._y.  The  priirlor}' 
of  virtue  is  liis  great  hiiideraiice.  He  believes  tiiat  it  is  our  morality  tiiat  prevents 
us  IVoni  rivalling  the  arts  of  ancient  Greece.  lie  finds  lliat  the  individual  artist 
seems  corrupted  and  spoiled  for  his  business  if  he  allows  morality  to  get  too  nnicli 
control  of  him.  The  great  masters  he  notices  show  a  certain  indifference,  a  certain 
superiority,  to  it ;  often  the}' audaciously  defy  it.  Tiie  virtuous  art'sts  are  niostl}' 
to  be  looked  for  in  the  second  ela'ss,  into  which,  moreover,  it  is  doubtful  wiiether 
tiiey  have  not  been  admitted  by  favor.  Hence  he  becomes  most  seriously  and  un- 
affeciedly  skeptical  about  the  unapi)roaciiable  sovereignty  of  the  law  of  Dutj-." 
SuperruUwal  Beligion,  vol.  i,  p.  120.  Does  the  learned  autiior  forget  that  Greek  art 
perished  witli  its  dying  religiousness?  Poetry  decays  in  the  period  of  a  decadence 
of  faith,  ('hrisiianiiy  used  the  Greek  to  produce  a  better  art,  for  example,  music, 
and  oriiiinatod  some  of  the  grandest  and  most  imposing  forms,  for  e.xample,  Gothic 
architociure. 


60  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHIUSTIAN  ART. 

Hence  it  must  be  erroneous  to  regard  Christian  art  as  either  a 
sudden  leap  into  a  better  and  purer  form,  or  a  sudden  decline  from 
classic  excellence.  Rather  must  it  be  regarded  as  a  jirogressive 
development.' 

The  mythology  of  the  ancient  world  influenced  Christian  art  as 
The  mythoiog-  ^ygH  ^s  Christian  literature  and  doctrine.  It  is  found 
e;uiy  cijiistian  t?ither  as  an  historic  representation,  thus  having  a 
<"t-  typical     or    religious    significance,    or     it    introduced 

powers  of  nature  under  a  symbolic  form,  and  then  had  a  purely 
Three  condi-  artistic  purpose.'^  Sometimes  these  were  united.  As  an 
tions.  instance   of   the   latter   may  be    mentioned    the   ivory 

tablet  from  the  fourth  century,  known  as  the  Barberini  Diptych. 
It  was  probably  prepared  in  A.D.  357,  to  perpetuate  the  triumph  of 
Barteriai  Constantine.     In  the  upper  part  of  this  tablet  is  a  bust 

Diptych.  of  Christ,  in  the  act  of  benediction,  while  on  the  other 

parts  are  various  mythological  representations.  A  like  commingling 
of  motives  is  seen  on  the  noted  sarcophagus  of  Junius  Bassus 
(Plate  I),  who,  as  Prgefect  of  Rome,  died  shortly  after  his  baptism. 
Sarcophagus  of  in  A.  D.  359.  The  main  panels  are  occupied  with  de- 
Jimius  Bassus.  Hneatious  of  characters  and  events  from  both  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testaments — the  translation  of  Elijah,  the  ofi^ering  of 
Isaac,  the  Hebrew  children  in  the  fiery  furnace,  and  scenes  from 
the  life  of  Christ.  But  in  the  angles  and  niches  are  found  heathen 
mythological  representations  which  seem  to  have  very  little  connection 
with  the  main  subjects,  and  must,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  having 
been  introduced  more  for  artistic  effect  than  for  religious  teaching. 
Greek  manu-  Of  like  character  is  the  noted  Greek  manuscript  of  the 
scnpt.  book  of  Joshua,  now  in  the  Vatican  Museum.     It  con- 

sists of  fifteen  sheets  of  parchment,  nearly  thirty  feet  long  and  about 
(me  foot  Avide,  on  which  the  chief  events  of  the  first  ten  chapters  of 
Joshua  are  represented.  Opinions  differ  as  to  the  age  of  this  parch- 
ment; yet  it  seems  hardly  possible  that  it  can  be  later  than  the  eighth 
century,  while  some  of  the  most  competent  critics^  regard  it  as 
among  the  very  earliest  of  Christian  monuments.  In  the  person- 
ification of  rivers,  cities,  mountains,  etc.,  the  ornamentation  of  this 
parchment  is  in  the  peculiar  spirit  of  pagan  art. 

The  influence  of  heathen  symbols  and  thought  is  apparent  on  the 

'  Piper:  Mythologie  der  ch.  Kunst,  Bd.  i,  s.  7. 

2  Piper:    Op.  ciL,  Bd.  i,  s.  18. 

'v.  Rumolir:  Italienische  Forschungen,  Th.  i,  p.  166.  v.  fi'Agiiiconrl:  Plates 
xxviii,  xxix,  XXX.  D'Aginconrt  places  it  in  tlie  seventh  or  eighth  century.  In  this, 
as  in  other  monuments,  restorations  of  a  later  date  are  suspected.  This  is  one 
reason  of  the  diversity  of  opinion  respecting  its  age. 


RELATIONS  OP  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  Gl 

coins  of  the  Roman  emperors  who  embraced  Christianity.  Tlie  coins 
prepared  by  Constantine  in  commemoration  of  his  victory  Roman  impe- 
over  Licinius  contain  the  Labarum,  whicli,  with  tlie  rial  coins, 
monoorara  of  Christ,  rests  upon  a  dragon.  The  cities  of  Constan- 
tinopk^  and  Rome  are  represented  under  the  symbol  of  the  goddess 
of  Fortune,  and  the  statues  of  the  Christian  emperors  are  sometimes 
associated  with  the  goddess  of  Victory. 

Not  less  noteworthy  is  the  commingling  of  Christian  and  ])agan 
thouglit  and  motive  in  the  case  of  private  Christian  burial  monu- 
ments. Genii  of  the  season.s,  Cupid  and  Psyche,  as  well  as  genii  of 
a  festive  nature,  are  here  found  to  typify  the  joy  and  fruition  of  the 
departed.' 

C'losely  connected  with  these  are  representations  in  which  myth- 
ological subiects  are  used  as  types  of  biblical  persons 

Types, 
and   events.     If   the    tree    of   the  knowledge  of   good 

and  evil  is  associated  with  the  sei'pent  in  like  manner  as,  in  the 
heathen  myth,  the  Garden  of  the  Hcsperides  is  guarded  by  the 
dragon,or  if  the  translation  of  Elijah  suggests  the  ascending  sun  god, 
this  resemblance  is  merely  outward.  Yet  it  may  be  very  easy  to 
transfer  the  one  to  the  other,  and  thus  commingle  pagan  and 
Christian  ideas.''  So,  likcAvise,  may  the  ram-bearing  Mercury  be 
mistaken  for  a  figure  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  because  of  a  seeming 
likeness,  while  all  parallelisms  in  office  or  nature  may  be  wanting 
(v.  Figs.  47,  48). 

Careful  distinction  must  be  made  between  monuments  which  con- 
tain representations  closely  resembling  each  other  in  mere  outward 
form  while  there  is  no  likeness  in  thought,  from  those  difference  be- 
Avhich  agree  in  motive,  and  hence  may  have  been  trans-  tween ontwani 
terred  irom  pagan  associations  to  be  used  ui  Christian  .^„j  ^p.^,  |i,.g. 
instruction.  It  is  likewise  important  to  discriminate  ntssof 
between  heathen  inscriptions  and  symbols  on  monuments 
rn  situ  from  those  that  ma}^  be  found  on  the  walls  of  churches,  on 
slabs  which  close  the  loculi  in  the  catacombs,  or  on  neatiion  mate- 
marbles  afterward  used  in  the  construction  of  church   wais  in  ciirist- 

...  „      ,  1         /.         •  /-,!••  T      •      '""  structures. 

lurniture  or  or   the  tombs  of  eminent  Cliristians.     It  is 
well   known  that  in  many  instances   the  materials  used    in  Christian 
structures  were  gathered  from  the  ruins  of  ancient  ])agan  temples 
and  shrines.'     Hence,  by  failure  to  erase  the  symbol  or  inscription, 

'  Respecting  llie  reference  of  tlic?e  fiiyurcs  to  the  category  of  symbol  or  orna- 
mentation there  is  wide  difference  of  opinion  among  the  archajologists. 

2  V.  Piper:   Op.  cit,  Bd.  i,  p.  39. 

'  Tiiis  same  commingling  of  diverse  materials  is  noticed  in  buildings  of  llie  Middle 
Ages.    Among  many  examples  in  the  North  may  be  mentioned  the  walls  of  the  close 


62  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

there  seems  at  times  an  incoherent  commingling  of  pagan  and 
Christian  elements. 

jMillin'  has  given  an  acconnt  of  a  beautiful  sarcophagus  of  Fla- 
vius  Memorius,  who  lived  under  Maximian  or  Constantine.  It  was 
discovered  at  Aries,  and  is  now  in  the  museum  of  3Iarseilles.  In 
this  the  appropriation  of  heathen  art  Avork  to  a  Christian  burial 
monument  is  evident.  The  work  is  of  pagan  origin;  moreover, 
its  high  order  of  artistic  excellence  points  to  a  very  early  date; 
yet  the  inscription,  which  was  manifestly  an  after  thought,  is 
Christian  in  sentiment.  Also  Platner'^  has  described  a  sarcoph- 
agus in  the  cloister  of  Santa  Agnese  in  Rome.  On  either  end 
is  the  favorite  representation  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  ;  below,  the 
Heathen  sub-  ocean  is  symbolized  by  the  reed  and  the  water  urn,  and 
jeets  on  chns-   ^y^^  earth  by  the  horn  of  plenty.     Above,  in  the  middle 

tianmouu-  "  ,  .. 

ments.  of  the  monument,  is  a  bust  in  relief  held  by  two  cupids. 

This  bust  likeness  is  clearly  a  Christian  work  of  later  origin,  and 
represents  St.  Agnes,  whose  remains  this  sarcophagus  formerly 
preserved. 

This  curious  commingling  of  elements  is  also  noticed  in  early 
.     .         Christian  churches.     Sometimes  the  columns  separating 

Likewise  in  _  •  .  . 

Christian  the  main  from  the  side  naves  are  of  different  orders  of 

Churches.  architecture,  of  different  diameters,  and  sometimes  of 

different  materials.  Gathered  from  the  decaying  or  forsaken 
heathen  temples,  these  Avere  incorporated  into  Christian  edifices 
either  on  account  of  the  jjoverty  of  the  Church,  or  to  indicate  her 
greater  triumph.  The  churches  San  Niccolo  in  Carcere,  Santa 
Maria  in  Trastevere,  and  Santa  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  at  Rome,  are 
instructiA'e  examples  of  this  practice.  Santa  Maria  in  Trastevere,  a 
three-naved  church,  has  twenty-two  granite  columns  of  different 
heights  and  diameters,  on  whose  capitals  can  still  be  seen  sculptures 
of  Ju})iter,  Juno,  and  other  heathen  deities.  Santa  Maria  Cosmedin 
occupied  the  site  of  a  temple  Avhich  stood  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Circus  Maximus.  Built  into  the  walls  are  still  preserved  eight 
beautifully  fluted  columns  of  the  Roman  style,  whose  capitals  can 
be  seen  in  the  loft  above  the  vestibule.  Eighteen  columns  of  very 
ancient  origin  support  the  middle  nave  in  the  interior.^ 

of  Salisbury  Cathedral,  England,  which  contain  many  sculptured  stones  taken  from 
other  structures.  Also  in  filling  in  window  and  door  passages  in  tlie  Cathedral  of 
Wincliester  a  like  practice  is  noticed. 

'  Voyage  dans  k  midi  de  la  France,  t.  iii,  pp.  151-156;  PL  Ivi.  figures,  2,  3,  4, 
quoted  by  Piper,  Op.  cit.,  i,  s.  45. 

^  Beshcreihunq  Bows,  iii.  2,  s.  450.     Piper:  Op.  cif.,  i,  47. 

*Forster:  Mittd-u.  Urtteritalien,  s?.  2G4-7;i. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  63 

A  like  wsyncretism  of  pagan  and  Christian  subjects  is  found  on 
gems,  and  church  furniture,  as  chairs,  ambos,  baptismal  fonts, 
etc.  ■ 

It  was  one  purpose  of  the  early  apologists  to  trace  the  relations 
of  the  pagan  religion  to  the  Christian  along  the  line  prophecies  and 
of  prophecies  and  preparation.  In  their  controversies  preparation, 
with  heathen  opponents  they  repeatedly  insisted  that  many  of  the 
elements  of  the  popular  mytholog}'-  were  only  echoes  of  an  oi-iginal 
revelation  ;  that  the  beautiful  myths  to  Avhich  the  people  clung  so 
fondly  were  perversions  of  an  earlier  truth;  that  these  often  pointed 
to  the  time  of  deliverance  which  had  now  been  consummated  by 
their  Lord  Christ.  It  might  not  be  unreasonable  to  expect  that 
these  agreements  in  motive  might  give  rise  to  similar  art  rejjre- 
sentations.  While  some  modern  interpreters  profess  to  see  evi- 
dences of  mythological  import  in  works  of  Christian  art  where 
such  likeness  is  very  feeble,''  there  are,  nevertheless,  many  monu- 
ments in  which  such  parallelisms  of  use,  or  relation,  or  sentiment 
are  clearly  traceable.  The  translation  of  Elijah,  as  sculptured 
on  a  Christian  sarcophagus  of  the  fifth  century,  contains  a  heathen 
element  in  that  the  Jordan  is  represented  as  a  river  god.  Translation  of 
In  this  there  is  also  a  likeness  to  the  pagan  representa-  Elijah. 
tion  of  the  sun  god,  Apollo,  who  leads  in  the  day  in  his  flaming 
chariot,  while  the  ocean  is  symbolized  by  a  river  god,  and  the  earth 
by  the  horn  of  plenty.  Still  more  striking  is  the  resemblance  of 
Christ  as  the  Good  Shepherd  and  Mercury  as  the  Ram-bearer 
(/J.  Figs.  47,  48).  That  the  central  idea  is  of  Christian  origin 
appears  from  the  teaching  of  Christ  himself,  "  I  am  The  Good 
the  Good  Shepherd."  Again  he  says,  "  When  he  hath  ^^t  Ra'm-bei- 
found  it  (the  lost  sheep)  he  layeth  it  on  his  shoulders  ing  Mercury, 
rejoicing"  (Luke  xv,  5).  But  that  the  style  of  the  art  repre- 
sentation may  have  been  suggested  by  the  pagan  subject  is  highly 
probable.  It  is  not  always  easy  to  discriminate  between  the 
heathen  and  the  Christian  origin  of  monuments  which  bear  this 
symbol.  A  scientific  treatment  demands  that  all  monuments  bear- 
ing this  figure  must  not,  for  that  reason,  be  reckoned  of  Christian 
origin. 

Again,  both  the  gods  and  the  heroes  of  paganism  furnish  types 
for  Christian  art,  not  on  account  of  I'esemblance  in  nature,  but  of 

'  For  intcrcstinc:  examples  v.  Toxier  and  Pnll.ni  :  Bi/znntme  Arcln'terlnre,  London, 
1.S64,  especially  ihe  chapter  "  Pa^nn  Temples  Convert od  into  Chnrclie«.'" 

'v.  Piper:  Op.  cit,  i,  ss.  66-77,  where  an  obscnre  parallel  is  traced  lielween  the 
representation  of  the  fall  by  the  serpent,  the  apple,  and  onr  first  parents,  and  the 
dragon  watching  the  tree  and  fruit  in  tlie  Garden  of  the  Hesperides. 


64  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHItlSTIAN  ART. 

likeness  in  office.  The  introduction  of  Orplieus  into  Christian 
frescos  furnishes  an  illustration  {u.  Fig.  27).  Frequent  refer- 
Orpheus  and  ence  is  made  to  this  mythical  hero  in  the  apologetic 
Christ.  writings  of  the  Christian  fathers.     With  some  he  sug- 

gests Christ  by  contrariety  rather  than  by  likeness.  Clement  of 
Alexandria'  claims  that  Orpheus  and  others  of  his  class  were  arch- 
deceivers,  who,  under  the  pretence  of  teaching  music  and  song, 
corrupted  the  manners  of  the  people,  and  led  them  under  the 
bondage  of  idolatry  ;  while  Christ  came  to  break  the  enslaving 
yoke  which  the  demons  have  imposed  upon  the  race.  Christ 
alone  has  tamed  man,  the  wildest  beast  ;  the  bird,  the  most  incon- 
stant ;  the  reptile,  the  most  treacherous  ;  the  lion,  the  most  pas- 
sionate; the  swine,  the  most  greedy  of  enjoyment;  the  wolf,  the  most 
rapacious  ;  and  the  stones  and  clods,  the  most  insensate.  He  has 
awakened  the  seeds  of  holiness  and  virtue  in  those  who  believe  on 
him,  and  through  heavenly  song  has  changed  these  wild  beasts  into 
civilized  men. 

Eusebius''  more  usually  sj^eaks  of  Orplieus  as  a  type  of  Christ,  and 
sometimes  as  his  forerunner.  This  view  came  from  ascribing  to  this 
Orpheus  a  type  mythical  bard  the  authorship  of  the  Orphic  verses  which 
of  Christ.  were  by  many  regarded  as  containing  a  heathen  prophecy 

of  the  true  Messiah.  Again,  he  compares  the  influence  of  the  Thracian 
singer  to  that  of  Christ.  As  Orpheus  by  the  sweet  strains  of  his 
lyre  tamed  the  wild  beasts  of  the  forest,  and  even  caused  the  trees 
to  move,  so  has  the  all-harmonizing  Word  of  God,  when  it  became 
flesh,  healed  the  wild  passions  of  men  through  the  medicine  of 
heavenly  doctrine.  At  times  Orpheus  is  made  the  type  of  Christ 
Orpheus  an  ^^7  contrasting  the  different  realms  in  which  his  power 
antetype.  ^y^g  exercised,  as  when  it  is  said  that  what  Orpheus  has 

wrought  in  the  physical  and  irrational  world  has  been  completed 
by  Christ  in  the  spiritual,  and  what  Orpheus  did  by  sorcer^^  was 
done  by  Christ  through  divine  power  and  truth. 

Occasional  references  to  the  labors  of  Hercules  are  met  in  early 

Christian  monuments.     The  jiarallelism  seems  to  be  drawn  between 

the   power  of  Hercules  and  that   of   Christ   as    deliv- 

Hercules.  ^ 

erers  ot  men  from  the  thraldom  of  evil.  Also  Apollo 
and  Ju])iter  find  occasional  mention  in  connection  with  Christ. 
Another   curious    example   of   the    use    of   heathen   subjects  upon 

'  Cohort,  ad  Gentes,  c.  i,  hv6peq  -iveq  oi'x  avdpFC,  etc.  "  Certain  so-called  men,  not 
men,  but  deceivers,  who  under  tlie  pretext  of  music  corrupted  tiie  life  of  the  people," 
etc. 

^  Orat.  de  laxid.  Constan.,  c.  14.  Orpheiun  quandara  omnia  bestiaruni  genera  cantu 
deliniisse,  etc. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART. 


65 


Ohri.stiaii  sarcophagi  is  tliat  of   Ulysses  and  the  Sirens.     A  slab 
(Fig.  3)   found  in  the  crypt  of  Santa  Lucina  seems  entirely  pagan 
in  its  subject  with  the excejjtion  of  the  involved inscrip-   uiysses  and 
tion  at  the  left,  which  has  been  deciphered  TYRANIO,   ^^*^  ^ireus. 
and  is  believed  by  some  to  be  an  obscured  cross.    This  heathen  fable 


Fig.  3.— Ulysses  aud  the  Sireus.    From  the  crypt  of  Santa  Lucina,  Rome. 

is,  nevertheless,  alluded  to  by  the  early  C-hristian  writers,  aud  is 
made  to  serve  a  happy  purpose  in  the  enforcement  of  C'hristian 
fidelity  and  self-denial.' 

These  references  to  the  pagan  mythology  are  only  what  might  be 
regarded  as  antecedently  probable  from  the  intimate  accpiaintance  of 
the  Christian  fathers  with  the  pagan  systems,  and  from. the  attempt 
to  show  that  in  each  religion  was  an  element  of  truth  which  the  other 
should  respect.  More  especially  after  Christianity  became  the  state 
religion  many  admixtures  of  heathen  and  Christian  motives  are  met. 
According  to  a  law  of  spiritual  life  and  growth,  the  cessation  of 
persecution  and  opposition  brought  laxity  of  morals  and  a  decay  of 
pure  faith.  Multitudes  of  men  and  women  now  formally  professed 
Christianity,  while  little  change  was  effected  in  belief  or  life.  The 
iiiHueiice  of  classical  literature,  the  contact  with  pagan  jnflyenpgj,  art- 
customs,  and  the  appropriation  of  pagan  symbols,  now  verse  to  purity 
gave  little  offence  to  these  nominal  Christians  ;  while 
the  increasing  splendor  of  the  church  ritual  and  the  growing 
wealth  of  the  clergy  diverted  the  attention  from  the  severity  of 
•discii)line  and  the  purity  of  doctrine. 

Thus  was  the  prevalent  thought  modified  by  intercourse  with  the 
pagan  world.  Art  standards  were  likewise  changed.  The  mingling 
of  heathen  with  Christian  belief  brought  with  it  an  easy  acceptance 
of  what  was  before  regarded  as  dangerously  contami-  j^flygnpe 
nating.  It  cannot,  however,  be  supposed  that  all  monu-  upon  art  rep- 
ments  thus  transferred  from  pagan  to  Christian  uses  '■♦''**^°'^^'""- 
were  known  to  be  of  a  character  to  mislead.  Their  heathen  origin 
and  s))irit  may  not  have  been  understood,  or  they  may  have  been 
used  allegorically  by  the  Christian  teachers. 

'  Philosophumena,  vii,  i.     Clement  Alex.:   Cohort,  ad  Gent.,  c.  12. 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OP  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


Many  of   the  mythological  subjects  were  only  for   purposes  of 
decoration — as  the  heads  of  satyrs,  tragic  masks,  etc.  (Fig.  4).     Of 
like  import  and  design  must  we  regard  the  occasional  introduction  of 
"1  dolphins  (Fig.  5),  sea  monsters,  etc.     It  is 
T   not  easy  to  discover  in  these   any  sym- 
bolical significance,  and  the  attempts  to 
so  interpret  them  have  usually  involved 
violations  of  the  true  principles  of  sym- 
bolism.    Where,  however,  the  figure    of 
Apollo,   associated    with    the   cross,   ap- 
pears   upon    the    coins    of    Constantine, 
some  decora-   we  must  regard  Apollo  as  a 
live  or  typical,   symbol  of   Christ ;    or   when 
the   figure    of  Mars    appears    in   connec- 
tion with  the  sacred  monogram,  it  must 
be    considered   as   an    allegorical    repre- 
sentation of  the  Saviour. 
Fiff.  4.-A  Christian  sarcophagus     A   statue   of   Victory   was    set   up    in 
with  tragic  masks.  the  senate  chamber  by  Augustus.     Each 

senator  on  entei-ing  the  hall  offered  to  it  wine  and  incense. 
This  statue  was  the  occasion  of  a  most  persistent  struggle 
statue  of  Vic-  between  the  defenders  of  the  pagan  religion  and 
'"•■y-  the   Christian   bishops.*     The    result   was    favoral)le  to 

the  Christian    party.^     Nevertheless,  the   figure  of  Victory  is  not 


On  coins. 


Fig.  5.— From  a  Christian  sarcophagus.    Decorated  with  dolphins. 

infrequently  associated  on  Christian  monuments  with  the  cross  or 
Avith  the  sacred  monogram.  In  a  few  instances  it  is 
connected  Avith  a  bust  of  Christ  on  ivory  diptychs,  and 

on  coins  during  the  Constantinian  and  post-Constantinian  period. 

A  fine  example  of  this  is  found  on  a  gold  coin  of  Constantine  the 

'  For  a  fuller  statement,  v.  chap.  viii. 

''v.  Ambrose:  Epist.  xviii.     This  is  addressed  to  the  Emperor  Valentiniau    in 
answer  to  the  appeal  of  Symmaehus. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART. 


67 


Great,    where  Victory   liolds   in    her   hands    trophies  and  a  pahu 
branch,  while  the  inscription, 

VICTORIA  CONSTANTINI  AUG., 
encloses  a  tield  in  which  appears  the  monogram  of  Christ.  A 
bronze  coin  of  C'onstantine  bears  a  representation  of  the  emperor 
holding  in  his  right  hand  the  labarum  with  the  sacred  monogram, 
while  he  is  crowned  by  a  Victory,  and  HOC  SIGNO  VICTOR  ERIS 
is  the  inscription.'  This  syncretism  is  very  strikingly  exhibited  on 
some  coins  of  Constantius.  In  Fig.  0  the  bust  of  the  emperor 
is  on  the  obverse,  and  on  the  re- 
verse his  full  length  figure  is  seen 
on  the  ship  of  state,  holding  in 
one  hand  the  standard  (jn  which  is 
the  nF,  while  upon  the  other  hand 
perches  the  phenix,  the  symbol  of 
rejuvenation  of   the   government  Fig.  6.-coin of Constantius-si^ng  tiie  min- 

under  Constantine  and  his  sons.  Slingof  heathen  and  christian  embletns. 

This  is  further  illustrated  by  the  usual  inscription  FEL.  TEMP. 
REPARATIO,  and  by  a  Victory  wdio  is  guiding  the  state  to  its 
glorious  destination. 

A  century  and  a  quarter  later  we  iind  on  a  coin  of  Majorian  the 
imperial  ensign  crowned  with  the  cross  (Fig.  7)  ;  this  is  held  by 
the  emperor  in  one  hand,  while  on  the 
other  perches  the  figure  of  Victory. 
He  is  here  represented  as  treading  the 
dragon  under  foot,  a  not  unusual  man- 
ner of  indicating  the  triumph  of  the 
government  over  foes,  and  over  the 
discordant  elements  of  society.  On  the 
obverse  is  the  bust  of  the  emperor,  and 
the  shield  is  inscribed  with  the  ■^.  On  coins  of  the  Grreco-Roman 
empire  the  figure  of  Victory  appears  associated  with  Christian 
symbols  from  the  time  of  Constantine  to  that  of  Heraclius  I,  The 
same  commingling  of  pagan  and  Christian  elements  likewise  ap- 
pears on  the  coins  of  the  Arian  barbarian  kings,  on  those  of  the 
Fi'ankish,  the  West  Gothic,  and  Longobard  princes,  and  contimied 
thus  associated  with  Christian  emblems  until  the  ninth  century. 

We  might  antecedently  expect  that  mythological  subjects  of  an 
amatory  character  would  find  little  favor  with  the  early  Christians. 
The  positive  teachings  of  their  religion,  the  perils  often  attending 
its  profession,  and  the  general   disrepute  in  which  its  early  adher- 

'  Piper:  Op.  ciL,  i,  s.  177. 


-A  coin  of    Majorian, 
century. 


fifth 


68 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


ents  were  held,  gave  a  seriousness  to  life  little  favorable  to  the 
,    ,     ,  cultivation  of  the  more  delicate  sentiments.     Moreover, 

tory  represen-  Venus  and  Auior  stood  as  the  personiheations  of  a  pas- 
tations.  ^^^^^  whose    canker  was  eating  out  the  moral  life  of  the 

Roman  world.  With  that  vice  which  was  the  peculiar  hesetment  of 
the  converts  from  paganism,  and  against  which  Paul  speaks  so 
strongly  in  his  Corinthian  letters,  the  Christian  Church  could  make 
no  compromise.  The  suggestions  made  by  figures  of  Venus  and 
Cupid  were  peculiarly  repugnant.  Hence  early  Christian  poetry 
furnishes  scarcely  an  example  of  a  nuptial  song,  nor  until  a  com- 
paratively late  date  do  the  monuments  contain  any  reference  to  the 
erotic  deities.  They  were  but  sparingly  introduced,  and  in  most 
instances  the  genuineness  of  the  monuments  upon  which  these 
figures  appear  has  been  gravely  questioned. 

Scarcely  less  aversion  was  felt  to  Bacchic  scenes.  The  higher  sig- 
Paucity  oi  nificance  of  the  Bacchic  myth  is  occasionally  recognized 
Bacchic  scenes,  q^  sarcophagi  of  unquestioned  Christian  origin,  but 
the  paucity  of  these  monuments  plainly  indicates  the  opinion  of  the 
Church  respecting  their  influence. 

Somewhat  difi'erent,  however,  was  the  feeling  wdth  regard  to  the 
myth  of  Amor  and  Psyche.  In  this  was  veiled  a  deep  sj)iritual 
Amor  and  import.  The  fundamental  thoughts  were  the  w^anderings 
Psyche.  of  the  soul  in  this  life  as  in  a  vale  of  death,  its  trial  and 

purification,  and  the  reunion  of  the  spiritualized  wanderer  with 
eternal  love  in  the  life  to  come.     The  association  of  this  heathen 


Fig.  8.— Amor  and  Psyche.    From  Santa  Domitilla. 

fable  with  scriptural  scenes  on  burial  monuments  of  acknowledged 
Christian  origin'  (Fig.  S)  indicates  a  likeness  of  opinion  of  pagan- 

'  This  scene  has  been  variously  interpreted  by  the  arclipeolofrists.     Some  claim 
tliat  it  is  merely  decorative,  depictinj;  a  pleasing  garden  or  autiinin  scone. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART. 


FiR.  9.— Amor  and  Psyche  with  the  Good  Shepherd, 
San  Calisto,  Rome. 


ism  and  of  Christianity  with  respect  to  the  significance  of  proba- 
tion and  the  rewards  of  a  future  state.  This  is  suggested  in 
Fiff.  9,  which  is  from  the  fragment  of  a  sarcophagus,  in  relief 
sculpture,  found  in  the  ceme- 
tery of  San  Calisto,  and  now 
preserved  in  the  Lateran  Mu- 
seum at  Rome.  Amor  and 
Psyche  are  here  in  imme- 
diate association  with  the 
Good  Shepherd.  Therecan 
be  little  doubt  but  that  the 
decider  significance  of  this 
myth  is  here  intended  ;  pos- 
sibly there  is  the  further  sug- 
gestion that  the  sojourner 
here  can  be  successful  in  his 
attempt  at  purification  and 
restoration  to  the  bosom  of 
Eternal  Love  only  by  the 
merit  and  the  itrotection  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Avho,  when  he  hath 
found  the  straying  one,  layeth  it  upon  his  shoulders  and  bringeth  it 
back  to  the  fold. 

In  the  severe  criticisms  to  which  the  heathen  systems  were  sub- 
jected by  the  early  Christian  fathers,  comparisons  are  frequently 
instituted  between  the  pagan  teachings  and  the  sacred  Scriptures 
relative  to  the  agencies  that  may  be  employed  in  the  administration 
of  tlie  government  of  the  world.  Both  pagans  and  Christians  alike 
believed  in  a  realm  of  supernatural  intelligences  by  which  human 
affairs  are  influenced.  In  the  heathen  system  the  inferior  gods  and 
genii  held  a  place  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  angelic  Guardian 
hierarchy  in  the  Christian  scheme.  As  in  classical  mythol-  anpeis. 
ogy  to  each  human  being  was  assigned  a  {particular  genius,  representa- 
tive partly  of  the  ideal  man  and  partly  of  the  peculiar  gifts  and 
powers  of  the  individual,  so  in  the  writings  of  the  Christian 
fathers  the  doctrine  of  guardian  angels  was  developed  and  taught. 
These  points  of  contact  in  the  two  svstems  may  furnish 

.  ^1     .     .  '  Genii. 

one  i^eason  for  the  commmgling  on  Christian  monuments 
of  heathen  genii  with  Scripture  characters  and  scenes.  The  earlier 
view  of  the  fathers  that  the  heathen  genii  were  evil  spirits,  mes- 
sengers of  temptation  to  the  human  s<mi1,  was  afterward  modified, 
and  the  peculiar  offence  given  by  the  representation  of  genii  was  so 
far  diminished  that  from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  centuries  many 
examples  of  these,  nude  or  draped,  are  seen  upon  the  Christian  burial 


70 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


monuments  {v.  Fig.  10).  Just  how  far  these  figures  of  genii 
were  for  purj)oses  of  mere  ornament,  or  may  have  had  a  religious 
or  dogmatic  significance,  has  divided  the  opin- 
ions of  the  ablest  archa?ologists.'  To  draw  the 
line  between  the  genii  monuments  which  plainly 
represent  heathen  ideas  and  those  whereon  the 
figures  express  the  Christian  belief  in  angels  is 
not  an  easy  task. 

Besides  that  of  Orpheus,  to  which  reference 
has  already  been  made,  other   heathen  myths 
were  widely   appropriated    by   the    Christian 
fathers  in  the  exposition  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
in  the  illustration  of  doctrine.     Among  these 
the  phenix  played  an  important  role.    The  later 
version  of  this  fable  was  most  com- 
monly used  by  the  Christian  apol- 
ogist, and  its  representation  is  met  with  on  Chris- 
tian monuments.    Artemidorus  says  that  when  it 
is  about  to  die  the  phenix  comes  from  unknown 
parts  to   Egypt,  and  liuilds  a  funeral  pile  of 
frankincense  and  myrrh.     From  its  ashes  comes 
■^'=^ivs^u    ^    -r     a  worm,  from  which  arises  another  phenix  that 
i'-V   ,   AJ^  5?     then  leaves  Egypt  to    return  to  its  unknoAvn 

home.  Thus  in  this  fabled  creature  the  two 
ideas  of  immortality  and  perpetual  rejuvenation 
were  united.  On  the  coins  and  other  monu- 
ments of  the  empire  since  the  time  of  Hadrian 
this  figure  is  the  symbol  of  the  returning  golden 
age,^  of  the  apotheosis  and  immortality  of  the 


The  phenix. 


'  Grousset:  Etude  sur  VEistoire  des  SarcopJiages  Chretiens, 
Paris,  1885,  8vo,  has  given  a  catalogue  and  description  of 
one  linndred  and  ninet3'-five  Christian  sarcophagi  found  in 
Rome  otitside  of  the  collection  in  tiie  Lateran  Museum. 
On  man}-  oftliese  is  noticed  the  commingling  of  Christian 
and  pagan  motives.  Indeed,  in  many  instances  the  Christ- 
ian character  of  the  sarcophagus  is  determined  solely  In'  its 
inscripiion,  while  the  art  and  the  decorations  are  in  iio  way 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  heathen  sarcophagi  of  the 
same  period.  Vintage  scenes,  genii  of  the  seasons,  Cupids  nude  or  draped,  Hercules j 
with  lion's  skin  (No.  5),  genii  holding  the  inverted  torch  (the  pagan  symbol  of  death) 
etc.,  appear  especially  on  those  sarcophagi  that  are  believed  to  belong  to  the  third! 
century.  See  also  Matz  und  v.  Duhn :  Antike  Bildwerke  in  Rom,  and  Garrucci  :j 
Storia  delV  Art  cristiana. 
«  V.  Fig.  6. 


RELATIONS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  TO  ART.  71 

rulers,  and  of  the  eternal  duration  of  the  Roman  ijovernment.  The 
fable  had  also  found  its  way  into  Jewish  literature.  Occasionally 
the  Christian  fathers  thereby  illustrated  the  story  of  the  creation, 
but  usually  it  was  (juoted  in  defence  of  the  peculiarly  Christian 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection.  In  the  first  century  Clement  of  Rome 
uses  this  argument.  It  is  also  found  in  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions, in  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  Epiphanius.  The  Latin 
fathers  were  equally  i-eady  to  use  this  fable.  Tertullian  argued 
from  the  lesser  value  of  the  })henix  to  the  greater  value  of  mankind; 
that  if  the  former  thus  rises  from  its  own  ashes  to  a  new  and  youth- 
ful vigor  it  cannot  be  unreasonable  to  expect  that  God  will  care 
for  those  whom  he  created  in  his  own  image.  In  like  manner 
argued  Ambrose,  Augustine,  and  Rutinus.  Aml)rose  (pioted  the 
rising  of  the  phenix  as  analagous  to  the  supernatural  a  symbol  of 
begetting  of  Christ  without  father,  and  Rutinus  referred  t|ie  resurrec- 
to  the  renewing  of  the  phenix  and  its  producing  itself 
from  itself  as  a  sufficient  answer  to  the  heathen  who  ridiculed  the 
story  of  the  birth  of  Christ  from  a  virgin.' 

The  artistic  representation  of  this  fable  is  sometimes  met  on  the 
coins  of  Christian  emperors  and  on  other  Christian  monuments. 
It  is  associated  Avith  the  palm-tree  or  the  palm  branch  on  sarco])h- 
agi  plainly  of  Christian  origin,  in  mural  paintings,  and  in  Church 
mosaics  (Fig.  42)  of  later  origin.  In  nearly  all  these  examples  the 
same  ruling  thought  is  recognised;  namely,  the  resurrection  from 
tlie  dead  and  life  beyond  the  grave.* 

These  few  examples,  chosen  from  a  wide  cycle,  illustrate  the 
intimate  connection  of  heathen  and  Christian  thought,  and  the 
corresponding  influence  upon  Christian  ai't  as  seen  in  surviving 
monuments. 

'  Ambrose:  Psa.   !xviii,  serm.  19,  c.  11.  Rufinus:  Comment,  in  Symb.  Apost.,  c.  11, 
quoted  hy  Piper:  .'  ■ylli.  d.  christ.  Kunst,  Bd.  i,  s  455. 
'■'  Miiater:  Sinnbilder,  etc.,  Heft,  i,  ss.  94-97. 


72  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRIST!. \N  ART. 


CHAPTER  HI. 

r  SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

'  §  L  General  Frinciples. 

A  SYMBOL  is  the  outward  sign   of  a  coiicei)t  or  idea.     It  is  tlie 

visible,  sensuous  veil  of  that  which  is  unseen  and  spiritual.'     It  is 

used  not  for  its  own  sake,  but  to  bring  to  mind  some- 

Deflmtion.  '  ^. 

tiling  not  sensuously  present  as  though  it  were  present. 
Originally  it  was  more  specially  limited  to  the  cycle  of  religious 
thought,  and  served  for  the  illustration   of  divine-human  relations.'^ 

All  sensuous  things  to  which  a  higher  meaning,  aside  from  the 
natural  significance,  is  attributed,  are  symbols.^  All  religions  are 
measurably  symbolic  in  character.  The  expression  of  spiritual 
truths  and  abstract  notions  by  analogous  phenomena  in  the  physical 
world  has  been  common  to  all  peoples  and  religions.  To  commu- 
nicate these  conceptions  to  others,  and  fix  them  by  the  laws  of 
associaCion,  it  is  necessary  to  give  to  them  formal  expression. 
Hence  the  successful  teaching  of  the  doctrines  of  a  religion  must  in 
some  sense  involve  symbolism.^ 

This  was  the  favorite  method  employed  by  Christ  to  initiate  the 
Used  by  Christ  tlisciples  into  the  deeper  mysteries  of  his  kingdom.^ 
and  his  apos-  The  writings  of  the  apostles  and  of  the  early  Christian 
^^'  fathers  aliound  in  symbolic  expressions  which  were  de- 

signed to  arrest  the  attention  of  those  whom  they  addressed,  and 
more  powerfully  to  impress  the  lessons  which  they  would  teach. 
Also  practised  What  was  tlius  practised  in  language  fCaine  likewise 
in  art.  common  in  art  representation.     To  gu?' iM  the  heathen 

converts  on  the  one  hand  against  idolatiy,  and  on  the  other  against 

'  Bahr:  Symholik  des  mosaischen  Gultus,  Bd.  i,  s.  15. 

"^  Creuzer:  Symholik  u.  Mythologie,  Bd.  i,  ss.  32-42. 

^  Diirsch  :   Der  symbnlische  Character  der  christliclien  Religion  v.  Kmist,  s.  8. 

•*  Hence  the  use  of  the  word  symbol  to  e.\press  the  formulated  belief  of  a  religious 
parly. 

5  "  His  example  was  helpful  in  giving  direction  to  the  thought  of  the  believers  of 
the  early  centuries.  To  a  great  degree  symbolism  was  found  in  the  mysteries  of  all 
ancient  religions.  It  also  supplied  a  secret  password  whereby  communication 
became  more  free  than  otherwise  were  possible.  The  intellectual  mysticism  of  that 
ago  also  greatly  contributed  to  the  same  end."  Roller:  Les  Catarombe-i  de  Borne,  vol. 
i,  p.  .38. 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART.  73 

the  pernicious  effects  of  tlie  Docetic;  heresy,  early  Cliristian  art  be- 
took itself  to  synibolisin,  l)y  whose  aid  the  deeper  truths  and  mys- 
teries of  the  religion  could  be  more  effectually  impressed  upon  the 
masses  of  the  people.  Thus  in  art  as  well  as  in  language  the 
symbol  was  the  means  of  revealing  the  higher  spiritual  reality.^ 
Herein  Christian  art  resembled  the  later  Roman,  which  seldom 
represented  objects  literally,  but  employed  visible  forms  to  express 
abstract  notions.  ■' 

Since  art  symbols  address  the  beholder  in  a  language  peculiar  to 
themselves,  the  relation  l)etween  the  idea  and  its  symbol  symbdis  not 
must  not  be  merely  fortuitous  or  arbitrary,  but  must  be  arbitiaiy. 
sucli  that  the  one  suggests  the  other  ;  and  while  the  connection 
may  not  be  independently  discoverable  by  all,  it  will  be  imme- 
diately recognised  when  ex})lained.  The  outwai'd  form  must  be 
developed  from  the  inner  sjjirit,  whose  expression  and  symbol 
it  is.' 

Likewise  the  interpretation  of  art  symbolism  recpiires  good 
judgment  and  caution,  lest  unworthy  and  misleading  conclusions 
be  accepted,  and  the  symbolism  of  early  Christian  c  a  u  t  i  o  n  in 
art  thus  become  a  wild  maze  of  contradiction  and  interprciation. 
absurdity.  Its  interpretation  should  not  be  arbitrary  or  Avhim- 
sical,  nor  should  it  l)ecome  a  stage  for  the  display  of  baseless 
fancies.  Symbols  appeal  to  the  sober  reason  rather  than  to 
tlie  lesthetic  feeling  or  to  the  imagination.  Hence  all  the  aids  of 
history  and  of  literature,  as  well  as  of  art,  must  be  brought  to  their 
C()rrect  interpretation.  A  single  historical  reference,  contemporary 
with  the  symbol  to  be  explained,  is  often  of  greater  value  than 
all  the  ingenious  speculations  of  learned  critics.  Familiarity  with 
the  cycle  of  the  thouglit  of  an  age  and   with  its  tendencies  and 

'"  Litrlit  becomes  the  symbol  of  intellcotiial  clearness :  the  murky  and  becloiidecl 
.•itmosplicre,  of  a  troubled  spirit;  water,  of  bodily  purification  and  spiritual  reji-eucr- 
ation;  tlie  circle,  or  the- serpent  lioldiui;  its  tail  in  its  mouth,  of  eternal  duration;  the 
tree,  as  it  puts  fortli  its  verdure,  (leca}'S,  and  blooms  again,  of  the  changing  seasons; 
the  engendering  bull  and  ram.  of  (renerative  and  creative  power;  the  cow  or  the 
matron  with  many  breasts,  of  the  all-nourisliing  power  of  nature;  the  butterfly, 
bursting  forth  from  the  entombed  chrysalis,  of  the  resurrection."  v.  Carriere :  Die 
Knnst  in  Zus>immenliomg  mit  dfr  Culim'geschichtf,  Bd.  i,  ss.  70-72. 

^  Kugler:    Gasrhichte  der  Makrei. 

'Jacob:  Die  Knmt,  in  Dienste  d/r  Kirche,  ss.  16,  17.  v.  Heinrich  Ottc:  Kiinst- 
archaidoijie  des  deutschen  Mittdalters,  4te  Aufl.,  1868,  s.  i,  etc.  "Art  is  tlie  appro- 
priate representation  of  an  idea  in  sensuous  form.  To  completely  represent  Cliristian 
ideas  under  sensuous  forms  is  absulutely  unattainable :  lience  tlie  symbolic  character 
of  nil  Christian  art  and  tlie  necessity  of  faith  as  a  condition  of  its  true  understanding 
and  interpretation.'' 


74  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

spirit  is  needful  for  correctly  interpreting  its  art  symbolism.  The 
work  is  greatly  aided  when  a  considerable  number  of  references  to 
the  symbol  can  be  found  in  the  contemporary  literature.  It  is, 
therefore,  a  canon  of  interpretation  that  the  literary  references 
be  carefully  considered.  By  comparing  the  works  of  Christian 
symbolism  with  each  other,  with  those  of  the  contemporary 
Canons  of  in-  heathen  art,  and  both  of  these  with  the  holy  Scriptures, 
terpretation.  tlie  writings  of  the  Christian  fathers,  and  with  the 
related  inscriptions  and  literature  of  the  times,  most  satisfactory 
results  will  be  readied.  Hence  a  second  canon  of  interpretation  is 
that  the  sense  must  be  accepted  which  best  accords  Avith  these 
results  of  comparative  study.' 

Happily,  in  many  instances  the  coincidences  are  so  numerous  and 
important  that  the  interpretation  is  clearl}^  manifest  ;  in  others 
it  may  be  doubtful ;  while  in  still  others  opinions  of  the  significance 
of  the  symbol  may  be  absolutely  contradictory.  For  the  interests 
of  both  art  and  religion,  in  these  latter  cases  it  is  wise  to  susj)end 
judgment  until  further  discoveries,  rather  than  to  press  doubtful 
monuments  and  interpi-etations  into  the  service  of  any  preconceived 
theory. 

Christian  archreologists  may  be  divided  into  schools  according  to 
their  opinions  of  the  originality  of  early  Christian  art,  and  of  the 
design  of  the  various  works  which  are  found  in  the  Christian  cata- 
combs and  elsewhere. 

One  school  holds  that  the  art  works  of  the  catacombs  Avere  })re- 
pared  under  the  direction  of  ecclesiastics  for  the  purpose  of  incul- 
cating a  definite  system  of  Christian  doctrine.  They  are,  therefore, 
to  be  regarded  as  strictly  of  a  symbolic  character,  whose  signifi- 
cance was  understood  by  the  initiated  of  the  Christian  Church,  but 
was  veiled  from  profane  eyes.  According  to  this  theory  the  clergy 
were  the  real  artists,  while  they  who  executed  the  works  Avere  mere 
artisans  who  had  jio  part  in  their  origination.  Even  Avliere  the 
presence  of  purely  decoratiA'e  elements  is  undenial^le,  and  tliese 
have  plainly  been  deri\'ed  from  classic  art,  little  inquiry  is  made 
respecting  the  probable  influence  of  the  heathen  cycle  of  thought 
upon  the  Christian,  but  the  symbolic  and  dogmatic  character  of 
these  monuments  is  strenuously  maintained.  This  class  of  Avriters 
is  entirely  consistent  ;  for  if  the  purely  symbolic  character  of  the 
remains  is  conceded,  their  dogmatic  purpose  must  folloAV,  since  it  is 
hardly  conceivable  that  the  Cliristian  artificers  could  have  had  the 
ability  or  the  purpose  to  Avork  out  a  consistent  cycle  of  Christian 
symbolism.  If,  therefore,  it  is  maintained  that  the  origin  of  these 
'  Kraus:  Roma  Sotierranea,  ss.  200,  201. 


I 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART.  75 

works  must  be  found  in  a  desire  to  teacli  the  doctrines  of  the 
Church  to  the  initiated — that  they  were  a  sort  of  biblia  pauperum — 
then  nuist  their  symbolic  character  be  conceded.' 

TJie  ])Osition  of  a  second  school  is  Avell  defined  1»y  Ilasenclever: 
"  The  art  work  found  on  and  in  Christian  burial  monuments  is  es- 
sentially decorative,  not  symbolic.  But  whatever  of  a  sj^mbolic  char- 
acter is  connected  with  them  first  originated  from  an  association  of 
figures  which  were  already  widely  known  and  used  with  Christian 
ideas.  These  figures  created  the  symbolism,  but  the  ])urpose  to  use 
a  symbolism  did  not  originate  the  figures."'^  It  is  as  unhistorical  to 
sunder  the  connection  of  the  symbolism  of  the  early  Christian  burial 
monuments  from  that  of  the  contemporary  heathen  monumcMts  as 
to  sunder  the  whole  cycle  of  Christian  art,  the  entire  Christian 
civilization,  and  even  the  very  origin  of  Christianity  itself  from 
its  connection  with  the  intellectual,  aesthetic,  and  moral  develop- 
ment of  the  non-Christian  world. ^  This  principle,  eminently  just 
in  itself,  has,  hoAvever,  insensibly  blinded  the  eyes  of  its  defenders 
to  certain  historical  facts,  or,  at  least,  has  led  them  to  underrate 
their  value.  There  has  resulted  a  general  denial  of  the  originality 
of  Christian  art  works,  and  a  depreciation  of  the  biblical  cycle 
of  events  as  the  source  of  much  of  the  early  Christian  .symbolism. 
This  school  has  erred  by  its  lacks,  as  has  the  former  l)y  its 
excesses. 

As  in  most  other  controverted  questions,  sound  criticism  sug- 
gests the  happy  via  raecUa.  The  more  moderate  school  recognises 
the  influence  of  contemporary  heathen  thought,  and  yet  does  not 
disregard  the  powerful  influence  of  the  biblical  history,  nor  deny  to 
the  early  Church  a  measure  of  symbolic  art  origination." 

'  To  this  school  belono;  de  Rossi  and  most  of  those  wlio  have  made  his  Rorwi. 
S'ltt'rraneu  the  source  and  tbundation  of  their  investigations.  Wliilc  a  most  admir- 
able scientific  spirit  has -characterized  the  great  master,  de  Rossi,  others  have  pushed 
tlieir  theory  to  the  wildest  extremes,  and  have  endeavored  to  use  this  symbolism 
not  only  for  apologetic,  but  even  partisan,  purposes.  This  is  conspicuous  in  the 
works  of  Garrucci,  especiall}'  in  his  last  and  greatest  work,  Storia  dtlT  arte  crMiana, 
Prato,  1873,  e^sei?.  6  vols.  See  also  Martigny :  Dictionnaire  des  AniiquUes  chre(i>;nnes, 
'2d  ed.   Paris,  1877. 

•'  />(-/•  (dtchristlicJie  Grabersclimuck,  Braunschweig,  1886,  s.  2G0. 

•'  To  this  school  belong  Raonl-Rochette,  Parker,  and  oihers. 

■•  In  this  class  of  writers  may  be  placed  Piper,  who  has  done  so  much  to 
ecnpliasize  the  influence  of  tlie  classical  mytliology  upon  early  Christian  art,  yet 
has  given  the  Church  due  credit  for  symbolic  origination.  Also  Victor  Schultze, 
who  lias  assailed  the  extreme  claims  of  tlie  first  scliool,  yet  may  not  have  been 
consistent  in  all  his  interpret-.itions,  belongs  to  this  more  moderate  school.  Roller 
has  aimed  at  the  same  results,  but  is  sometimes  lacking  in  unity,  and  seems  at  times 
confused. 


76  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

§  2.   ChrUt. 

No  authentic  portrait  of  Christ  has  been  preserved  to  our  time. 
Whether  such  ever  existed  is  a  matter  of  serious  question.'  The 
No  portrait  of  circumstances  of  his  earthly  ministry  were  entirely 
Christ  extant,  unfavorable  to  his  portraiture.  Neither  the  social 
i-ank  of  his  family,  the  character  of  his  first  disciples,  the  re- 
ception which  his  doctrine  met,  nor  the  spirit  of  the  religion 
which  he  founded,  would  warrant  the  presumption  that  any  au- 
thentic likeness  of  Christ  could  ever  have  been  produced.  Indeed, 
all  literal  representation  of  its  Founder  seems  to  have  been 
avoided  by  the  Church  of  the  first  three  centuries.  His  person, 
life,  and  ofiice  were  concealed  under  symbols  which  were  especially 
valued  by  those  whom  persecution  and  a  common  interest  united  by 
still  firmer  ties  of  friendship,  and  whose  significance  was  understood 
only  by  the  initiated. 

Among  the  earliest  and  most  frequently  recurring  symbols  is  the 
lamb.     It  is  found  on   mosaics,  is  associated  with    in- 

The  lamb.  .      .  ,       •    ,  i     •         i  •      i     i 

scriptions  on  burial  monuments,  and  is  chiseled  on 
sarcophagi,  or  painted  on  walls  of  the  catacombs.  Both  the  char- 
acter and  Avork  of  Christ  are  shadowed  forth  under  this  form. 
The  mention  of  it  is  so  frequent,  both  in  Scripture  and  in  the 
writings  of  the  early  Christian  fathers,  that  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  its  reference  and  significance.  Such  passages  as  Isa.  liii,  7  ; 
John  i,  29  ;  1  Pet.  i,  19  ;  Rev.  v,  6,  8,  12  ;  Rev.  xiii,  8,  and  many 
others  are  decisive.  Moreover,  the  representation  of  the  lamb  in 
connection  with  the  cross,  with  the  A  S2,  or  with  the  monogram  of 
Christ,  -^  ^  further  confirms  these  references.  It  is  found  upon  sar- 
cophagi of  marble,  and  in  the  mosaics  which  adorn  the  triumphal 
arches  and  apses  of  the  ancient  churches.  Sometimes  the  lamb 
stands  upon  the  summit  of  a  hill  from  which  issue  four  streams, 
at  whose  base  a  number  of  sheep  are  found.*  This  seems  to  have 
reference  to  Psa.  ii,  6,  and  to  Ezek.  xliii,  12,  where  the  king  is 
in  his  holy  hill,  and  Avhere   "  u))on   the  top  of  the  mountain  the 

'  The  traditions  of  the  painting  of  portraits  of  tlie  Saviour  by  St.  Lul<e  are  of  late 
origin,  and  wholly  lack  foundation.  Evagrius  of  the  sixth  century,  the  last  contiu- 
uator  of  Eusehins's  history,  is  tiie  first  who  mentions  the  portrait  of  Christ  which 
the  Saviour  is  said  to  have  sent  to  Abgar,  prince  of  Edessa.  While  the  tradition  is 
much  older  than  the  sixth  century,  it  is  entirely  untrustworthy.  The  legend  of  St. 
Veronica  is  of  still  later  origin.  Also  the  statue  of  Christ,  which  was  set  up  at 
Cajsarea  Philippi,  was  described  by  Eusebius  from  a  mere  local  tradition.  Of  no 
greater  value  is  the  description  of  Christ's  personal  appearance  attributed  to  Len- 
tulus,  a  reputed  contemporary  of  Pontius  Pilate,  in  his  letter  to  the  Roman  Senate, 

'■^  V.  Fig.  42.     In  the  lower  zone  of  this  mosaic  this  scene  is  depicted. 


SYMBOLISM   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART.  77 

whole  limit  thereof  round  about  shall  be  most  holy,"  or  to  Rev. 
vii,  17,  where  the  "Lamb  whicli  is  in  the  midst  of  tlie  throne  shall 
feed  tliem,  and  shall  lead  them  unto  living  fountains  of  water." 
The  streams  are  usually  interpreted  as  either  tlie  four  rivers  which 
flow  from  ])aradise,  or  as  the  four  evangelists,  and  the  shee]»  as 
the  members  of  Christ's  Church.  This  symbol,  with  a  variety 
of  accompaniments,  continued  in  the  Church  until  its  further  use 
was  forbidden  by  the  Trullan  Council  at  t'Onstantinople,  A,  D. 
692.  The  prohibition  seems  to  have  been  occasioned  by  prohibited  in 
tlie  mystical,  extravagant,  and  misleading  role  which  '^he  East. 
it  then  played.  The  Western  Church,  however,  did  not  accept  the 
decision,  and  the  laml>  continued  to  be  used  in  ecclesiastical  art 
until  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  and  in  connection  with  continued  use 
tlie  crucifix  (as  in  the  Agnus  Dei)  long  remained  an  '"  ^^^^  ^^^**''" 
ol)ject  of  reverence  in  the  Latin  Church. 

Of  fre(pient  recurrence  on  Christian  monuments,  and  of  even 
deeper  symbolic  and  dogmatic  significance,  is  the  fish. 
It  is  among  the  earliest  art  forms,  and  pertains  to  the 
period  of  church  history  which  causes  it  to  be  among  the  most 
interesting  and  imi[)ortant  ol)jects  in  the  whole  range  of  Christian 
symbolism.  It  can  be  studied  on  monuments  that  bear  the  simple 
word  'IxOvg,  and  on  those  which  have  its  pictorial  representation. 
The  interpretation  of  the  symbol  is  determined  by  its  age,  its  asso- 
ciations, and  the  testimony  of  the  early  fathers.  De  Rossi  has  di- 
vided the  Christian  inscriptions  at  Rome  prior  to  the  seventh  century 
into  two  general  classes,  namely:   L  The  subterranean,   ^ 

•^  .  .  Two  classes  of 

whicli  are  the  oldest.    2.  Those  which  are  found  in  church   christian     in- 

burial  places  above  the  surface,  especially  in  and  near   ^''"^  '°"^' 

basilicas.^    The  latter  class  belongs  for  the  most  part  to  the  post- 

Constantine  period.     At   the   time   of   Constantine  the  catacombs 

were  generally  used  for  Christian  bni-ial.    Between  the  years  A.  D.  838 

and  A.  D.  864  two  thirds  of   all    interments  were   still    ,  .         .     . 

Interment     in 

made  in  them.     From  A.  I).  ;{64  to  A.  D.  869  the  num-   the  oatacomhs 

bers  buried  in  the  catacombs  and  elsewhere  were  about   '"' ^"""'• 

equal.     On  account  of  the  restoration  of  the  catacombs  by  the  zeal 

of  Pope  Damasus,  from  A.  D.  870  to  A.  D.  871  burial  therein  again 

became  almost  universal.     From  A.  D.  878  to  A.  I).  400   The     iwuhus 

oidv  about  one  third  were  there  buried;  while  with  the   ™on"",'ents 

pre-Constan- 
year  A.   D.  41 0  these   })laces  of  interment  ceased  to  be   tine. 

used.     Of  the  monuments  found  at  Rome,  which  bear  this  syml)ol, 

very  few    (probably  none  at  all)   belong  to  the  second  class,  and, 

therefore,  cannot  be  regarded  as  of  a  later  origin  than  the  beginning 

of  the  fifth  century.     I'he  symbolical  /cV/Mz/.s' is  associated  with  none 


78  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

of  the  hundreds  of  inscriptions  found  upon  the  extra-catacombal 
monuments  in  and  near  tlie  basilicas  of  Rome.' 

From  tlie  great  difference  in  the  number^  of  monuments  bearing 
an  exact  date  before  and  after  the  time  of  Constantine,  from  tlie 
form  of  the  letters,  and  from  the  character  of  the  associated  inscrip- 
De  Rossi's  tions  and  paintings,  de  Rossi  concludes  that  most  of  the 
conclusion.  Jchthus  monuments  belong  to  a  time  either  before  or  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  this  emperor.  The  figure  is  met  on  monuments  of 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  but  it  had  then  lost  the  dogmatic  sig- 
nificance which  was  attached  to  it  during  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries,  and  is  used  rather  for  ornamental  than  s_ymbolical  pur- 
poses. From  a  variety  of  considerations  it  is  believed  that  its 
peculiar  and  general  use  fell  in  the  period  when  the  persecuted 
Church  Avas  compelled  to  express  its  faith  under  forms  and  symbols 
which  were  unmeaning  to  their  enemies,  yet  Avere  well  understood 
by  the  initiated  who  were  participants  in  the  holy  sacraments. 

But  what  truth  is  conveyed  under  this  strange  symbol  ?  The 
itssisnifl-  discovery  by  de  Rossi,  in  1865,  of  anew  part  of  the 
cance.  cemetery  of  Santa  Domitilla  at  Rome  was  further  con- 

firmatory of  the  opinion  before  held  by  many  archseologists. 
Tlij-ough  a  vestilnile  of  severest  classic  style  the  visitor  passes  along 
a  broad  entrance,  somcAvhat  inclined,  from  which  small  chambers 
and  side  passages  extend  to  the  right  and  left.  The  ceilings  con- 
tain paintings  which,  from  their  simplicity  and  naturalness,  point  to 
an  origin  prior  to  the  time  of  Roman  art  decadence.  De  Rossi  has 
Cemetery  of  "^t  hesitated  to  place  the  frescos  of  this  })art  of  the 
Domitilla.  cemetery  in  the  time  of  Domitilla,  that  is,  at  the  close 

of  the  first  century,  or,  at  latest,  in  the  first  part  of  the  second. 
On  the  walls  of  this  portion  of  the  catacomb  are  found  the  mutilated 
remains  of  a  fresco,  represented  by  Fig.  11,  to  which  careful  atten- 
tion should  be  directed.  We  notice  two  persons  sitting  upon  a 
Tlie  important  coucli  ;  before  them  is  a  table  of  the  ordinary  Roman 
fresco.  type,  upon   which  lie  three  loaves  of  bread  and  a  fish. 

A  person,  apparently  a  servant,  is  standing  near  by.  The  repre- 
sentation plainly  suggests  to  every  one  a  meal.  It  corresponds 
quite  closely  with  similar  scenes  depicted  on  the  graves  of  heathen 

'  The  seeming  exceptions  to  this  statement  appear  to  have  belonged  originally  to 
the  catacombs,  and  to  have  been  removed  to  churches  for  purposes  of  ornament  or 
on  account  of  their  peculiar  sanctity. 

'■*  Of  the  pre-Constantine  period  only  about  thirty  dated  inscriptions  from  Rome 
have  been  preserved,  while  of  the  post-Constantine  prior  to  the  seventh  century 
more  than  thirteen  hundred  survive.  But  none  of  the  inscriptions  after  tlie  fourth 
century  bear  the  symbol  of  the  fish. 


J 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


79 


families.  But  the  tish  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence  on  non- 
Christian  burial  monuments.  In  such  cases  it  js  the  symbol  of 
extreme  luxury  which  came  to  be  associated  only  with  royalty  or 
the  favored  few.  The  conclusion  reached  is  that  the  two  sitting 
figures  represent  two  persons  who  were  buried  in  this  catacomb,  and 


Fijr.  11.— Supposed  eucharistic  scene.    Fresco  from  the  widest  part  of  Santa  Domitilla,  Rome. 

that  before  us  is  a  scene  from  their  every-day  life.  The  fish  on  the 
l)urial  monuments  of  the  Christians  cannot  comport  with  the  idea 
of  luxury  ;  hence,  we  must  interpret  it  in  accordance  with  the 
opinion  which  the  Christian  fathers  had  long  entertained,  namely, 
that  this  must  be  the  symbol  of  Christ.  'Irjoovg  Xpiarog  Qeov  Tldg 
2a)T7/p  is  the  confession  of  faith  whose  initial  letters  form  this  word 
which  is  so  frequently  met,  and  whose  pictorial  representation  is 
set'ii  in  the  case  before  u.s.  The  meal  here  celebrated  must  be 
regarded  as  having  a  eucharistic  significance  ;  the  table  The  conclusion 
of  the  householder  becomes  the  tabje  of  the  Lord,  and  reached, 
the  proper  priestly  character  of  each  private  Christian  is  here 
asserted.  Herein  is  fulfilled  the  prophecy  (Tsa.  Ixi,  0)  of  the  old 
dispensation  as  it  was  witnessed  and  aftirmed  by  the  apostles  of  tlu* 
new'  (1  Pet.  ii,  5,  9).     The  growth  of  the  literature  suggests  a  like 

'  Only  by  carefully  distinguishing  the  God  of  the   priesthood  from  tlie  God  of 

prophecy,  in  ancient  Judaism;  and  by  clearly  discriminating  l)etween  Christianity 

as  it  was  founded  by  Jesus  and  is  contained  in  the  New  Testament,    ,   ,  . 

-  ,      ^„        ,      / ,       .  ^  rr,   ■     1  •  -I  ^       .  ,      /.  1,    Judaism    a  n  d 

irom  the  Church  oi  the  tunes  of  rercullian  and  Cyprian,  can  the  full    christiani- 

force  of  this  argument  be  felt.  In  the  new  kingdom  of  heaven  sacer-  ^v  compared  in 
dotalism  was  absolutely  ignored  by  Jesus  and  by  his  apostles.  It  is  historical  de- 
as  little  recognised  by  the  apostolic  fathers,  .Justin  Martyr,  Ignatius, 
and  Polycarp.  Till  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  Christianity  corresponded  both 
in  idea  and  spirit  to  the  Judaism  of  prophecy — the  entire  sanctified  people  consti- 
tuting a  holy  priesthood  unto  God.  After  tlie  beginning  of  the  third  centur)'  the 
idea  and  form  of  sacerdotal  Judaism  which  afterward  characterized  the  Latin  Church 
were  revived. 


80  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

result.  Prior  to  the  fourth  century  this  explanation  of  the  symbol 
The  Jiterary  is  infrequent,  and  then  is  mentioned  in  very  obscure 
conflrmation.  terms  ;  but  toward  the  end  of  the  fourth  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  many  undoubted  references 
to  it  are  met  in  the  writings  of  the  Christian  fathers,'  These 
remove  all  doubt  of  the  interpretation  and  dogmatic  significance  of 
the  symbol.  The  'IXOTS  is  plainly  Christ.  No  other  explanation 
is  suggested  by  these  Avriters.  It  is  met  in  the  eighth  book  of 
the  Sibylline  oracles  (ver.  217-250).  The  unknown  author  of 
The  sibylline  this  I'emarkable  acrostic  has  by  some  been  assigned 
prophecy.  j^^  ^jjg  e„,|  ^f  ^j^^  second  century  or  to  the   beginning 

of  the  third.''  It  has  been  conjectured  that  he  derived  the 
sentiment  of  the  prophecy,  as  well  as  the  suggestion  of  its 
acrostic  form,  from  the  creed  then  accepted,  and  from  the  initial 
letters  of  this  'IXOTS  which  was  in  common  use  by  the  perse- 
cuted Church.^  This  article  of  faith,  so  fundamental  and  yet 
so  much  a  subject  of  derision  and  stumbling  on  the  part  of  tlie 
heathen  world,  was  concealed  under  a 
word  whose  pictorial  representation  after- 
ward played  an  important  role  in  the  sym- 
bolism of  the  Church.  Whenever  this 
word  or  the  figure  of  the  fish  should  be 
seen,  whether  rudely  scratched  in  the 
fresh  mortar  upon  the  stones  that  closed      rig.  is.-xhe  ash  associated  witn 

.1  -^1,1  other  Christian   symbols.   From  an 

the   graves   in    the  catacombs,   or  more   early  christian  sarcophagus. 
elaborately  chiseled  in  figure  in  connec- 
tion with  other  symbols  and  inscriptions  [v.  Fig.  12),*  or  engraved 
upon  gems  in  signet  rings,  or  for  purposes  of  ornament,  in  all  alike 
was   recognised   this  in'ccious  doctrine   of  their  faith  : 

Conclusion.  t     .t  -    ^'    t  ^,i      •  ^     ^      ~        r    r^      ^ 

I,  l7]aovg,  Jesus  ;  X,  Xpiorog,  Christ  ;  9,  Qeov,  of  Crod  ; 
T,  'Tiog,  Son  ;  Sw-T/p,  Saviour — Jesus  Christ,  Son  op  God 
Saviour. 

'  Becker :  Die  Darstdluivj  Jesu  CItristi  U7iter  dem  Bilde  des  Fisches.  Breslau, 
]  866.  Pitra :  Spidlegiuvi  Solesmense,  vol.  iii,  under  the  article  'IXOi'i,  where 
very  full  references  to  the  Christian  fathers  are  given. 

^  This  collection  of  writings  evidently  contains  an  admixture  of  Jewish,  pagan, 
and  Cliristiau  thought.  Tlie  subjects  referred  to,  as  the  golden  age,  the  future  for- 
tunes of  the  imperial  city,  tlie  coming  of  a  Saviour,  etc..  show  a  diverse  authorship. 
For  literature  of  the  subject  v.  Schiirer  :  Die  neuete.if.  ZeitgeschicJde,  s.  513. 

^  Becker:   Op.  cit,  s.  14. 

■*  V.  Becker:  Op.  cit,  No.  71,  ss.  62-64.  "While  the  inscription  on  the  monument 
points  to  a  heathen  origin,  Becker  and  de  Rossi  have  shown  that  it  belongs  to  the 
highest  Christian  antiquity.  The  association  of  the  fish  with  other  symbols  of  man- 
ifestly Christian  character  go  far  to  fix  its  reference  and  signification. 


I 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


81 


Other  mural  paintings  from  the  catacombs  at  Rome  and  elsewhere 
confirm  the  correctness  of  this  interpretation.  Some  of  them  bear 
unmistakable  evidence  of  the  eucharistic  character  of  the  feast,  in 
which  the  fish  is  the  central  figure.' 

Among  the  most  instructive  is  the  series  of  frescos  from  the 
Catacomb  of  San  Calisto — that  portion  called  the  "  Chamber  of  the 
Sacraments "  (Fig.  13),    On  the  left  of  the  central  scene  "we  see 


Flp.  13.— Fresco  from  the  "  Chamber  of  the  Sacraments,"  San  Calisto.    Suggesting  the  eucha- 
ristic meal. 

the  three-legged  table  having  on  it  bread  and  fish,  with  a  woman 
standing  on  one  side  of  it  in  the  attitude  of  prayer  ;  and  a  man 
on  tlie  other,  clad  only  in  the  pallbi'm,  extending  his  hands, 
and  especially  his  right  hand,  toward  the  table  in  such  a  way  as  to 
force  upon  ever}'-  Christian  intelligence  the  idea  of  the  act  of 
consecration."  ^  In  the  central  group  are  seen  seven  men  sitting  at 
a  table  with  bread  and  fish,  and  before  them  are  eight  baskets  of 
loaves.  To  the  right  is  the  representation  of  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac, 
while  on  the  extreme  right  and  left  of  the  picture  are  fossores  with 
arm  extended,  and  the  pickaxe  in  usual  form  resting  upon  the 
shoulder.  Some  have  suggested  that  the  figure  at  the  left,  with 
hands  extended  in  prayel',  symbolizes  the  Church,  which  is  repre- 
sented as  the  Bride  of  Christ  (Eph.  v,  24;  Rev.  xxi,  2  and  9)  ;  but 
it  is  better  to  regard  it  as  one  who  is  giving  thanks  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  eucharist. 


'  tie  Rossi:  Roma  Sottcrranea,  vol.  ii,  Tav.  xv,  No.  2; 
No.  5.  Becker:  Darstellung,  etc.,  ss.  101,  103,  110, 
Brownlow:  Plates  16  and  17;  also  vol.  ii,  pp.  71,  sq. 
Taf.  viii.     Roller:   Oataconbes  de  Rome,  vol.  i,  cliap.  19. 

2  Nortlicote  and  Brownlow:   Op.  cit.,  vol.  ii,  p.  86. 
6 


Tav.  xvi,  No.  1  ;  Tav..xvili, 
116,  etc.  Northcote  and 
Kraus:  Roma  Sotterranea, 


83 


AECH^OLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


Fig.  14  repr 


^  z 


^=M 


/ 


Ik 


esents  a  very  remarkable  fresco  from  a  Christian  cat- 
acomb discovered  in  Alexandria,  Egypt. 
It  is  found  directly  over  the  altar  in  one 
of  the  chapels,  and  has  been  referred  to 
the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century.  The 
details  of  this  mutilated  fresco  merit  care- 
ful study,  both  on  account  of  its  location 
and  the  interpretation  which  accompanies 
it.'  In  the  middle  is  Christ,  whose  head 
is  encircled  with  the  nimbus,  and  whose 
name  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  letters 
IC,  XC.  Peter,  EErPOC  is  on  his  right, 
and  Andrew,  ANz^PEAC,  on  his  left, 
bearing  a  plate  with  two  fishes.  Baskets 
containing  loaves  are  on  the  ground  on 
either  side.  Further  toward  the  right  of 
Christ  appear  the  legends  (TA)  IIATAIA, 
.  servants,  and  HAFIA  MAPIA,  Holy  Mary. 
The  mutilated  condition  of  the  fresco  in 
this  part  gives  uncertainty  to  the  inter- 
pretation, but  it  has  been  suggested  that 
it  may  represent  the  first  miracle,  at  the 
marriage  in  Cana.  At  the  extreme  left 
of  our  Lord  persons  seem  to  be  seated  at 
a  meal,  while  above  is  the  significant  le- 
gend, TAG  EYAOriAC  TOY  XY  ECOI- 
ONTEC — "Eating  the  benedictions  of 
Christ." 

In  1  Cor.  X,  16,  the  same  Avord,  evXoyiag, 
is  used  by  Paul  in  speaking  of  the  com- 
munion of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
"The  cup  of  blessing  (evXoyiag),  which 
Ave  bless,  is  it  not  the  communion  of  the 
blood  of  Christ ,? "  Compare  also  Matt, 
xvi,  36,  where  the  word  used  to  describe 
the  giving  of  thanks  in  the  multi])lication 
of  loaves,  evxaptOTifjoag,  is  the  same  as  that 
used  in  Matt,  xxvi,  27,  to  consecrate  the 
wine  of  the  holy  sacrament  ;  while  in 
Matt,  xxvi,  26,  a  derivative  from  the  same 

'  V.  "Wepcher  and  de  Rossi :  in  Bulktt.  di  Arch, 
crift.     1865,  pp.  57  sq.,  73  sq. 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART.  8B 

word  found  in  the  k'jjfciid  of  this  fresco  is  used  to  consecrate  the 
bread.  "  And  as  they  were  eating,  Jesus  took  bread,  and  blessed 
[evXoyr'jaag)  it,"  etc.  The  word  used  in  Mark  vi,  41,  to  bless  the 
loaves  and  fishes  is  found  in  Mark  xiv,  22,  to  describe  the  con- 
secration of  the  bread  in  the  eucharist.  From  such  comparisons 
of  Scripture,  and  from  the  teachings  of  the  Christian  fathers, 
especially  of  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  the  conclusion  seems  almost 
inevitable  that  in  this  fresco  the  eucharistic  meal  is  represented, 
and  that  the  true  ^Ix^v?  is  Christ,  upon  whom  the  soul  feeds  by 
faith.' 

That  the  cross    was   widely  known   in  pre-Christian  times   has 
been  most  clearly  shown  by  independent  investigators.'*  xhe  cross  and 
It  is  met  in  a  variety  of   forms'    on   both  continents,   crucifix, 
through  wide  extents  of  territory  and  reaching  through  long  periods 
of  time.     The  interpretations  of  this  symbol  have  been 

-r-.       T-  ••  T-       •£?  Pre-Christian. 

almost  numberless.     Indeed,  its  origm  and  signmcance 
are  often  matters  of  question.     But  the  Christian  cross  can  have  no 
doubtful   import.     It    was   ever  the  emblem  of   blessing   through 
suffering  and  sacrifice,  or  of  a  triumphing  faith,  and  the  Church 
has    cherished  it    as    among   her    most    precious    and    suggestive 
symbols.     For  this  she  had  the  warrant  and  sanction  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures.     It  was  the  magic  form  that  played  an  important  role 
in  the  exegesis  of  the  Christian  fathers.*     To  them  this  ^niong  the 
sacred   symbol   appeared   in   all   nature,   in   the    great  c  h  r  i  s  t  ia  n 
circles  of  the   heavens,  in  the  flying  bird,  in  the  ship    ^^  ^^^' 
speeding  under  full  sail,  in  the  arms  outstretched  in  prayer,  in  the 

'  V.  Kraus  :  Boma  Sotterranea,  ss.  216,  217.  Important  confirmatorj'-  evidence  is 
supplied  h}' the  inscriptions,  notably  the  iclithns  inscription  of  Autnn,  France.  Tiiis 
has  occasioned  an  extended  literature,  v.  Le  Blant:  Inscript.  chret.  de  la  Gaul. 
torn,  i;   for  literature  v.  Pitra"s  SpicUegium  Solesm.,  vol.  i. 

^  V.  Stoclvbauer,  Iiiman,  Zockler,  Haslam,  Lipsius,  Zestermanu,  the  Edinhurgh  Ri- 
vieiv,  for  1870.  etc.     The  literature  is  very  extensive. 

•^  Speaking  of  a  temple  in  Loriliard  City,  Central  Amorien,  M.  Dessire  Charnay  says  : 
"The  roof  of  the  edifice  is  slightly  oblique,  as  in  tlie  buildings  of  Palenque.  There 
is  a  grand  frieze,  ricliiy  decorated,  tlie  ornamentation  consisting  of  largo  human 
figures,  these  accompanied  witli  arabesques  or  liieroglypiis.  The  temple  had  then 
five  portals,  witli  lintels  and  jambs  of  sculptured  stone.  Here  we  find  1)as-reliefs  of 
remarkable  Ijcnuty,  and  I  have  made  casts  of  one  of  them,  which  exhibits  two  human 
figures  of  tiie  Palen(iue  type,  each  Jwldinfj  in  the  hand  a  regular  Latin  cross  toith 
ftoivered  arms."     v.  North  American  Revinu,  No.  ."^08. 

"»  However  extravagant  and  even  puerile  in  the  light  of  modern  criticism  may  ap- 
pear the  exegesis  of  some  of  tlie  Ciiristian  fathers,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  their 
work  was  inspired  by  a  deep,  pervading  love  of  the  crucified  One,  and  by  a  desire  to 
enter  into  the  mysteries  of  his  expiatory  sufferings,  v.  Zockler  :  Das  Kreidz  Christi, 
8.  134. 


84  AKCH.EOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

branches  of  trees,  and  in  a  multitude  of  forms  in  the  vegetable  and 
animal  world.  The  demons  could  not  withstand  its  power,  the 
followers  of  the  crucihed  One  were  safe  under  its  protection.' 

In  the  pre-Constantine  period  the  sign  of  the  cross  seems  to  have 
been  in  quite  general  recognition  by  private  Christians.  Tertullian's 
well-known  words  clearly  show  this.  "  Wherever  we  go,  or  what- 
siga  of  the  ever  we  attemj^t,  in  all  coming  in  or  going  out,  at 
cross.  putting  on  our  shoes,  at  the  baths,  at  table,  at  the  time 

of  candle  lighting,  at  bed-time,  in  sitting  down  to  rest ;  whatever 
conversation  em2:>loys  us,  we  press  the  forehead  with  the  sign  of  the 
cross."  ^  Doubtless  there  is  noticed  on  the  part  of  the  discij^les  of 
the  crucified  One  a  desire  to  conceal  this  symbol,  which  in  the 
minds  of  the  heathen  was  associated  with  every  thing  humiliating 
and  disgraceful.  In  the  earlier  inscriptions  and  monuments,  there- 
fore, it  is  generally  associated  with  the  monogram  of  Christ.  In 
such  cases  it  symbolized  the  person  of  Christ,  all  that  he  was  in  him- 
self, and  all  that  he  had  done  for  the  world.  There  is,  however, 
early  noticed  an  attempt  to  use  the  cross  independently  of  the 
^  monogram.  In  such  case  it  often  appears  under  a  form  well 
known  to  other  than  Christian  peoples,  namely,  the  so-called  stcas- 
tika  {v.  Fig.  15,  lower  form),  many  examples  of  which  ai'e  found 
Pre-Constan-  ^^  monuments  very  widely  separated  in  time  and  place. 
tine  cross.  While  their  chronology  is  somewhat  uncertain,  it  seems 
that  under  this  somewhat  obscure  form  the  Christians  of  the  pre- 
Constantine  period  chiefly  represented  the  death  and  ex- 
piatory work  of  the  Saviour."  But  the  claim  that  there- 
fore this  doctrine  was  derived  from  the  Indian  religions 
lacks  firm  support.  Much  confusion  of  thought  has  ob- 
tained, and  much  misleading  assertion  has  been  indulged 
by  writers  who  would  deny  to  Christianity  all  originality, 
and  would  trace  its  leading  doctrines  to  the  Indian  or  Fig.  15.— 
Its  doctrine  Magian  systems.  While  an  eminently  Budd-  J^^^^  «^^^^- 
not  of  Indian  histic  Symbol,  even  the  stcastika  seems  to  otiierchrist- 
have  lacked  sacredness,  and  had  little  sug-  ^^"  symbols. 
gestion  of  religious  doctrine.'*     To  regard  the  symbolism  of  these 

'  Pnidenlius:  Cathemerimx — Hymnm  ante  somnum.  "Crux  pellit  omne  crimen,"' 
eti^. 

■  De  corona  Militis.  iii.     ''Ad  omnen  progressum  atque  promotum,"  etc. 

^  This  is  a  question  on  wliicli  the  archajologists  are  still  divided.  Some  claim  that 
the  opinion  that  any  Corm  of  the  cross  was  used  by  the  Christian  Churcli  prior  to 
the  introduction  of  tlie  ^  lacks  substantial  foundation. 

*  E.  TJiomas :  Ancient  Indian  Weights,  p.  58.  "  Paniui  described  it  as  a  mark  of 
cattle." 


^ 


i 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART.  85 

religions  as  the  suggestive  source  of  the  symbols  found  on  Christian 
monuments  of  the  West,  from  the  second  to  the  eiglith  century,  is 
shown  to  be  entirely  unwarranted  as  the  Indian  paleography  and 
inscriptions  are  more  carefully  studied.  The  Indian  inscri})tions  are 
found  to  be  of  no  high  antiquity,^  and  are,  therefore,  of  little  avail 
in  a  question  of  this  nature.  Rather  the  indebtedness  of  Buddhism 
to  Christianity  for  the  doctrine  of  a  genuine  Trinity  seems  now  to 
be  established  beyond  reasonable  question,'^  while  the  claims  of  the 
priorit}^  and  great  antiquity  of  the  Zoroastrian  or  Maydyasan  tenets, 
resembling  the  Christian  teachings,  have  been  proved  to  lack  firm 
foundation.^ 

The  monogram  of   the  name   of  Christ  appears  f x'e-   xhe  nionoRiam 
quently  upon  early  Christian  remains.    It  is  found  upon   ^^  ctmst. 
burial  monuments,  ancient   lamps,  glass   vessels,  gems,  and    coins 

'"There  is  not.  liowever,  a  Soutli  Indian  inscription  which  can  be  accepted  as 
sennine  with  a  date  before  tiie  liftli  century  of  the  Christian  era,  thoiigli  one  or  two 
(without  dates)  exist  whicli  may  be  safely  attributed  to  the  fourth  century  A.  D." 
A.  C.  Buraell:  Elements  of  South  Indian  Paleograplnj fiomtlit  Fourth  to  the  Seventeenth 
Century  A.  D.,  2d  ed.,  London,  1878,  p.  12. 

2  "We  have  been  entertained  occasionally  by  being  told  how  our  Christian 
reUgion  owes  such  and  sucli  of  its  leading  elements  of  faith  to  Buddhist,  Brahman- 
ical,  or  Zoroasttinn  teachings,  but  the  progress  of  knowledge  now  enables  us  to  turn 
tlie  tables,  and  to  prove  that  our  antagonists  were  the  real  borrowers.  The  Bud- 
dhists have  been  credited  with  priority  over  our  conception  of  the  Trinity,  but  the 
earliest  documents  of  their  creed,  dating  in  250  B.  C,  or  nearly  three  centuries  after 
Nirvana  of  Buddha,  neither  suggest  nor  foreshadow  any  such  combination  ;  thougii 
we  can  well  conceive  how  easily  their  missionaries  may  have  caught  the  infection  of 
the  Aryan  devotion  to  threes.  .  .  .  The  Brahmans,  in  their  turn,  as  has  lately  been  dis- 
covered, appropriated  without  limit  or  scruple,  but  of  course  without  acknowledg- 
ment, the  ideas  and  the  very  expressions  contained  in  the  New  Testament.  .  .  .  Some 
suspicion  might  possibly  have  been  thrown  upon  the  originality  of  our  received 
versions;  but  the  question  of  derivation  has  been  comprehensively  examined  and 
determined  in  otir  favor  by  Dr.  F.  Lorinser,  whose  verdict  had  already  been  facilitated 
by  the  researches  of  other  eminent  Orientalists.  Burnell:  Op.  cit,  pp.  27,  28. 
.  .  .  We  can  no  longer  doubt,  therefore,  the  possibility  of  the  hypothesis  that  the 
composer  of  the  Bliagovad-Gita  .  .  .  used  Christian  ideas  and  expressions,  and 
transferred  sayings  of  Christ,  related  in  the  Gospels,  to  Krishna." — JndianAtditjuary. 
October,  1873.  See  also  among  others,  Lorinser:  Bhagovad- Gita,  Breslau,  1869, 
Weber:  Indische  Studien,  i,  s.  4:00.  Lassen:  Indische  Alterthumskunde,  i,  623:  iii, 
398.  Wheeler:  History  of  India,  i,  407.  Kuenen.-  Ilibbert  Lectures,  1882,  pp. 
223-236. 

*  Among  others  who  have  established  this  statement  may  be  mentioned  Wester- 
gaard,  Breal,  and  Oppert.  The  indebtedness  of  the  East  to  the  Greeks  for  astro- 
nomical principles  has  been  shown  by  Biot  :  Journal  das  Savants,  April,  1859; 
and  lloltzman :    Ueber  den  Ursprumj  des  indischen  Tliierlcreises. 

The  earnest  comparative  studies  of  the  Indian  scholars  are  yielding  rich  results, 
and  correcting  many  errors  into  which  some  earlier  writers  liave  fallen. 


86 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


Tlie  form  of  this  monogram  is  various — sometimes  very 
simple,  at    other    times    richly  adorned    with 
Cf*\  wreaths,  palm  branches,  and  gems  {v.  Fig.  1*7). 
■^j  It  is  not  well  settled  at  what  time  it  first  ap- 
pears, but  it  seems  probable  that  it  was  used 
before  its  adoption  by  Constantine  I.  as  a  sign 

Fisr.  lU.— Monogram  on  coin  i-    ,i  i      .        i       i         -•   i  •  i 

of  Autheinius,  A.D.  4ur.  upon  the  shields  and  standards  ot  his  army.' 

While  the  genuineness  of  some  monuments  cited  in  confirmation  of 

this  opinion  may  be  cpiestioned,  still  little  doubt  can 

^  y^       reasonably  be  entertained  respecting  its  use  during  the 

*^^'vT        third  century.     Fig.  lb  represents  the   earliest  known 


Fig.  18.— Monogram  of  Christ  on  an  arcosolium  of  San  Calisto,  Rome. 

example  in  the   Catacomb  of  San  Calisto.     This  mono- 

I   c  gram  has  been  most  noted  from  the  fact  that  it  largely 

^   i  a  displaced  the  eagle  on  the  standards  of  Rome  (v.  Figs. 

^  ^     M  6  and  7).     Like  many  other  events  in  the  life  and  reign 

1     2  of  Constantine  the  Great,  the  cause  and  circumstances 

fs\y       ^  of  its  adoption  are  variously  explained.  Whether  through 

'^      I  a  miraculous  appearance  of  Christ,  or  a  dream,  or  a  vision 

^vL^I  near  sunset,  or  through   some  other  means,*  the  fact  of 

".  "v.  Ludvvio;  Joep  :  Zur  Geschichte  Constantins  des  Grossen. 

P  \A  [L.  *  Among  tiie  defenders  of  the  miraculous  appearance  of  Christ  to 

"^  Constantine  are  the  older  historians,  and  Gnericke,  Bollinger,  Alzog, 

\y^  and  J.   H.  Newman,  among  modern  writers.     For  an  optical  illusiou 

'yN.  or    natural  phenomenon,  with  which  may  have   been   connected  a 

.  prophetic   dream,    argue   Augiisti,    Scliroeckh,    Mosheira,    Neander, 

o-  I   ■■  Gieseler,  Niedner,  Schaff,  Stanley,   Heinichen,  Koelling,  Mozley,  and 

i  others.     Arnold,    Tliomaaius,     Lardner,     Gibbon,    Waddington,    and 

others  regard  it  either  as  a  fable  or  a  pious  fraud.     This  last  view  seems  to  be 

the  least  consistent  with  the  authorities,  with   the  character  of   Constantine,  and 

with  the  events  concededly  flowing  from  this  circumstance. 


1 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


87 


the  choice  of  this  symbol  cannot  be  doubted,  since  from  this  time  it 
plays  a  most  important  part  on  the  coins  of  the  empire,  and  on  the 
monuments  of  the  Church. 

It  lias  been  universally  conceded  that  these  are  the  initial  letters 
of  the  name  of  Christ,'  and  that  the  monogram  is  prima  facie 
evidence  of  the  Christian  character  of  the  monuments  on  which 
it  appears.  Other  meanings  must  be  shown  by  positive  proof. 
There  is  no  sufficient  evidence  that  the  Christians  derived  this 
from  the  crux  ansata  which  was  quite  common  among  the 
Egyptians. 

After  the  wide  use  of  the  ^  upon  the  shields  and  standards 
of  tlie  army  and  upon  the  coins  of  the  empire,  the  Church 
attached  to  it  a  new  and  deeper  significance.  Hence-  its  jater  sig- 
forth  the  conquering,  all-prevailing  Name  was  prom-  niflcance. 
inent  in  their  thought.  Fig,  19  shows  the  ^  associated  with 
palm  branches  and  the  celebrated 
motto,  IN  SIGNO.  The  transition  from 
the  thought  of  humiliation  and  suffer- 
ing to  that  of  authority  and  power 
was  but  natural.  The  art  of  the 
Church  reveals  this  change.  The  mon- 
ogram appears  surrounded  with  gar- 
lands (Fig.  20),  and  in  places  of  honor  ^'^-  1^;-The  Co,iBtantinian  mono- 
^      p  _       -"  i  gram,  with    paliu  branches  and  the 

and  dominion.  Now  is  noticed  the  be-  legend,  in  signo. 
ginning  of  that  opinion  respecting  the  person  and  office  of  Christ 
which  afterward  clothed  him  with  the  attributes 
of  the  severe  and  awe-inspiring  Judge,  and  later 
furnished  the  conditions  of  the  rapid  growth  of 
Mariolatry. 

The  tradition  of  the  finding  of  the  true  cross  by 
Fig.  :io.— The  Helena,   the  mother  of    Constantine,  rests   _.    ,       .    , 

monogram       of  '  n  -,      ■  ^  y        ^^"^  ^^^^^^  °^ 

Christ  encircled  0^1  even  less  secure  tountlation  tlian  the  finding  the 
by  a  wreath.  vision  of  the  cross  by  the  emperor  himself.  '™''  '''"'*'*■ 
While,  however,  the  acceptance  of  the  -^  symbol  by  the  em- 
pire was  comparatively  harmless,  and  even  contributed  to  exalt  the 
name  and  office  of  the  Saviour,  without  danger  of  idolatry,  the 
traditional  discovery  of  the  cross  by  Helena  proved  the  occasion  of 
most  hurtful  superstitions  which  fostered  the  worship  of  relics 
and  suggested  the  religious  pilgrimages  of  the  following  centuries. 
The  relation  of  these  pilgrimages  to  the  Crusades  has  often  been 
traced  by  historians. 

'  The  upright  ^  is  the  oldest  and  most  frequently  recurring  form  of  this 
monogram. 


88 


ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


♦  *    * 

*  ifflf  * 

•       •    •  '    I     » 

*  ill »  * 

a     Mr 

*  » 


The  Tan  or  patibulaiy  (sometimes  called  Egyptian)  cross  is 
TheTauorpa-  found  in  the  catacomb  of  San  Calisto,  at  Rome,  prob- 
tibuiary  cross,  ably  as  early  as  the  third  century.'  In  such  cases  it 
is  not  easy  to  discover  the  pi'imary  reference.  By  some  it  is 
regarded  as  chiefly  representative  of  the  idea  prevalent  among 
the  Egyptians,  namely,  the  source  of  life,  and 
of  hope  of  the  world  to  come;  to  others  (Did- 
ron,  et  ciL),  it  seems  to  connect  with  events  of 
the  Hebrew  history,  as  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac, 
and  the  brazen  serpent  in  the  wilderness — 
thus  becoming  an  Old  Testament  type;  while 
still  others  insist  that  it  is  the  deliberately 
chosen  symbol  of  the  person  and  propitiatory 
work  of  Christ."  Sometimes  this  form  of  the 
Fig.2i.  —  A  jeweled  cross  Pi'oss  is  met  in  the  mosaics,  richly  jeweled, 
from  Ravenna.  having   the   firmament,   thickly  strewn    with 

stars,  for  a  background,  as  in  Fig.  21,  which  is  from  SS.  Nazario  e 
Celso,  Ravenna. 

Alone,  as  well  as  frequently  associated  with  the  monogram  of  Christ 
A  J2  monu-  ^^^  Other  Christian  symbols,  the  A  S2  symbol  appears  in 
ments.  Italy  from  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  and  in 

Gaul,  in  connection  with  dated  inscriptions,  from  A.  D.  377  to  A.  D. 
547.^  This  manifestly  refers  to  Rev.  i,  8,  "lam  Alpha  and  Omega, 
the  beginning  and  the  ending,  saith  the  Lord,  which  is  and  which  was 
and  which  is  to  come,  the  Almighty."  By  comparing  Isa.  xliv,  6,  with 
Rev.  i,  17,  28,  also  xxii,  13,  it  appears  that  these  letters  refer  to  One 
Avho,  being  of  like  essence  with  God,  stands  at  the  beginning  as  at 
the  end  of  all  being,  who  rules  all  development,  who  is  the  centre 
and  goal  of  human  history,  and  who  is  Lord  of  the  Church.  While 
Jesus  Christ  is  "  the  same  yesterday,  to-day,  and  forever  "  (Pleb, 
xiii,  8),  he  also  becomes  the  significant  force  in  the  beginning  of 
the  creation,  and  in  the  final  consummation  of  the  divine  purposes. 
The  monuments  upon  which  these  letters  appear  are  quite  numer- 
ous; fi-om  their  associations  they  aid  in  the  interpretation  of  s3'mbols 
that  were  otherwise  obscure.     Connected  with  the  monogram  en- 


'  V.  de  Rossi :  Bullett.  Arch,  a-ist,  1863. 

*  The  cross  and  the  fish  are  found  on  early  Christian  monuments  in  Scotland. 
From  ita  peculiar  associations,  the  latter  is  believed  to  have  been  an  object  of  wor- 
ship. V.  Forbes  Leslie:  The  Early  Jiaces  of  Scotland  and  their  Monuments.  Edinburgh 
2  vols.,  1876. 

3  At  Rome  from  A.  D.  355  or  360  to  509;  in  Gaul  from  A.  D.  377  to  547.  De 
Rossi:  Jnser.  christ.  Fom.,  Nos.  127,  143,  491.  Boockh :  Inscr.  Cor.  Gra;c.,  Nos. 
412,  55.     LeBlant:  Manuel  rf'  Eingr.  chret.,  p.  29. 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


89 


closed  in  a  circle  (Fig.  22),  the  A  i2  suggests  the  eternity  of  tlu- 
person  thus  symbolized.     When  associated  with  the 
H-Pi   within    the    equilateral    triangle    (Fig.    23),    it 
awakens  in  some  the  thought  of  the  Trinity.     When 
found  on  burial  monuments  with  the  Constantinian 
monogram,  the  doves,  and  the   olive  branches  (Fig.    pig.  ^:;>  _xhe  a  ii 
24),  the  victory  and  present  fruition  of  the  departed  with  monogram  in 
through  Ilim  who  is  the  beginning  and  the  end,  the  *^^^^  ^' 
resurrection    and   the  life,  are  significantly  suggested.'     The   pre- 
sumption is  strong  that  all  monuments  on  which  it  is 
found  are  of  Christian  origin,  and   the   reference  to 
the  person  and  nature  of  Christ  is  unquestioned. 
The  Church  was  not  slow  to  adopt  the  beautiful 
og^lm  and"  a°  Q  Symbol  of  the  vine.    This  was  so  manifestly  ^^^  ^.^^ 
iu  triangle.  sanctioned  by  the  words  of  Christ  himself 

(I  John  XV,  18)  that  the  most  iconoclastic  spirit  could  take  no 
offence  at  its  use.  The  lessons  which 
it  conveyed  were  so  vital  and  precious 
that  its  place  among  the  Avail  deco- 
rations of  the  oldest  catacombs  at 
Rome  seems  eminently  fitting.  To 
distinguish    the    symbolic    from   the 

merely  decorative  use  is  not  always  Fig.  34.— a  12  with  doves  ana  mono- 

,   ,1     ,   ,1  1      rn    •  4.'  gram.    From  a  burial  monument. 

easy;  yet  that  the  early  Christians  re- 
garded the  vigorous  vine,  whose  branches  were  laden  with  luscious 
fruit,  as  sj^rabolic  of  the  Saviour  and  of  the  disciples  who  abide  in 
him  cannot  once  be  doubted.' 

Nor  should  too  much  stress  be  laid  upon  the  fact  that  very  similar 
scenes  are   depicted  upon   heathen   monuments,  where  ^j^j^  symbol 

the  manifest  reference  is  to  Bacchus  and  his  worship,   need  not  have 
_,,...,.,  ^  ,    ,.  i         <•  1     1  been  borrowed. 

This  Similarity  of  representation  cannot  safely  be  re- 
garded as  proof  that  a  like  truth  was  designed  to  be  thus  symbol- 
ized ;  much  less  can  the  derivation  of  the  Christian  symbol  from 
the  pagan  mythology  be  hence  inferred.  So  common  was  it  among 
ancient  peoples  to  represent  life,  joy,  and  abundance  under  the 
symbol  of  the  vine  and  its  products  that  each  may  reasonably  be 


'  A  class  of  archicolo<rists  denies  all  symbolical  character  to  the  circle,  the  triangle, 
the  doves,  and  the  olive  branches  in  this  class  of  monuments,  and  regards  them  as 
simply  decorative.  While  this  view  seems  at  times  the  most  natural  and  just,  in 
some  instances  it  is  difficult  to  harmonize  it  with  all  the  attendant  conditions. 

*  For  illustrations,  see  Figures  1,  2.  which  are  chiefly  decorative,  yet  whose 
association  witii  numerous  religious  subjects  might  also  suggest  a  symbolic 
character. 


90  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

regarded  as  an  independent  origination,  and  its  teaching  distinc- 
tive.' 

The  beautiful  symbol  of  the  Good  Shepherd  is  among  the  earliest 
The  Good  and  most  frequent  of  the  entire  Christian  cycle.  Like 
Shepherd.  ^j^g  vine,  it  had  the  sanction  of  Christ  himself  (John  x, 
11,  19),  and  was,  therefore,  the  source  of  little  apprehension  to  the 
Christian  fathers  in  their  efforts  to  guard  the  early  Church  against 
the  idolatrous  tendencies  of  much  of  the  heathen  plastic  art. 

The  opinion  held  by  some  archaeologists,  that  Christianity  had 
no  creative  art  power,  but  borrowed  every  thing  from  the  heathen 
world,*  would  regard  this  symbol  as  immediately  suggested  by  like 
representations  on  pagan  monuments.  That  the  ram-bearing  Mer- 
cury' has  some  general  resemblance  to  the  Good  Shepherd  of  the 
Christian  cycle  has  often  been  remarked.  Also  a  satyr  bearing  a 
goat  or  sheep  upon  his  shoulders  suggests  a  similar  office  work. 
The  frescos  of  Herculaneum,  and  some  burial  monuments,  clearly  of 
heathen  origin,  in  which  the  seasons  are  depicted,  contain  like  rep- 
resentations. Nor  need  this  be  regarded  as  at  all  surprising  when 
Heathen  coun-  it  is  remembered  what  a  prominent  place  the  sheep  and 
terpart.  i\^q  shepherd  held  in  the  thought  of  ancient  peoples. 

To  each  the  shepherd's  care  for  the  flock  would  be  the  most  readily 
suggested  symbol  of  tenderest  solicitude  and  secure  protection. 
The  Hebrew  Scriptures  abound  in  references  to  the  shepherd  and 
his  flock  (Psa.  xxiii ;  Isa.  xl;  Jer.  xxiii;  Ezek.  xxxiv,  et  al.).  To  a 
pastoral  people,  acquainted  with  the  dangers  incident  to  this  mode 
Common  to  an-  of  life,  the  thought  of  the  shepherd,  to  guide  and  defend, 
cient  peoples,  must  have  been  among  the  most  natural  and  precious. 
While,  therefore,  it  is  true  that  very  similar  representations  of 
the  relation   of   the  shepherd  to  the   sheep   are  common  to  both 

'  Some  writers  on  comparative  religion  and  comparative  mythology  would  erro- 
neously teach  that  because  of  great  similarit}"-  in  llie  beliefs  or  myths  of  two  different 
peoples,  therefore  the  one  must  be  a  derivation  from  the  other,  or  both  must  root  in 
some  more  ancient  belief;  whereas,  each  may  be  entirely  independent  of  the  other, 
and  maybe  indicative  of  a  like  stage  of  spiritual  or  religious  development.  "'I 
hardly  suppose  thnt  the  most  ardent  hunters  after  histories  which  tell  of  tlie  loves  of 
the  sun  and  the  dawn  would  maintain  that  it  was  from  the  observation  of  the  sun 
and  the  dawn  that  mnnkind  first  gained  its  idea  of  two  lovers."  Keary:  Outlines  of 
Primitive  Belief,  Preface,  x. 

*  Very  emphatically,  Raoul-Rochette :  Discours  sur  les  types  imilatifs  qni  constituent 
Vart  du  Christianisme.  Paris,  1834.  Tableau  des  Catacomhes.  Paris,  1837.  Trois 
Memoirs  sur  les  antiquites  chretiennes.    Paris,  1839. 

^  The  epithet,  Kriophorus,  was  applied  to  Hermes  from  his  driving  away  a  pesti- 
lence from  the  town  of  Tanagra,  in  Bceotia,  by  carrying  a  ram  on  his  shoulders  round 
the  walls.  He  is  to  be  regarded,  therefore,  as  the  guardian  against  pestilence  rather 
than  as  the  god  of  herds,    v.  C.  J.  Hemans  :  in  Academy,  1872,  p.  147. 


SYMBOLISM  OP  CHRISTIAN  ART.  91 

heathen     and     Christian    monuments,    it    would    be    illogical    to 

infer  that  the  heathen  symbol  was  the  original,  and  the  Christian 

the  imitation.     It  is  manifest  that  the  Christian  Church  The  christian 

used  the  art  forms  which  Avere  at  hand:  nevertheless  ^y^'^oi   ^'^^ 

'  necessarily  de- 

it    would  be  misleading   thence   to   conclude  that  the  rived. 

motive  or  spirit  of  the  Christian  monuments  was  like  to  or 
derived  from  the  prevalent  heathen  thought  or  mythology.  At 
times  the  teaching  is  directly  contradictory  of  Christian  thought. 
The  student  needs  only  to  be  cautioned  against  the  Needed  cau- 
hasty  inference  that  all  monumental  representations  tion- 
of  the  relation  of  the  shepherd  to  the  sheep  are  necessarily  of 
Christian  origin  and  character.  The  sound  principle  here  to  be 
observed  is  that  something  more  than  the  simple  form  is  nec- 
essary ;  that  some  additional  marks  or  confirmatory  circumstances 
must  aid  in  the  classification.  Fortunately  such  evidence  coniirmatory 
is  frequently  at  hand.  The  Good  Shepherd  monu)nents  evidence. 
often  bear  other  distinctive  Christian  symbols,  as  the  fish,  the  ^^ 
the  A  i2,  or  these  combined  [v.  Fig.  12),  while  in  other  cases  the 
figure  and  the  associated  inscription  are  mutually  helpful  in  the 
interpretation.  In  any  case,  to  the  early  Church  this  figure  of  the 
Good  Shepherd  suggested  all  those  beautiful  and  consolatory  oflices 
which  Christ's  own  words  so  clearl}^  taught  (John  x,  11-19). 
Hence  it  is  not  a  figure  of  the  Good  Shepherd  alone  which  is  met, 
but  this  is  sometimes  accompanied  with  the  badges  of  his  ofiice,  the 
staff,  the  shepherd's  pipe,  etc.  (v.  Fig.  37).  While  it  is  easy  to 
become  bewildered  by  a  wild  and  extravagant  interpretation  of 
these  various  accessories,  the  teaching  of  the  central  figure  is  mani- 
fest to  every  looker-on.^ 

Other  symbols  of  Christ  and  his  work  are  occasionally  met  on  the 
momiments,   as    Orpheus,   noticed    elsewhere;   the  lion,  which  was 

usually  understood  as  a   symbol  of  power  and  mio^ht; 

c-i      /    other  svtnbol3. 
and  the  fisher,  who  takes  into  the  net  of    his  kingdom 

the  fishes  that  are  purified  in  the  waters  of  baptism, 

§  2.    The  disciples  and  the  Church. 

The  followers  of  Christ,  whose  representations  have  here  been 
traced,  delighted  to  use  a  like  symbolism  to  express  their  own  rela- 
tions to  Him,   "  the  way,  the  truth,  and  the  life,"   as 

The  dov6. 

well  as  their  associations  witli  each  other  in  the  fellow- 
ship of   love   and  faith.     The   dove  is  among   the   most  frequent 

'  In  Elude  sur  Vhistoire  des  sarcnphages  chreiiens  (Paris.  1885),  Groiisset  gives  more 
than  forty  examples  of  tlio  Good  Slicplierd  found  on  the  one  hundred  and  ninetj'- 
fivo  sarcophagi  in  Rome  outside  of  the  Lateran  Museum,  which  he  describes. 


92  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHIUSTIIN  ART. 

Christian  symbols  ;  it  is  of  especial  significance  when  found  upon 
burial  monuments.  It  usually  expresses  the  innocence  and  purity 
of  the  persons  thus  commemorated.  "Harmless  as  doves"  may 
have  been  in  the  mind  of  those  who  laid  away  the  faithful  with 
the  sweet  expectation  that  their  Lord  would  very  soon  awaken 
them  from  their  temporary  slumber  to  enter  upon  the  fruitions 
of  his  own  kingdom.  Here,  too,  caution  is  necessary  to  distin- 
guish between  symbolism  and  simple  decoration.  Doubtless  some 
of  the  figures  of  the  dove,  and  certainly  those  of  other  birds,  are 
used  upon  Christian  monuments  as  mere  aids  to  ornamentation, 
and  as  subjects  to  complete  the  artistic  balancing  of  a  picture 
(see  Fig.  29).  When  the  dove  bears  in  the  beak  a  palm  or  olive 
branch,  it  may  justly  be  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  overcoming 
victory,  and  expectation  of  eternal  life  (Fig.  24).  Examples  of 
this  are  numerous,  and  it  is  generally  agreed  that  they  are  of  deep 
doctrinal  significance.  At  Rome,  they  do  not  appear  before  the 
last  half  of  the  third  century,  and  disappear,  for  the  most  part, 
after  the  first  quarter  of  the  sixth.  In  Gaul  this  symbol,  as  most 
others,  does  not  apjiear  until  nearly  a  century  later,  and  continues  a 
century  longer  than  in  Rome.' 

The  fish,  which  Ave  have  shown  to  be  of  deepest  import  when 

applied  to  Christ,  is  also  used  to  represent  his  disciiiles. 
The  fish. 

Probably,  as  suggested  by   Tertullian,^  the   water  and 

rite  of  baptism  were  prominently  in  their  thought,  while  secondary 
reference  may  have  been  had  to  the  parable  of  the  net,  or  to  the 
command  of  Christ  to  Peter  and  Andrew — "  Follow  me  and  I  will 
make  you  fishers  of  men  "  (Matt,  iv,  18,  19). 

Corresponding  to  the  symbol  of  the  Good  Shepherd  is  that  of  the 
The  sheep  and  sheep  or  lambs,  representing  Christ's  disciples.  It  is 
lambs.  sometimes  found  on  the  mural  paintings  of  the  cata- 

combs, and  quite  frequently  on  Christian  sarcophagi  and  in  mosaics. 
They  are  sometimes  cared  for  by  the  Good  Shepherd,  who  leads 
them  into  green  pastures,  sometimes  they  are  grouped  around  him 
in  the  attitude  of  earnest  attention  to  hear  the  Master's  teaching. 
In  the  mosaics  the  twelve  apostles  sometimes  appear  under  the 
symbol  of  sheep,  who  stand  six  on  either  side  of  the  Saviour  to 
"hear  his  voice"  (Fig.  42).  Occasionally  the  hart,  drinking  of 
the  living  waters,  takes  the  place  of  the  sheep  in  the  symbolic  rep- 
resentation of  the  disciples,  probably  with  reference  to  Psa.  xlii,  1. 

'  De  Rossi:  Inscript.   christ.   Rom.,  t.  i,  Nos.   10,   923,   &91.     Le  Blaat :  Inscript. 
chret.  de  la  Gaule,  Nos.  7,  561. 
^  de  hapt,  c.  1. 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART.  03 

On   several  monuments  the  Churcli  is  found  symbolized  by  a  slii[) 
under  full  sail.     On  the  sail  sometimes  appears  a  second 
symbol,  as  the  dove,  which  seems  to  teach  that  in  the  ^  '^  ^^' 

perilous  voyage  of  life  the  ship  of  the  Church,  under  the  care  of  its 
heavenly  Pilot,  aifords  the  only  secui*e  refuge.  Also  in  several  in- 
stances a  rude  box  represents  the  ark  of  Noah,  from  M'hich  the  dove 
goes  forth  on  the  waste  of  waters,  or  is  returning  bearing  the  olive 
branch  in  its  beak.  This  was  a  favorite  symbol,  to  which  the 
Christian  fathers  refer  to  teach  in  most  impressive  way  the  saving 
power  of  the  Church.' 

§  3.    OtJte?'  symbols. 

Of  the  many  other  symbols  we  have   space  to  refer  to  but  few. 
The  anchor  is  often  found  upon  coins  and  gems,  some- 
times associated  with  the  -^^  at  other  times  in  connec- 
tion with  the  fish,  the  Good  Shepherd,  etc.  (Fig.  12).     Its  primary 
reference  is  probably  to  Heb.  vi,  19,  20;  sometimes  the  meaning  is 
very  obscure. 

The  palm  tree  and  the  palm  branch  are  also  of  frequent  occur- 
rence on  the  burial  monuments,  on  lamps,  on  cjlasses,  on    „^       ,     , 

'  1    '         &  '  The  palm  tree 

gems,  and  in  the  mosaics.  These  were  also  common  to  and  the  palm 
pagan  monuments,  and  wei'e  not  unfamiliar  to  the  Jews.  ''^°^^- 
In  the  use  of  this  symbol  upon  the  burial  monuments  of  Christians 
the  primary  reference  seems  to  be  to  Rev.  vii,  9,  and  plainl}'^  indi- 
cates that  the  deceased  has  triumphed  over  death  and  the  grave 
through  faith  in  Him  who  declared  himself  "  the  Resurrection  and 
the  Life  "  (John  xi,  2). 

Of  like  import  is  the  crown,  Avhich  is  of  less  frequent  occurrence. 
The  \jre  is  usually  the  symbol  of  praise  or  of  abundant  The  crown, 
rejoicing.  The  peacock  sometimes  sjmibolizes  immor-  |f j7e  nTx*' and 
tality,  in  like  manner  as  does  the  phenix  the  resurrection  serpent. 
and  the  life  eternal.  The  sei'pent  is  also  met  on  Christian  monu- 
ments. It  may  be  connected  with  representations  of  our  first  parents 
as  a  tcmi)ter  to  sin  ;  or  with  the  brazen  serpent  in  the  wilderness  ; 
or  occasionally  it  seems  to  be  used  as  a  sym1)ol  of  wise  spiiitual  dis- 
cernment. The  latter  is  especially  true  of  some  gems  of  the  Gnostic 
sects.  We  shall  examine  in  another  connection  the  cycle  of  Old 
TestamUnt  scenes,  events  from  the  historj'-  of  Moses,  Jonah,  Daniel, 
the  three  Hebrew  worthies,  etc.,  which  were  regarded  as  types  or 
prophecies  of  events  under  the  new  dispensation. 

'  Tertiillian:  de  baptismo,  cc.  8,  12.     Cyprian:  Epistolce,  Nos.  69,  74.      Justin  Mar- 
tyr: Bialogus  cum  Tryplione,  c.  138. 


94  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

Occasionally  are  met  what  have  been  generally  regarded  as  cari- 
catures of  the  Christian  religion.     Their  fewness,  and 

Th6Ccirica,- 

tures  of  Christ-  the  lack  of  aid  to  their  proper  interpretation  in  the 
lan  doctnne.  contemporary  literature,  cause  uncertainty  Avith  respect 
to  their  significance.  Nevertheless,  the  very  paucity  of  the  monu- 
ments which  illustrate  the  feeling  of  the  pagan  world  toward  the 
new  religion  enhances  their  value;  their  study  has,  therefore,  engaged 
the  attention  of  some  of  the  ablest  archaeologists. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  is  the  graffito  discovered  in 
1856  amid  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of  the  Coesars,  on  the  southwest 
slope  of  the  Palatine  Hill.^  It  was  one  of  many  graffiti  scratched 
upon  the  walls  of  a  number  of  rooms  that  had  been  excavated  in 
this  part  of  the  Palatine.  Becker's  conclusion  is  that  this  one 
originated  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  second  century,  through  the 
playfulness  of  some  pagan  scholar  in  the  imperial  Pedagogium. 
Fig.  25  shows  the  rudeness  of  the  drawing  and  the  barbarousness 
of  the  Greek  inscription.  The  usual  deciphering  of  the  characters  is 
AAEHAMENOC  CEBETE  {aedEraC)  GEON,  and  the  translation  has 
been  suggested,  "  Alexamenus  worships  (his)  God."  Careful  com- 
parative study  has  made  it  probable  that  this  was  scratched  on  the 
wall  of  a  school-room  by  a  heathen  pupil  to  caricature  the  god 
to  whom  his  fellow  Christian  pupil  was  offering  worship.  In 
opposition  to  Becker,  Garrucci  attributes  this  Avork  to  the  early 
part  of  the  third  century,  for  the  reason  (among  others)  that  just 
at  this  time  the  Christians  were  charged  with  worshipping  the 
head  of  an  ass,  as  shown  by  the  answer  of  Tertullian.  In  his 
Apologeticus^  the  recognition  of  the  charge  is  clear  and  explicit, 
and  his  answer  not  less  so.  His  attemj^t  to  account  for  this 
misundei'standing,  from  the  heathen  mind  confounding  the  Jewish 
with  the  Christian  religion,  argues  the  prevalence  of  the  calumny, 
and  may  account  for  the  existence  of  the  caricatures.  On  the 
other  hand,  however,  it  is  very  noteworthy  that  amidst  all  the 
strange  syncretism  prevalent  in  Rome  during  the  first  three  Christ- 
ian centuries  no  account  is  left  of  the  worship  of  a  god  with  the 
head  of  an  ass,  least  of  all  of  one  who  was  crucified.  Yet  here 
is  almost  the  oldest  surviving  representation  of  the  most  sacred 
and  significant  event  in  the  life  of  Christ,  the  crucifixion,  under 
an  offensive  caricature  ;  thus  showing  that  the  description  of  the 

'  For  discussions  of  the  chronologj',  location,  and  significance  of  tliis  graffito,  v. 
Garrucci:  11  Cwcifisso  graffito  in  casa  dei  Cesari  Roma.  1857.  Becker:  Das  Spott 
Crucifix  der  romischen  Kaiserpalaste.  Breslan,  1 866.  Kraus :  Das  Spott-  Crucifix  vom 
Palatin  und  ein  neuendektes  Graffito.     Freiburg,  1872. 

"  1.  i,  c,  xvi. 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


95 


prophet  was  most  ai)propriate  :  "  he  hath  no  form  nor  comeliness, 
and  when  we  shall  see  him  there  is  no  beauty  that  we  should  desire 
him  "  (Isa.  liii,  2). 


Fig.  25.— Caricature  of  Christ.    A  pagau  graffito  probably  of  tbe  second  century.    Palace  of  the 

Caesars,  Rome. 

Another  example  of  the  same  style  of  caricature  is  seen  in 
Fig.  26,  Tills  is  the  representation  on  an  antique  gem  which  was 
first  published  in  the  seventeenth  century.  An  almost  exact  descrip- 
tion of  it  is  found  in  Tertullian's  writings.'  It  is  a  figure  clad  in 
the  Roman  toga,  in  an  erect  position,  but  with  the  head  of  an  ass. 
The  fore  leg  is  extended  as  in  the  attitude  of  teaching,  while  before 
it  are  two  figures,  one  standing  the  other  sitting,  in  the  posture  of 
attentive    listeners.*    Tertullian    declares    that    under   this   repre- 


k 


Apologeiicus,  c.  xvi ;  ad  nationes,  1.  i,  c.  xiv.  and  1.  ii,  c.  xi. 
The  genuineness  of  this  gem  has  been  questioned. 


96 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


sentation  was  found  the  inscription — "  Deus  Christianornm  ONO- 
K0IHTH2."  Many  translations  of  this  have 
been  suggested,  but  some  of  the  best  lexi- 
cographers have  preferred  "  an  ass  of  a  priest." 
A  like  mention  of  this  charge  against  the 
Christians  is  met  in  Minucius  Felix.'  "The 
heathen  attribute  to  them  (the  Christians) 
the  folly  of  regarding  the  head  of  an  ass  a 
sacred  thing."  While  resenting  such  folly 
and  wickedness,  in  common  with  Tertullian, 
he  makes  the  charge  of  like  folly  against 
the  heathen,  who  have  incorporated  into  their 
cultus  things  equally  puerile  and  monstrous. 

Fi?:.— 26.   From  an  antique       rni  /•  '^  •  .if  .i 

gem.  Supposed  to  be  a  cari-  The  copy  of  a  com  apparently  from  the 
catureof  the  teaching  Christ,  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  (Fig.  27)  con- 
tains another  enigma  which  has  not  been  satisfactorily  solved.     The 

head  of  Alexander  on  one  side, 
and  an  ass  with  its  foal  on  the 
other,  are  the  strange  figures  here 
met.  But  the  inscription,  DN  THY 
XPS  DEI  FILIYS,  is  still  more 
curious,  and  has  divided  the  ar- 
Fig.  2r.-Coin  of  Alexander  the  Great,  an  ass  chreologists  with  respect  tO  its 
and  its  foal.  j.  ^  i      •       •  x;      i.  •        a 

reference  and  signmcation.'' 
This  worship  of  the  figure  of  an  ass  is  obscure  in  its  origin,  and 
the  cause  of  this  misconception  of  the  heathen  of  the  third  century, 
respecting  the  nature  of  the  Christan  religion,  is  not  well  understood. 
Nevertheless  occasional  references  to  this  animal  and  its  worship  are 
met  from  time  to  time  in  the  writings  of  the  Christian  fathers. 

'  Odavius,  cc.  ix  and  xxviii. 

^Northcote  and  Brownlow:  Roma  Sotterranea,  vol.  ii,  pp.  351,  352.  These 
authors  suggest  the  translation,  "  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God."  May  not 
this  be  another  of  the  many  examples  of  the  syncretism  of  pagan  and  Christian 
thought? 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PxilNTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  97 


CHAPTER  IV. 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS. 

The  earliest  Christian  paintings  which  have  been  preserved  to 
our  day  were  found  in  the  Roman  catacombs.  Their  chronology 
is  still  unsettled.  While  de  Rossi  {v.  p.  29)  finds  Earliest  paint- 
sufficient  reason  to  refer  some  of  them  to  the  first,  ings  in  the 
or  early  part  of  the  second  century,  Parker,  Momm-  ^'^^^^^'^  ^ 
sen,  and  others  {v.  p.  30,  note)  believe  that  they  are  of  later 
origin.  The  evidences  of  an  early  origin  become  more  con- 
vincing as  the  comparative  studies  are  more  thorough  and  ex- 
tensive. It  seems  well  established,  however,  that  these  paintings 
were  chiefly  decorative.     Their  use  in  secular  relations  Q^^^^^    pajjjt. 

could    awaken    little    preiudice   in    the    minds   of   the  i^ss  decora- 

.  tive. 

Christian  teachers.      These  earliest  catacombal   paint- 
ings   were    evidently    designed    to    add    to    the    cheerfulness    of 
the  subterranean  rooms  whose  walls  they  adorn,  and  which  were 
often  the  places  of  assembly  for  the  Christians  in  times  of  persecu- 
tion. 

On  careful  comparison  of  these  with  the  contemporary  frescos 
of  heathen  origin,  a  like  artistic  spirit  is  seen  to  be  similarity  of 
common  to  both.  The  ceilings  in  Santa  Domitilla  heatilen'paim'- 
at  Rome,  and  in  the  vestibule  to  the  first  catacomb  ing- 
of  San  Gennaro  dei  Poveri  in  Naples,  are  divided  into  har- 
moniously balanced  parts,  while  some  of  the  decorations  can 
only  with  greatest  care  be  distinguished  from  the  heathen  mural 
pictures  of  the  same  age  {v.  Fig.  28).'  In  each  is  manifested 
a  like  love  of  nature  in  representations  of  the  seasons,  scenes 
from  reaping  and  from  the  vintage,  dolphins,  birds,  flowers,  etc. 
(v.  Figs.  1,  2).  The  earliest  Christian  frescos  are,  however, 
generally  wanting  in  architectural  perspective,  as  this  is  seen  in 
the  Pompeian  decorations,  and  are  usually  less  artistic  in  technical 
execution.' 

Probably  the  artisans  in  the  catacombs  were  generally  unskilled, 
nor  did  they  attempt  to  execute  these  paintings  with  perfection  of 


I 


'  V.  Schultze  :  Die  Katakomben.  etc.,  s.  12,  and  plate  iv. 

«  Reber:  Hist,  of  Medieval  Art.    New  York,  1887.   pp.  73,  74. 


98  ARCHJaOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

detail.  The  frescos  were  manifestly  painted  rapidly  in  broad,  full 
line,  since  in  dimly  lighted  subterranean  rooms  minute  details 
could  be  of  but  slender  utility.  This  may  suggest  a  reason  for 
the  difference  in  the  artistic  character  of  the  frescos  of  Christ- 
ian and  pagan  origin,  since  the  latter  were  used  to  adorn  rooms 
Avhere  light  was  abundant,  and  where  the  festive  character  of 
many  of  the  subjects  demanded  more  careful  handling.  Pains- 
taking study  of  models  seems  to  have  been  seldom  practiced, 
since  it  is  hardly  possible  to  suppose  that  in  the  early  part  of 
the  second  century  the  Church  had  a  school  of  professionally 
trained  artists.  Nevertheless,  the  narrowness  of  the  cycle  of 
artistic  subjects  and  their  frequent  repetition  might  secure  read- 
iness of  execution  and  a  fair  degree  of  ease  and  vigor  of  treat- 
ment. 

The  introduction  of  symbolism  was  of  somewhat  later  date.  Their 
more  distinctively  Christian  character  then  first  appears.  The  merely 
decorative  and  pleasing  then  assumes  a  deeper  significance,  the 
paintings  become  a  means  of  religious  teaching,  and  the  mind  is 
directed  toward  certain  important  doctrines.  The  figures,  the  dress, 
and  the  adornments  do  not  widely  differ  from  the  prevailing  pagan 
style.     Notwithstanding  this  close   alliance   of  Christian  painting 

„,^         ,      .  with  the  current  heathen  art,  Christianity  had,  never- 

Ihe    cycle    of  .       ^ 

Christian    art  theless,  an  entirely  unique  cycle  of  subject  and  thought. 

peculiar.  rpj^^  spiritual  depth  and  significance  of  its  portraitures, 

as  distinguished  from  the  mere  superficial  beauty  of   the  2)agan 

art,  justify  the  claims  of  Christian  painting  to  a  good  degree  of 

originality. 

The  office  work  of  Christ  as  Good  Shepherd  is  sometimes 
revealed  only  by  the  accompanying  flock,  or  single  sheep  borne 
on  the  shepherd's  shoulders,  or  by  the  implements  of  his  offiice, 
as  the  crook,  the  pails  of  milk,  and  the  shepherd's  pipes  (Fig.  38). 
The  costume  is  the  ordinary  Roman  tunic  and  pallium,  and  the 
feet  are  generally  clad  in  sandals.  The  same  vigor  characterizes 
other  figures  in  the  earliest  mural  paintings  of  the  catacombs. 
Old  Testament  scenes,  as  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  the  smiting  of 
the  rock  by  Moses,  the  loosing  of  his  sandals  in  the  presence 
the  burning  bush,  etc.,  are  treated  with  considerable  force  and 
naturalness. 

As  before  stated,  some  of  the  earlier  ceiling  frescos  reveal  a  pur- 
An artistic bal-  pos©  of  artistic  balancing  and  harmony.  It  must  not, 
ancing.  however,   be   inferred   from   this   that   a   corresponding 

balancing  of  the  subjects  of  the  i>ictorial  teaching  was  intended. 
This  would  be  an  abuse  of  the  symbolic  principle.     For  example,  in 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  ^lOSAICS. 


99 


Fig.  28,  the  antithesis  of  Moses  smiting  the  rock,  and  Christ 
raising  Lazarus,  cannot  be  regarded  as  tyjie  and  antitype,  since 
this  Av'ould  compel  the  use  of  too  fanciful  and  far-fetched  analogies. 
The  same  is  true  of  Daniel  in  the  den  of  lions,  and  David  with  the 
sling.  Nor  can  we  suppose  that  the  artistically  balanced  pastoral 
scenes  were  designed  to  teach  dogmatic  or  practical  truths,  well- 


Fig.  28.— Fresco  ceiling  from  S.inta  Domitilla,  Rome.    Orplieus  in  center. 

understood  by  the  initiated  but    unknown    to   others.     This,  too, 
Avere  to  carry  the  symbolic  princii)le  to  an  unwarranted  extreme. 

While  there  is  a  general  similarity  of  technical  treatment  to  that 
of  the  contemporary  heathen  art,  and  the  originality  of   Naturalness  of 
the  Christian  handling,  coming  from  juster  and  more   C'liristian  art. 
inspiring   views   of    nature,   has   been   questioned,'   these    frescos, 

'  Woltiniinn  and  "Woermann:  ITidory  of  rainUng,  translated  by  Colvin,  1880, 
vol.  i,  pp.  1G3,  164.  Contra  v.  Schnaase:  Geschichfe  d.  hild.  Kiinste,  2d  Aiif..  iii,  ss. 
li")2,  5^.  "  Cliristianity  first  unlocked  the  sense  for  nature  by  teaching  us  to  imder- 
stand  a  creation  groaning  with  us  and  by  showing  the  connection  of  nature  with 
ourselves  and  our  own  life."  Uhlhorn  :  Con/lid  of  Christianity  tvith  Heathenism, 
Kev.  ed.,  pp.  6G-69. 


100  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

nevertheless,  become  invaluable  indexes  of  the  belief  and  life  of  the 
infant  Church.  They  prove  that  the  oesthetic  feeling,  common  to  all 
men,  is  struggling  for  expression  amidst  the  adverse  influences  of 
the  times,  and  that  the  new  religion,  so  far  from  being  hostile  to 
art,  is  seeking  to  purify  and  inspire  it  by  its  own  richer  spiritual 
truths.  They  show  that  the  early  Christians  were  animated  by  a 
religion  of  cheerfulness  and  hopefulness.  The  objects  in  these 
mural  decorations  directly  or  symbolically  represent  persons,  offices, 
or  beliefs  that  are  soul-sustaining.  Nearly  the  whole  Old  Testa- 
ment cycle — the  history  of  Noah;  Abraham  offering  Isaac,  and 
God's  interference  to  save  by  a  substituted  victim;  the  smiting  of 
the  rock  by  Moses;  the  preservation  of  the  Hebrew  children  in  the 
fiery  furnace;  Daniel  in  the  den  of  lions;  the  history  of  Jonah — all 
these  are  of  a  character  to  support  and  inspire  the  faith  of  the  early 
believers.* 

In  the  pictorial  representations  of  Christ,  two*  general  types  are 
Two  types  of  early  met.  The  first  is  that  of  a  beardless  young  man 
Christ.  of  considerable  force  and  freshness,  quite  -closely  I'esem- 

bling  the  sculptures  on  heathen  sarcophagi  of  the  same  date.  This 
type  is  usuall}^  connected  with  the  cycle  of  Christ's  miraculous 
works,  as  the  opening  of  the  eyes  of  the  blind,  the  healing  of  the 
paralytic,  the  raising  of  Lazarus  (Fig.  29),  etc.  A 
like  buoj'ancy  of  spirit  is  met  in  the  paintings  of 
Christ  as  the  Good  Shepherd.  We  have  elsewhere 
{v.  p.  61)  noticed  the  relations  of  this  figure  to  the 
rambearing  Mercury  of  the  heathen  mythology. 
This  type  is  usually  without  a  beard,  as  in  Fig.  29, 
in  the  midtiplication  of  the  loaves,  and  the  raising 
of  Lazarus  in  the  encircling  lunettes. 

The  second  type,  though  somewhat  more  severe, 
29.— Christ  rais-  is  Still  youtliful,  but  bearded  and  with  long  flowing 

injr  Lazarus.  Fresco.   j^^j^._       j^     -^     ^.^^^.^jy^    -^    ^^.^j.^    f^^^^^^    j^^    ^j^^    ^^^^^^,^^ 

paintings  of  the  catacombs,  but  appears  later  upon  the  gilded 
glasses. 

In  both  these  types  the  influence  of  heathen  thought  is  manifest, 
since  the  quite  prevalent  opinion  respecting  the  Saviour,  which  was 
held  by  some  of  the  Christian  fathers,  as  derived  from  Isa.  lii,  23,  is 
here  dominated  by  the  heathen  idea  that  the  gods  miist  be  conceived 

'  V.  Fig.  30,  ill  which  most  of  these  scenes,  together  with  the  healing  of  the  par- 
alytic, the  multiplication  of  the  loaves,  and  the  rcsnrrection  of  Lazarus,  are  grouped 
about  the  Good  Shepherd. 

*  A  third,  found  iu  the  mosaics  of  the  post-Constautine  period,  is  e'scwliere 
noticed. 


I 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTmGS  AND  MOSAICS.  101 

of  as  endowed  with  vigor  and  beauty.     The  Greek  believed  that 
only  the  ethically  good  could  be  in  the  image  of  the  gods  ;  contra- 


Fig.  30.— Fresco  from  the  ceiling  of  a  chamber  in  San  Calisto,  Rome. 


riwise,  tha,t  the  highest  physical  perfection  was  requisite  in  the  sen- 
suous representation  of  the  divine.  To  his  apprehension  virtue  and 
beauty,  vice  and  ugliness,  were  in  indissoluble  union.  The  beautiful 
was  the  good,  and  defoiinity  was  felt  to  be  a  consequence  of  evil. 
It  was  therefore  necessary  that  the  most  worthy  embodiment  of 
the  divine  should  be  in  perfect  and  beautiful  forms.  Unlike  the 
gods  of  the  Indians  and  the  Egyptians,  with  which  much  of  the 
grotesque  and  xigly  was  often  connected,  the  gods  of  the  Greeks, 
being  conceived  as  free  from  moral  imperfections,  were  represented  - 
by  images  of  truest  nobility  and  beauty,  and  free  from  every  trace 
of  sorrow  and  weakness.' 

But  this  type  of  Christ  underwent  a  remarkable  transfonnation. 
Fig.    31    is  the   representation   of    a   fresco   bust   dis-  The  later  f res- 
covered  by  Bosio  in  the  catacomb  of  San  Ponziano,  at  ^^."^  the'^  ear- 
Rome.     This  is  a  wide  departure  from  the  type  found  uer  types. 
in  the  earlier  frescos.     The  form  of  the  cross,  the  richly  jeweled 

'  V.  Alt:  Die  HeiUgeribilder,etc.,  pp.  4-7. 


102 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


corona,  the  more  grave  and  mature  cast  of  countenance,  the  peculiar 
curve  of  the  eyebrows,  are  positive  proofs  of  a  new  era  of  art.     A 


Fig.  31.— Bust  of  Christ  from  San  Ponziano.    Probably  from  ninth  century. 

somewhat  similar  art  type  is  seen  in  Fig.  32,  which  is  from  one  of 
the  catacombs  of  Naples.  It  is  of  the  sixth  century.  The  long, 
pointed  beard,  the  elongated  features,  the  countenance  bearing  an 
appearance  of  haggardness  and  of  sorrow,  are  in  directest  contrast 
Avith  the  air  of  youthful  vigor  and  cheerfulness  that  characterizes  the 
frescos  and  bass-reliefs  which  represent  the  biblical  cycle  of  Christ's 
works.  The  corona,  the  open  book,  and  the  hand  raised  in  the  man- 
ner of  teaching,  show  that  the  conception  of  Christ  has  shifted  from 
that  of  the  benevolent  wonder-worker  to  that  of  the  severe,  authori- 
tative, and  majestic  teacher  and  ruler. 

The  crypt  of  Santa  Cecilia  is  among  the  most  interesting  in  the 
immense  cemetery  of  San  Calisto.  It  is  connected  with  the  martyr- 
dom of  one  of  the  most  revered  female  saints  of  the  early  Church,  and 
is  rich  in  epigraphical  and  pictorial  objects  which  aid  in  the  under- 
standing of  some  portions  of  her  curious  history.  The  pictures  noAV 
preserved  in  this  crypt  are  manifestly  of  a  much  later  date  than  the 
original  ornamentation,  since  there  are  unmistakable  evidences  that 
mosaics  and  slabs  of  porphyry  have  in  some  instances  been  removed. 


EAELY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS. 


103 


Fiir.  32.— Bust  of  Ohrisl  from  a  cemetery  of  Naples.    Probably 
of  the  sixth  century. 

tics,  and  has  lost  the  freedom 
and  grace  of  the  pictures  pro- 
duced under  the  influence  of 
llie  clas.sic  spirit. 

The  tendency  to  increased 
decoration,  and  to  clothing 
the  person  of  Christ  with  the 
insignia  of  authorit}'^,  in  con- 
trast with  the  simplicity  of 
the  earlier  frescos,  is  further 
seen  in  the  accompanjnng  rep- 
resentation of  a  mural  paint- 
ing found  in  the  small  suhur- 
l)an  cemetery  of  Santa  Gene- 
rosa,  near  Rome  (Fig.  34).  It 
is  believed  to  belong  to  the 
seventh  or  eighth  century. 
Christ  is  here  associated  with 
saints,   whose   names  are   in- 


In  one  of  the  bu- 
rial niches  is  found 
a  bust  of  Christ, 
represented  by  Fig. 
33,  which  has  been 
referred  to  the  sev- 
enth century.  The 
Greek  nimbus,  the 
hand  in  the  i)osi- 
tion  of  blessing  or 
of  teaching,  and 
the  book  held  in 
the  left  hand,  are 
symbols  of  author- 
ity. The  Avhole  ex- 
pression and  execu- 
tion of  the  fresco 
suggest  a  distinc- 
tively Byzantine 
influence,  and  indi- 
cate that  the  art  of 
the  Church  has  fal- 
len under  the  dii'ec- 
tion    of    ecclesias- 


Fig.  33.— From  the  crypt  Santa  Cecilia,  cemetery  of 
San  Calisto.   Probably  of  seventb  century. 


104  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

scribed  on  the  walls  in  the  style  of  the  latei-  Byzantine  pictures. 
He  is  clad  in  the  customary  tunic  and  pallmm,  whose  di'apery 
lacks  grace  and  flexibility;  his  right  hand  is  extended  in  the  fashion 
of  the  teacher,  or,  as  some  discover  in  it,  in  the  act  of  benediction 
after  the  Greek  manner ;  in  the  left  is  held  the  book,  highly  orna- 
mented with  jewels.  The  entire  picture  indicates  a  later  origin, 
and  a  wide  departui'e  from  the  youthful  vigor  and  naive  simplicity 
of  the  earlier  figures  of  Christ.  The  jeweled  crowns,  and  the  exces- 
sive ornamentation  in  the  case  of  the  female  figure,  are  further  evi- 
dences of  art  decadence. 

While  the  fact  is  unquestioned,  the  reason  of  the  transition  from 
the  youthful  type  of  Christ,  as  it  is  met  in  the  earlier  frescos  and 
sculpture,  to  the  more  severe  and  majestic  type  of  the  later  repre- 
sentations is  not  manifest.  A  change  so  marked  and  general  could 
not  result  from  fortuitous  or  transient  causes.  Had  the  earlier  type 
of  Christ  tallied  with  the  conceptions  of  the  later  Church  it  would 
have  continued. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  the  Arian  controversy  left  its  impress 
upon  the  art  representations  of  the  Saviour  in  the  fourth  and  follow- 
ing centuries.  It  is  well  known  that  interest  in  the  nature  and 
person  of  Christ  was  not  limited  to  the  theologians,  but  the  ques- 
tion of  his  divinity  was  debated  by  all  classes  of  the  Roman  world. 
The  adoption  of  the  Nicene  and  Constantinopolitan  creeds  must 
necessarily  have  greatly  exalted  the  conception  of  the  dignity  and 
poAver  of  Christ.  This  personage,  "  the  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  .  .  . 
Light  of  Light,  very  God  of  very  God,  ...  by  whom  all  things 
were  made,  .  .  .  who  cometh  to  judge  the  quick  and  the  dead," 
must  find  a  representation  in  art  which  should  correspond  with  this 
sublime  conception.  Evidently  the  earlier  simpler  forms  of  the 
Good  Shepherd  and  of  the  benevolent  "Wonder-worker  failed  to 
express  the  thought  which  the  creed  had  embodied.  To  develop 
a  type  which  might  more  fully  accord  with  the  prevailing  belief 
was  but  natural  and  necessary.  Moreover,  a  triumphing  Church 
demanded  that  the  elaborate  mosaics  which  now  adorned  the 
apses  and  triumphal  arches  of  the  basilicas  should  impress  upon 
the  worshippers  the  truth  of  the  accepted  sjanbols.  The  dog- 
matic interest  must  have  influenced  the  art  development,  and  may 
have  occasioned  the  introduction  of  the  new  type  which  is  the 
representation  of  the  mighty,  the  exalted,  and  superhuman  Christ. 
This  tjT^De  became  common  in  the  imposing  mosaics,  in  some  of  the 
frescos,  and  on  some  of  the  more  pi-ominent  portions  of  the  sarcoph- 
agi, while  the  earlier  type  was  continued  in  the  cycle  of  biblical 
history  and  in  symbolic  representations.     While  the  artistic  exe- 


106  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

cutiou  in  the  latter  is  inferior  it  more  fully  embodied  the  prevailing 
belief. 

The  representations  of  persons  with  uplifted  hands  as  in  the  act 
of  prayer,  technically  called  Orantes,  are  quite  frequent 
in  the  early  Christian  art  of  the  Roman  catacombs. 
While  their  reference  is  not  alwaj^s  clear,  by  association  with  other 
objects  their  import  is  sometimes  suggested.  Probably  they  indi- 
cate the  devout  character  of  the  departed  on  or  near  whose  tomb 
they  are  found.  Possibly  in  exceptional  cases  reference  may  be 
had  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  Examples  are  also  found  sculptured  on 
sarcophagi. 

Representations  of  the  Virgin  are  quite  frequent.'  But  an  iso- 
lated picture  or  a  veritable  portrait  of  Mary  is  not  met  in  the  pre- 
No  symbolical  t^ow^tantine  frescos  of  the  catacombs,  in  the  oldest 
representation  mosaics  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  nor  anywhere  in  the 
of  the  Virgin,  ^.a^i-jiggt  Christian  sculpture.  Generally  she  is  associated 
with  the  child  Jesus,  who  sits  upon  her  lap  or  is  held  in  her  arms. 
The  Virgin  is  never,  like  her  divine  Son,  represented  symbolically. " 

The  Virgin  with  the  star   (Fig.  35)  is  probably  the  oldest  fresco 


Fior.  35.— Virgin  and  star  from  Santa  Priscllla,  Rome. 

^'  De  Rossi  mentions  more  than  twenty. 

"Eckl:  Die  Madonna  als  Gegensfand  cJiristUcher  Kun.stmalerei  imd  Scvlptv.r,  1883, 
p.  3.  On  a  few  gilt  "lasses  of  a  later  origin  she  appears  alone,  and  a  single  example 
of  a  marble  fonnd  in  Gaul,  mnoh  defaced  and  of  unknown  da'e.  bearing  tlie  in- 
scription MARIA  VIRGO  MINISTER  DE  TEMPLO  GEROSOLA,  has  sometimes 
been  referred  to  as  showing  her  consecralion  to  tiie  temple  service  during  her  infancy. 
This  opinion  finds  very  slender  monumental  support — probably  none  earlier  than  tiie 
seventh  century. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS. 


107 


of  this  subject.  It  is  found  in  tlie  cemetery  of  Santa  Priscilla,  and  is 
claimed  by  de  Rossi  to  belong  to  the  first  century^  or  early  part  of  the 
second.  The  most  natural  suggestion  of  the  scene  is  that  of  the 
holy  family.  Joseph  points  to  the  star,  which  is  the  key  to  the 
subject  of  the  fresco,  and  thus  confines  it  to  the  cycle  of  biblical 
history.  The  more  labored  interpretation  of  de  Rossi,  that  the 
male  figure  refers  to  one  of  tlie  pro})hets  of  the  old  covenant  (prob- 
abl}'  to  Isaiah),  who  points  forward  to  the  Star  of  Bethlehem  which 
was  to  indicate  where  the  Virgin  mother  and  the  infant  Jesus  were 
to  be  found,  seems  unnecessary,  and  adds  little  to  the  value  of  the 
testimony  of  such  paintings.  In  either  interpretation  the  fresco 
would  have  a  purely  biblical  character,  and  represent  an  historical 
event  wholly  void  of  the  dogmatic  significance  which  has  been 
attributed  to  it  by  some  Catholic  commentators. 

The  Virgin  and  child  from  Santa  Domitilla  (Fig.  36),  has  been 
referred  to  the  second  half  of 
the  third  centur3^  There  is 
evidence  that  it  was  originally 
a  part  of  a  representation  of 
the  "  adoration  of  the  magi," 
since  faint  traces  of  four  of 
these  magi  are  here  seen,  as 
in  the  fi-esco  from  SS.  Pietro 
e  Marcellino  outlines  of  two 
only  appear.  The  whole  scene 
is  simply  biblical.  It  has  a 
severity  of  artistic  treatment 
suggesting  a  very  early  origin. 
The  fresco  in  the  cemetery 
of  Santa  Agnese  (Fig.  ;37), 
on  the  Via  Nomentana,  be- 
longs to  the  fourth  or  fifth 
centur3^  It  represents  the 
Virgin  Mary  and  the  child 
Jesus. 

The  Virgin  extends  the  hands  in  the  attitude  of  prayer,  in 
harmony  with  the  class  of  figures  called  Ontntes.  Neither  the 
Virgin  nor   child    is   encircled   with   the   nimbus,  but   the   sacred 

'  We  <jive  tliis  and  a  few  otlier  photojjrnplis  to  convey  to  tlie  nninitiated  some  idea 
of  tlie  real  condition  of  these  frescos.  From  tlio  elaborate  cnp;ravinfrs  and  chromo- 
lithographs of  Pcret  and  others,  entirely  unjust  opinions  of  the  artistic  excellence  of 
these  remains  might  be  formed.  Frequently  much  must  be  supplied  both  in  outline 
and  color  to  complete  the  fresco.     Our  plate  is  after  a  photograph  by  Roller. 


-Virgin  and   ohild,  from  Santa  Domitilla. 
Rome. 


108 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


monogram  clearly  indicates'  the  subjects.  This  seems  to  be  the 
first  attempt  to  produce  any  thing  like  a  portrait  of  Mary  The 
growing  taste  for  ornamentation  is  noticed  in  the  jeweled  necklace ; 


Fig.  37.— Virgin  and  child,  from  Santa  Agnese,  Rome. 

the  wide  departure  of  the  details  of  the  figure  from  the  noble 
simplicity  of  the  earlier  frescos  points  to  a  later  origin,  and  plainly 
suggests  a  possible  Byzantine  influence.'' 

From  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  the  artists  who  portray  the 
Virgin  and  the  child  depart  from  the  simple  biblical  story.  The 
frescos,  and  especially  the  elaborate  mosaics,^  seem  to  be  "  little  less 
than  embodied  creeds,  reflecting  from  century  to  century  the  pre- 
vailing tone  of  opinion  on  the  part  of  those  of  highest  authority  in 
the  Church."  *  The  simplicity  of  faith  and  the  supporting  trust 
and  hope  which  characterized  the  Christians  in  the  age  of  obscurity 
and  persecution  yielded  to  the  pomp  and  splendor  of  a  triumphing 
and  protected  Church.^ 

'  The  circumstance  that  the  P  of  the  monogram  points  in  both  instances  toioard  the 
figures  is  manifestly  of  no  dogmatic  importance.  The  claims  of  some  Catholic  ■writers, 
based  on  this  seemingly  accidental  circumstance,  must  be  regarded  as  unscientific. 

'^  From  the  absence  of  the  corona  in  case  of  both  mother  and  child,  and  from  the 
general  style,  de  Rossi  has  been  led  to  place  this  in  the  time  of  Constantine. 

^  These  are  described  later  in  this  chapter. 

*  Mariott:   Tlie  Testimony  of  the  Catacombs,  etc.,  p.  34. 

'  "It  was  the  truth  of  the  Incarnation  which  they  (the  early  Christians)  embodied 
in  their  pictures  of  the  Virgin  mother  and  her  holy  Child.  "  Clirist  crucified,"  they 
recalled,  even  in  the  emblematic  letters  inscribed  beside  him ;  Christ  the  G-ood 
Physician  of  body  and  soul,  in  their  oft-repeated  pictures  of  the  healing  of  the  sick, 
or  the  giving  of  sight  to  the  blind ;  Christ  tiie  Bread  from  Heaven,  in  the  miracle  of 
the  loaves ;  Christ  the  Prince  of  life,  in  the  raising  of  Lazarus  from  the  grave ;  Clirist, 
the  Star  risen  out  of  Jacob,  and  the  Desire  of  all  nations,  in  the  star-led  magi,  laying 
their  offering  at  his  feet  in  Bethlehem ;  Christ,  above  all,  in  that  form  which  to 
Christian  hearts  is  the  tenderest  and  most  loving  embodiment  of  their  Lord,  the 
Good  Shepherd,  bearing  back  upon  his  shoulders  the  lamb,  that,  but  for  him,  had 
been  lost."    Mariott:   Op.  «>,  p.  30. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS. 


109 


Fig.  38,  a  fresco  of 
the  Good  Shepherd 
from     the    seventh 
century,  shows  a  like  |!|i 
decadence.    The  pe- 
culiar      shepherd's 
pipes,  the  crux  gam- 
A  like  tran-    DUltCl,     or  R 
sition  in   swastika 
other    su  b- 
jects.  upon    the 

tunic,  the  inscription 
"  Pastor  "above  the 
head,  are  new  ele- 
ments which  find  no 
place  in  the  simpler 
and  nobler  figures  of 
the  "Good  Shep- 
herd "  from  the  ear- 
lier period  of  Christ- 
ian painting. 

So  also  in  Fig.  39, 
which  is  a  represen- 
tation of  Saint  Ce- 
cilia, found  in  the 
cry})t  of  Santa  Ce- 

ZZZZJMI 


FifT.  3S.— A  Good  Shepherd,  from  the  cemetery  of  Santa  Generosa. 

cilia  in  the  catacomb  of  San 
Calisto.  It  gives  evidence  of 
having  been  painted  over  an 
earlier  mosaic,  some  traces  of 
which  still  remain.  From  the 
peculiar  ornamentation,  the 
richness  of  dress,  etc.,  it  seems 
justifiable  to  refer  it  to  the 
seventh  century,  or  to  tlie  \QYy 
close  of  the  period  of  Avhich  we 
propose  to  treat.  It  sliares  tlic 
general  inferiority  of  the  Avorks 
of  this  century,  and  plainly  re- 
veals the  subjection  of  art  to 
the  influence  and  authority  of 
tlie  Church. 

The   simple  vintage   scenes 


-  r--;':iiS»"».V-.  -■ 

^ammmsmmm. 


"'^■''-'""°:^±^15::?"=:;.!!r^'^"'^'"^' undergo    like    transitions    of 


Santa  Cecilia,  Rome 


110 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


style.  Figs.  1  and  2  {>■>.  pp.  57,  58)  show  the  ease  and  grace  of  the 
treatment  of  these  subjects  as  found  in  the  early  frescos  of  the  cata- 
combs. Nothing  could  be  more  completely  natural  than  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  vine  in  Fig.  1,  while  the  action  of  the  genii  in  Fig.  2  is 
most  free  and  charming.     When  compared  with  Fig,  40  the  change 


Fig.  40.— Vine  ornament  from  San  Calisto,  Rome.  Fourth  century. 
in  treatment  is  manifest.  "Nobody  can  fail  to  notice  how  widely 
they  depart  from  the  truth  and  beauty  of  nature,  and  with  what 
arbitrary  violence  the  branches  are  twisted  into  regular  form,  so  as 
rapidly  to  degenerate  into  a  mere  decorative  pattern." '  Later  still 
a  further  hardening  of  the  lines  and  an  artificial  restraint  are  noticed, 
till  in  the  mosaic  decorations  in  the  mausoleum  of  Galla  Placidia 
(Fig.  41),  at  Ravenna,  "  Grreco-Roman  art  has  reached  the  Byzan- 
tine stage  of  high  conventionality,  still  retaining  great  beauty."^ 

'  Xorthcote  and  Brownlow :  Roma  Sntteranea,  vol.  ii,  p.  151.  To  these  aulliors 
we  are  indebted  for  permission  to  use  these  and  other  plates. 

2  Tyrwhitt:  Christian  Art  Sijmboli.sni,  pp.  66,  67,  and  The  Art-Teachinr/  of  the 
Primitive  Church,  p.  117,  quoted  by  Nortlicote  and  Browulow.     It  is  difficult  to  see 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS. 


Ill 


From  the  fourth  aiul   fil'tli  centuries  a  considerable  number  of 
ornamented  gUt  glasses  which  possess  much  artistic  and   „  .  ,. 
dogmatic  interest  have  been  preserved.    A  few  probably   Kilt  glasses,  or 
belong  to  the  third   and  sixth   centuries.      They  can   J'""''* '''Oro. 
hardly  be  regarded  as  paintings,  but  are  rather  drawings  nude  by  a 


Fig.  -II.— Mosair  vine   ornaiiu'iu  fr  in  t'.uiiie  of  the  mausoleum  of  Galla  Plariilia.   Ravenna, 

A.  D.  -^4(1. 

sharp  pointed  instrument  upon  gold  foil  which  was  placed  u])on 
glass  ;  this  plate  was  tlien  covered  by  another,  and  the  whole  fused 
together.  These  have  becji  fully  described  by  Garrucci  and  others.' 
Their  cycle  is  not  essentially  different  from  that  of  the  catacomb 
frescos,  except  that  the  representation  of  saints  is  somewhat  more 
frecpient,  and  the  dogmatic  element  seems  to  be  more  prominent. 
On  these  the  Virgin  is  found  associated  with  Christ,  with  the  apos- 
tles, Paul  and  Peter,  and  in  a  few  instances  of  late  date  she  is  the 
solitary  figure.''  The  frequent  pictorial  association  of  primacyof 
Peter  and  Paul  is  instructive  in  the  examination  of  the  i'«t"r. 
art  testimony'-  to  the  dogma  of  the  primacy  of  Peter  (v.  Plate  I). 

how  iliosc  mosaics  can  with  an\' propriety  be  described  as  "  rich  acamliiis  scroll- 
work."    V.  Veiiables:  "Mosaics,"  in  Did.  of  Chris.  Antiquities,  p.  1330. 

'  )'.  espociiilly  Vet ri  or nnti  di  figure  in  oro  ti'avuti  nei  cimittri  de'  cristiani  jtrimitlvi 
di  Ii'ornii,  Jto,  Roma,  1864,  and  his  extensive  work,  Storia  dclV  arte  crisf iana,  clc, 
6  vols.,  4t().  Prato,  1873,  seq.  Also,  do  Rossi:  Roma  Softerraiiea,  3  vols..  4to.  Roma, 
1864,  186-7,  1877.  Roller:  Les  Catacombes  de  Rome,  2  vols,  4to.     Paris,  1882. 

'^  It  has  been  questioned  whether  this  name  may  not  apph*  to  some  saintly 
person  named  Mary,  ratlier  than  to  the  motlier  of  Jesus;  since  the  earlier  Christian 
moinmients  seem  not  to  introduce  the  Virgin  in  her  individual  and  independent 
character,  but  the  infant  Jesus  was  the  raison  d'etre  for  tlie  representation  of  the 
mother. 


r 


113  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

With  the  exception  of  a  very  few  of  late  origin  there  is  in  these 
gilded  glasses  no  intimation  of  any  preeminence  of  Peter  over  Paul. 
In  some  instances,  where  these  apostles  are  associated  with  Christ 
on  the  same  glass,  Paul  has  the  place  of  honor;  in  others,  Peter  is  at 
the  right  hand  of  Christ;  thus  showing  that  the  primacy  of  either 
would  not  once  be  suggested  by  the  pictorial  representations. 
Both  wear  the  corona,  as  in  Fig.  3  ;  both  are  represented  in  like 
dress  as  youthful  and  beardless,  as  in  Fig.  4  ;  both  are  receiving  a 
common  crown,  as  in  Fig.  5  ;  both  are  seated  upon  like  Roman 
chairs,  and  bear  equally  the  rolls  as  a  symbol  of  apostolic  authority, 
as  in  Fig.  7  ;  both  alike  are  being  crowned  from  above,  as  in  Figs. 
8,  9,  10.  In  these  art  representations  there  is  no  intimation  of  a 
superiority  or  primacy  of  any  sort  whatever.  This  is  more  note- 
worthy from  the  fact  that  these  glasses  belong  to  a  period  when  the 
primacy  of  Peter  had  already  been  asserted.  Their  teaching,  how- 
ever, entirely  accords  with  the  general  tradition  of  the  joint  agency 
of  Peter  and  Paul  in  founding  the  Church  of  Rome.  In  Fig.  1 
there  is  manifestly  an  attempt  at  portraiture.  The  bronzes,  Figs. 
1  and  2,  have  given  rise  to  much  discussion  relative  to  their  age  and 
character.  Many  archaeologists  believe  that  in  Fig.  1  are  found  the 
traditional  characteristics  of  these  chief  apostles.  Peter  has  a  firmer, 
rounder  head,  thick  curled  hair,  and  a  short  matted  beard  ;  Paul  has 
more  elongated  features,  thinner  hair  inclining  to  baldness,  a  longer 
yet  more  scanty  beard.  Amid  the  contrariety  of  opinions  it  is  impos- 
sible to  pronounce  absolutely  upon  the  age  of  bronze  Fig.  1,  or  the 
person  represented  in  Fig.  2.  The  artistic  excellence  of  the  work 
would  suggest  an  early  origin.' 

It  is  quite  remarkable  that  in   the  cemeteries  and  churches  of 

,  Italy,  and  in  the  art  monuments  of  the  first  four  centuries 

The  cycle     of    ^       '^ ' 

subjects  u  n  i  -  in  other  lands,  the  cycle  of  the  subjects  of  painting,  of 
form.  sculpture,  and  of   the  glyptic  arts  is  nearly  uniform. 

The  same  symbols  from  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  the 
same  biblical  events,  the  same  historical  characters,  are  everywhere 
repeated.  Some  archaeologists  have  accounted  for  this  uniformity 
on  the  supposition  that  the  Church  had  given  its  sanction  to  these 
as  a  means  of  expressing  and  perpetuating  a  common  faith,  and  of 
teaching  doctrines  which  were  regarded  as  fundamental,  thus  guard- 
ing against  the  attempts  of  heretical  teachers  to  divide  the  Church. 
Outside  the  catacombs  the  number  of  surviving  paintings  of  the 
first   six   centuries  is   very  limited.     From   documentary  evidence 

'  While  tliese  bronzes  properly  belong  to  the  department  of  plastic  art  or  sculp- 
ture, it  seems  more  convenient  to  refer  to  tliem  here  in  connection  with  the  gilded 
glasses  containing  like  subjects. 


PLATE  I.-GiMed  glasses  and  bronze  bust.s  i :presentlne  Pet-^r  and  Paul. 


ExVRLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  113 

we  are  justified  in  believing  that  tlie  art  influence  of  the  Roman- 
Christian  world  extended  far  and  wide  in  the  coun-  paintinfrs  still 
tries  of  western  and  northern  Europe  which  had  been  i»  existence. 
Christianized  through  the  zealous  labours  of  missionaries.  We  infer 
that  painting  Avas  extensively  used  in  the  decoration  of  imposing 
churches  in  Gaul,  along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  and  in  Sjjaiu.  The 
stjde  and  subjects  of  such  paintings  were  probably  similar  to  those 
of  Christian  Rome,  somewhat  modified  by  influences  peculiar  to  tlie 
barbarian  i)eoples.  Ireland,  which  was  converted  in  the  first  half  of 
the  fifth  century,  and  had  developed  its  ecclesiastical  life  almost 
independently  of  Roman  influence,  was  not  Avanting  in  attem])ts  to 
ornament  the  churches  with  appropriate  mural  paintings.  Of  these 
none  of  an  earlier  date  than  the  seventh  century  have  survived. 

A  few  illuminated  manuscripts  have  been  preserved  to  our  time. 
The  art  of  illumination  common  to  the  classic  peoples  was  prac- 
tised by  the  Christians  from  the  fourth  century,  and  Miniatures  and 
reached  its  highest  perfection  in  the  Middle  Ages,  illuminations. 
Such  manuscripts  were  sometimes  dedicated  to  persons  of  high 
ofiicial  station,  or  were  given  by  the  wealthy  to  religious  houses. 
This  was  probably  one  reason  of  their  rich  ornamentation.  The 
purpose  of  the  illumination  was  partly  artistic  and  partly  didactic. 
The  beautiful  illuminations  of  portions  of  the  Scriptures,  of  Psalters, 
and  of  prayer-books  which  have  come  to  us  from  the  medijeval 
period  suggest  a  similar  practice  of  the  Church  from  the  fourth  to 
the  seventh  century. 

A  fine  example  of  illumination  of  Greek  origin,  believed  to 
date  from  about  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  is  pre-  boou  of  Gene- 
served  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna.  This  work  sis. 
comprises  biblicnl  characters  and  allegorical  figures  which  are 
helpful  in  the  interpretation  of  the  text.  "It  contains  twenty- 
four  leaves  illuminated  on  both  sides,  in  most  cases  with  ]>ictures 
arranged  in  two  rows  on  purple  vellum.  The  execution  is  slight, 
almost  superficial,  but  yet  shows  certainty  of  touch.  We  still  find 
here  a  close  observation  of  the  life  of  men  and  animals  ;  the  figures 
show  considerable  power  of  bodily  expression  and  movement  ;  they 
are  of  sturdy  build,  for  slenderness  of  proportion  is  not,  as  often 
supposed,  the  sign  of  Byzantine  as  distinguished  from  Western 
art,  but  rather  of  a  later  period  as  opposed  to  an  earlier."  ' 

Tlie  religious  books  are  generally  more  full}'-  and  carefully  illus- 
trated than  the  ancient  treatises  on  science,  or  even  the  fragments 

' 'Woltmann  and  TVoermann :  History  of  Painting,  vol.  i,  p.  190.     L<>barto:  His. 
toire  des  Arts  industriels,  etc.,  2d  ed.,  1872.     Plate  42   gives  a  colored  reproduction 
of  a  single  scene — the  interview  of  Jacob  with  his  sons. 
8 


114  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

of  classic  literature.  The  pictures  are  not  of  persons  onl}^,  nor  are 
they  confined  to  the  representation  of  historical  events  or  places. 
but  delineations  of  mental  qualities,  virtues  and  vices,  protective 
powers,  etc.,  are  not  infrequent.  The  borders  of  these  manuscripts 
are  often  rich  with  ornamentation  in  which  the  harmony  of  propor- 
tions and  colour  is  carefully  studied. 

The  few  leaves  of  a  Latin  Bible  preserved  in  the  Royal  Library 
Fragment  of  a  of  Berlin  belong  to  the  sixth  century.  On  these  are 
Latin  Bible.  found  somewhat  mutilated  representations  of  the  history 
of  Saul.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  they  have  suffered  so  mu(;h, 
since  their  artistic  excellence  appears  to  have  been  exceptional. 

A  Syrian  Gospel-book,  of  the  last  quarter  of  the  sixth  century, 
Syrian  Gospel-  i>^  specially  interesting  for  containing  one  of  the  earliest 
book.  pictorial  representations  of  the  crucifixion.     We  have 

already  seen  that  the  early  Christians  avoided  depicting  the  painful 
and  more  repellent  scenes  in  the  life  and  passion  of  Christ.  Later, 
however,  when  the  Church  had  secured  complete  recognition,  and 
art  had  declined,  these  subjects  were  represented  in  all  their 
^  ,     .      literalness.     In  the  border  of  this  manuscript  the  cruci- 

Tlie    first    pic-  ^ 

toriai  truciflx-  fied  Lord  appiears  fastened  to  a  cross  by  four  nails  ;  on 
'°"-  either  side  are  the  thieves,  while  below  St.  John,  the 

Marys,  and  the  soldiers  casting  lots  for  Christ's  garments  are  pictured; 
in  another  part  the  resurrection,  the  Marys  at  the  tomb  addressed 
by  the  angel,  and  the  Saviour  appearing  to  the  women  are  delin- 
eated. As  might  be  expected,  this  provincial  work,  the  manuscript 
of  which  was  written  in  the  convent  of  St.  John  at  Zagba,  in  Mes- 
opotamia, and  the  painting  executed  by  Rabula,  a  monk,  is  quite 
inferior  in  execution  to  much  that  is  preserved  in  the  great  centers 
of  commerce  and  enlightenment.' 

Most  of  the  illuminations  of  the  sixth  century  exhibit  consider- 
able artistic  power,  and  give  evidence  of  an  attempt  at  art  revival 
after  the  fearful  destruction  and  decadence  of  the  fifth  centuiy. 

MOSAICS. 

A  very  interesting  class  of  monuments,  illustrating  the  thought 
and  artistic  power  of  the  early  Church,  are  the  Christian  mosaics. 
They  can  be  classified  neither  with  paintings  nor  with 
sculptui-e.  They  can  hardly  be  ranked  among  the  fine 
arts  at  all,  since  their  production  seems  in  some  respects  to  depend 
more  upon  the  mechanical  than  ui)on  the  artistic  faculty.  This 
consideration  would  lead  us  to  classify  the  musivist  among  artisans 

■  On  tliis  illuminated  manuscript  v.  Garnicci :  Isioria,  etc.,  Plates  128-140,  and 
Labarte,  Op.  cit,  vol.  i,  pp.  164,  165,  Plate  44. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  115 

rather  than  among  artists.  To  wliat  extent  tlie  musivist  Avas  als(» 
the  creator  of  his  design  cannot  now  be  known.  Since,  however, 
mosaic  is  a  branch  of  pictorial  art,  or  art  on  a  surface  including  two 
dimensions,  in  which  color  effects  are  studied,  it  is  Nearest  allied 
most  nearly  allied  to  painting,  and  can  best  be  studied  t«P^*°''"K- 
as  the  historic  successor  of  the  frescos  of  the  catacombs. 

With  other  arts  the  Christian  Church  inherited  from  the  heathen 
world  the  mosaic  also.  Some  of  the  most  elaborate  Borrowed  from 
decorative  works  of  antiquity  wei'e  in  this  style.  The  antiquity. 
Scriptures  speak  of  pavements  "  of  red,  and  blue,  and  white,  and 
black  marble  in  the  palace  of  Ahasuerus  "  (Esther  i,  6).  The  fre- 
quent mention  of  mosaics  by  Pliny,  and  the  preservation  of  such 
beautiful  examples  as  the  "  Bellerophon,"  the  "  Doves  of  the  Ca]»- 
itoline  Museum,"  the  "  Battle  of  Arbela,"  and  the  fountain  pieces  of 
Pompeii,  show  that  this  art  had  been  carried  to  great  perfection  by 
pre-Christian  peoples.  The  Romans  recognised  three  kinds  of  mo- 
saics :  1.  The  opus  tesselldtiim,  which  consisted  of  small  pieces  of 
stone  or  bits  of  marble,  arranged  in  regular  geometric  forms.  This 
was  the  most  ancient  style.  2.  The  02)hs  vermiculatum,  which  re- 
ceived its  name  from  the  fineness  of  the  pieces  of  marble  of  which 
the  work  was  composed.  3.  The  op\is  sectile,  which  Avas  formeil  of 
plates  of  marbles  of  different  colors,  making  thereby  a  decoratetl 
veneer. 

The  genuine  Christian  mosaic,  that  is,  the  use  for  decorative  or 
didactic  purposes  of  cubes  of  colored  glass  on  walls  Limited  use  in 
or  ceilings,  instead  of  in  pavements,  is  but  very  ^■he  catacombs, 
sparingly  found  in  the  catacombs.  The  few  examples  Avhicli  still 
survive  adhere  quite  closely  in  general  style  and  subjects  to  the 
contemporaneous  frescos.  The  Saviour  seated  between  Peter  and 
Paul,  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  the  healing  of  the  paralytic,  Daniel  in  the 
lions'  den,  a  couple  of  medallion  busts  of  a  man  and  wife,  the  latter 
with  arms  outstretched  in  prayer  in  the  general  fashion  of  the 
Orantes,  comprise  nearly  all  the  subjects  treated  in  these  mosaics. 
They  are  usually  of  inferior  workmanship,  and  promise  little  for 
that  wealth  of  ornamentation  afterward  met  in  the  Constantinian 
and  post-Constantinian  churches. 

An  incidental  benefit  of  the  study  of  the  mosaics  from  the  fourth 
to  the  tenth  century  is  the  aid  thus  afforded  in  detei--  utility  of  tiic 
mining  the  age  of  the  paintings  in  the  catacombs  them-  study, 
selves.'  Little  doubt  can  be  entertained  relative  to  the  progressive 
ornamentation  of  subterranean  burial  places  through  the  zeal  and 
devotion  of  the  popes.  Careful  study  of  the  Church  mosaics  be- 
'  de  Jouy :  Les  Mosdiques  chretiennes,  etc.,  Paris,  1857,  p.  6. 


lia  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

tween  A.  D.  350  and  A.  D.  450  (the  latter  date  marking  the  de- 
struction attending  the  terrible  irruption  of  Attila)  shows  three 
types :  those  of  Santa  Constantia,  which  are  allied  to  classic  art ; 
those  in  the  Chapel  of  Galla  Placidia  at  Ravenna,  whose  Good 
Shepherd  suggests  immediately  the  primitive  paintings  of  the  cata- 
combs, belong  to  the  cycle  of  symbolic  art  ;  and  the  mosaics  of 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  at  Rome,  which  represent  purely  historical 
and  biblical  events.  All  belong  to  the  old  Roman  rather  than  to 
the  Byzantine  school.'  The  latter  school  seems  to  have  had  com- 
plete sway  from  the  middle  of  the  fifth  to  the  seventh  century, 
except  where  the  Lombard  churches  show  a  partial  emancipation 
from  its  influence. 

Their  extensive  use  for  decorative  and  dogmatic  purposes,  and 
their  great  durability,  give  to  mosaics  almost  a  first  rank  among 
archaeological  monuments.  With  regard  to  no  other  objects,  how- 
ever, are  greater  skill  and  caution  needed  to  ensure  correct  results. 
Caution  against  Sucli  is  the  natui'c  of  the  materials,  the  permanence  of 
restorations.  i\iq  colors,  and  the  ease  M'ith  which  insertions  can  be 
made,  that  experts  may  be  deceived.  It  is  probable  that  hardly  an 
important  mosaic  has  escaped  attempts  at  restoration.  Their  evi- 
dential value  may  thus  be  seriously  impaired.  Only  when  there  is 
some  assurance  that  even  the  restorations  are  in  the  spirit  of  the 
original  can  these  monuments  be  regarded  as  witnesses  to  the  life 
and  thought  of  their  age. 

The  location  of  mosaics  is  various  in  different  churches  and 
in  the  same  church.     They  are  more  usually  employed 

Where   found.    .        ,  ,      ^  .,.  ,.      ■,  .,  •         ,        i    "^      i 

in  the  vaulted  ceilings  of  the  tribune,  m  the  broad 
spaces  on  the  face  of  the  triumphal  arch,  on  the  spandrels  of  arches 
in  the  main  nave,  and  on  the  entablatures.  These  positions  not 
only  afford  the  greatest  available  area,  but  also  place  the  pictures, 
decorative  or  didactic,  in  the  most  favorable  light  for  stud3^ 

The  question  of  the  chronologj^  of  these,  as  of  other  early  Christ- 
ian   monuments,  has  greatly   divided  the    opinion   of 

Chronology.  i        i       •  -r-, 

archaeologists.  Rome  is  probably  the  site  of  the  earliest 
and  best  preserved,  unless  we  except  the  remarkable  group  in  the 
dome  of  St.  George  in  Thessalonica  (modern  Salonica).  If  this 
St.  George  of  Church  was  dedicated  by  Constantine  during  his  sojourn 
Thessalonica.      in  that  city  in  A.  D.  323,-  then  its  mosaics  excel  all 

'  Tyrwhitt:  Art  Teaching  of  (he  Primitive  Church,    London,  1882,  pp.  148,  149. 

'  Texier  and  Piillan :  ^glises  Byzantines,  plates  xxxi-xxxiv.  In  this  work  the 
origin  of  the  church  is  discussed  at  some  length.  Especial  stress  is  laid  upon  the 
fact  that  the  portraits  in  mosaic  are  all  of  those  saints  who  lived  before  Constantine. 
Also  the  character  of  the  symbols  on  the  bricks  of  the  pavement  is  regarded  of  great 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  117 

other  extra-catacombal  ones  in  age,  extent,  and  magnificence.  Its 
dome  (f.  Fig.  105),  two  hundred  and  sixteen  feet  in  circumference,  is 
ahnost  entii'ely  covered  with  elaborate  and  imposing  designs  which 
have  been  estimated  to  contain  more  than  36,000,000  tessene,  or 
small  cubes  of  glass.  The  style  of  the  decoration  is  somewhat  like 
that  on  the  walls  of  Pompeii,  and  immediately  reminds  the  student 
of  some  of  the  early  frescos  of  the  catacombs.  This  circumstance 
would  suggest  an  early  origin. 

The  grouping  of  the  figures  is  more  easy  and  natural  than  in  the 
later  Byzantine  art.  There  is  manifest  attention  to  per-  character  <if 
spective,  while  the  variety  of  character  and  expression  ^^ese  mosaics, 
is  indicative  of  artistic  power  and  freedom.  The  cupola  is  divided 
into  eight  nearly  equal  compartments.  The  handling  of  subjects 
is  generall}'^  uniform,  though  in  some  particulars  there  is  striking 
variety.  Each  segment  contains  the  representation  of  a  building, 
evidently  designed  for  Christian  worshij),  wonderfully  elaborated, 
decorated,  and  furnished  with  the  paraphernalia  for  ritualistic 
service.  In  the  foreground  of  each  are  two  majestic  figures,  clad 
in  the  robes  of  the  officiating  clergy,  with  hands  extended  in 
the  attitude  of  prayer  or  benediction.  In  the  fashion  of  the  Byzan- 
tine art  the  names  of  these  are  written  upon  the  wall  near  the  fig- 
ure.' They  refer  to  some  of  the  noted  men  of  the  Eastern  Church 
whose  labors  were  effective  in  shaping  its  history  and  in  formula- 
ting its  doctrines. 

The  only  rival  of  St.  George  in  the  age  of  its  mosaics  is  the  circular 
Church,  Santa  C'onstanza  of  Rome.    As  elsewhere  stated  ganta  constan- 
('».  Fig,  118),  this  building  was  erected  by  Constantine,  ^a  of  Rome. 
and  is  therefore  of  the  fourth  century.^    What  was  the  original  pur- 
pose of  its  erection,  wliether  for  a  baptistery  to  the  adjacent  basilica 
of  Santa  Aghese,  or  as  a  burial  place  for  the  emperor's 
daughters,  Constantia  and  Helena,  may  not  be  known. 
The  style  of  some  of  its  mosaics  certainly  indicates  an  early  origin. 

importance,  v.  pp.  133-135.  Unger:  Rsch  u.  Gruber's  Encyclopcedia.  Ix.xxiv,  407, 
places  these  mosuics  at  a  much  later  period.  Woltmsinn  and  Woermann :  v.  Uistory 
of  Puintinfj.  vol.  i,  p.  198,  note,  share  Unger's  opinion.  Ba.yei:  Recherches  pour 
servir  a  Vhisioire  de  la  Peinture,  etc.,  v.  p.  85  and  note,  inclines  to  place  them  between 
the  age  of  Constantine  and  that  of  Justinian,  but  is  in  doubt.  Kraus  also  accepts 
Unger's  opinion. 

'  This  is  generally  quoted  in  proof  of  a  later  origin,  though  not  decisive. 

■^  The  age  of  these  mosaics  has  likewise  been  a  subject  of  controversy.  Doubtless 
one  reason  of  the  widely  different  opinions  is  the  faihire  to  discriminate  between  the 
originals  and  the  restorations.  Tiiat  some  of  the  restorations  belong  to  the  seventh 
century  is  conceded,  but  tliat  some  portions  reach  back  to  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  can  hardly  be  doubted. 


118  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

The  rich  decoration  upon  a  white  ground,  representing  the  vin- 
tage, together  with  many  figures  of  genii,  birds,  fruit,  etc.,  liken  it 
very  strongly  to  the  heathen  art  of  the  period.  There  is  in  it  very 
little  which  is  distinctively  Christian.  The  space  is  divided  into 
twelve  sections  or  compartments,  two  of  which  extend  into  the 
form  of  an  apse.  The  subjects  seem  to  be  arranged  on  the  general 
principle  of  artistic  balancing,  somewhat  after  the  style  of  some 
early  frescoed  ceilings  of  the  catacombs.  The  mosaics  of  the  dome 
have  long  since  disappeared.' 

A  like  classical  spirit  is  noticed  in  the  slight  mosaic  remains  in  two 
In  San  chapels  of  the  Baptistery  of  San  Giovanni  in  Laterano, 
Giovanni  in   at  Rome.     They  belong  to  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth 
Laterano.  century.     While  the  opinion  that  they  were  part  of 

the  palace  of  Constantine  has  been  questioned,  they  nevertheless 
bear  the  peculiar  character  of  naturalism  which  associates  them  in 
the  same  class  with  Santa  Constantiaof  Rome,  and  St.  George  of  Thes- 
ciiange  in  tbe   salonica.     But  this  richness  of  decoration  soon  2:)assed 

subjects  of  mo-  a,way.  The  later  mosaics  are  executed  with  a  very  differ- 
saics     in     the  J  -' 

diurches.  ent  feeling.     A  more  sober,  didactic  purpose  seems  to 

control  the  artists.  Dr.  Woltmann  says  :  "  This  decorative  style, 
with  its  playful  s^'mbolism,  did  not  in  the  long  run  suit  the  serious- 
ness of  the  Christian  spirit.  When  St.  Nilus  (A.  D.  450)  was  con- 
sulted about  the  decoration  of  a  church  he  rejected,  as  childish  and 
unworthy,  the  intended  design  of  plants,  birds,  animals,  and  a  num- 
ber of  crosses,  and  desired  the  interior  to  be  adorned  with  pictures 
from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  the  same  motive  that 
Gregory  II.  expressed  afterward  in  the  following  words  :  '  Painting 
is  employed  in  churches  for  this  reason,  that  those  who  are  ignorant 
of  the  Scriptures  may  at  least  see  on  the  walls  what  they  are  unable 
to  read  in  the  books.'  From  this  time,  accordingly,  church  pictures 
become  no  longer  purely  decorative  ;  they  serve  for  edification,  for 
instruction,  for  devotion.  With  this  object  Christian  art  makes  the 
great  step  from  mere  symbolic  suggestion  to  real  representation."* 
Santa  Puden-  This  statement  finds  happy  illustration  in  the  remark- 
ziana.  2ih\Q  mosaic  of  Santa  Pudenziana,  on  the  Esquiline,  in 

Rome.     The  work  also  shows  the  necessity  of  careful  discrimination 

'  E.  Miintz:  Notes  surles  Mosaiques  chretiennes  de  ritalie,  in  the  Revzte  Archeologique, 
J875  and  1878,  attempts  to  show  that  this  cupola  displays  a  composition  entirely 
pagan  in  character.  He  claims  that  it  represents  a  triumph  of  Bacchus,  which  is  in- 
dicated by  tlie  accompanying  satyrs,  bachautes,  tigers,  etc.  Possibly  this  may  fur- 
nish a  ground  for  the  opinion  that  this  church  was  originally  a  temple  of  Bacchus,  as 
advocated  by  Ciampini  iv.  De  sacris  (edificiis),  and  by  other  more  recent  archteologisCs. 

-  Uidtory  of  Painting,  vol.  i,  p.  167. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  xVND  MOSAICS.  119 

between  originals  and  restorations.  Labarte '  believes  that  the 
apostles  and  female  figures  are  from  the  close  of  the  fourth  century, 
but  that  the  Christ,  the  symbols  of  the  evangelists,  and  some  other 
portions  are  of  later  origin.'^  Garrucci,  Woltmann,  and  others  refer 
this  mosaic  to  Pope  Siricius,  who  built  the  church  in  390  A.  T).  It 
certainly  marks  a  transition  from  the  decorative  style  to  the  historic 
and  didactic.  In  the  center  is  a  colossal  figure  of  a  bearded  and  niin- 
bused  Christ,  seated  in  a  richly  jeweled  chair  and  clad 
in  flowing  robes.  He  extends  his  right  hand  in  the 
manner  of  blessing,  while  in  his  left  is  an  open  book.  On  his  right 
antl  left  are  arranged  the  apostles,  Peter  and  Paul  being  next  to  the 
Saviour.  On  the  heads  of  the  latter,  female  figures  of  great  dignity, 
supposed  to  represent  the  Jewish  and  the  Gentile  Churches,'  place 
wreaths  of  triumph.  Behind  the  Christ  is  a  richly  jeweled  cross,  stand- 
ing on  a  mountain  ajaart  by  itself.  Rising  in  the  distance  arc  archi- 
tectural structures  representing  the  two  sacred  cities,  Bethlehem  and 
Jerusalem,  while  above  in  the  clouds  float  the  symbols  of  the  Evan- 
gelists. The  whole  work  is  of  a  most  serious,  yet  artistic,  character. 
The  transition  from  the  style  of  Santa  Constantia  to  that  of 
Santa  Pudenziana  is  most  remarkable.  That  within  a  half  century 
there  should  be  presented  so  great  a  contrast  in  interior  transition  i  n 
church  decoration  certainly  suggests  some  exceptional  style,  ana  the 
cause.  The  classic  character  of  nearly  ever}^  i)art  of 
this  mosaic  differs  much  from  the  art  of  the  age  of  Constantine 
and  of  his  immediate  successors.  Moreover  the  seriousness  of 
the  religious  teaching  embodied  in  it  is  noteworthy.  The  Christ 
seems  to  stand  midway  between  the  youthful  and,  for  the  most 
part,  impersonal  Christ  of  the  catacombs  and  that  severer  and 
more  gloomy  type  which  is  prominent  in  the  later  frescos  and 
mosaics.  Probably  the  art  historians  are  correct  in  attributing  this 
result  mainly  to  the  impulse  given  to  art  studies  by  the  legal  enact- 
ments of  the  emperors.  The  demand  of  the  now  established  religion 
for  churches  not  only  of  greater  dimensions  but  also  of  increased 
magnificence  was  in  itself  a  stimulus  to  art  activity.  There  is 
also  discovered  in  some  of  the  mosaics  of  this  period  a  tendem^v 

'  Art^  indmtriels,  vol.  ii,  pp.  338-342,  and  4.5i,  plate  Ivii.  v.  also  Vilct:  hud'S 
sur  V Ilistoire  de  I'Art,  Paris,  1864,  vol.  i,  pp.  18-39. 

^  Crowe  and  Cavacaselle :  History  of  PaintiiKj  in  Italy,  London,  1S64,  vol.  i,  lip- 
12,  13,  recognise  numerous  restorations  in  these  figures. 

*  Garrucci :  Tstoria,  etc.  Woltmann  and  Wocrmann :  IlUstory  of  Painliivj,  vol.  i. 
p.  167.  Others  see  in  these  the  representations  of  the  sisters  SS.  Pudeutiuna  .•iml 
Presedea.  v.  Gerspach:  La  Mosaique,  p.  140;  also  Barbet  de  Jouy:  Lts  Musav/ues 
chretiennes,  p.  49. 


130  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

to  return  to  classic  models,  and  to  subject  the  artist  to  the  rules  of 
the  ancient  school/ 

The  mosaics  of  Santa  Sabina  at  Rome  belong  to  the  fifth  century. 
They  consist  of  two  female  figures,  one  marked  ^'■Mcdesia 
ex  circxirncisione^^  or  the  church  of  the  circumcision  ; 
the  other  "  JEcclesia  ex  gentibus^''  or  the  church  of  the  Gentiles  ;  also 
of  an  inscription  of  seven  verses,  which  gives  the  occasion  of  the 
origin  of  the  mosaic,  and  contains  a  highly  eulogistic  notice  of  the 
artist.*     The  type  of  these  is  entirely  Roman. 

The  few  remnants  of  the  mosaics  of  San  Paolo  fuori  le  mura,  on 
St.  Paul  beyond  the  Via  Ostia,  must  also  be  referred  to  this  century, 
the  walls.  The  destruction  of  this  interesting   church  by  fire,  in 

1823,  removed  some  of  the  most  valuable  Christian  monuments  of 
the  fifth  century  Avhich  had  anywhere  survived.  The  few  original 
mosaics  upon  the  triumj^hal  arch  were  prepared  by  the  order  of 
Galla  Placidia,  daughter  of  Theodosius.^ 

The  completest  series  of  mosaics  ai  Rome,  dating  from  the  fifth 
Santa  Maria  century,  is  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  called  also  the 
Maggiore.  Liberian  Basilica.  Their  exceptionally  artistic  character 
has  frequently  been  noted  by  critics.  They  seem  to  be  entirely 
isolated  from  works  before  and  after  the  period.  The  suggestion 
has  been  made  that  the  artists  formed  these  mosaics  after  the 
fashion  of  the  classical  bassreliefs,  especially  those  of  the  columns 
of  Trajan  and  of  the  Antonines,  while  their  predecessors  had 
taken  the  frescos  of  the  baths  as  their  models,  and  their  succes- 
sors were  influenced  by  Greece  or  Byzantium.*  The  arch  of  the 
tribune,  divided  into  three  zones,  is  decorated  Avith 
New  Testament  scenes.  In  the  first  are  the  Annun- 
ciation and  the  Presentation  in  the  temple  ;  in  the  second  the 
Adoration  of  the  Magi,  and  the  Dispute  of  Jesus  with  the  doctors 

■  "Laws  were  enacted  by  Constantine  (A.  D.  334 and  337)  to  promote  the  training 
of  architects,  and  to  grant  tiiem  specific  exemptions,  as  well  as  to  painters,  sculptors, 
and  workers  in  mosaic.  In  A.  D.  375  the  emperors  Valentinian,  Valens,  and 
Gratian  promulgated  au^  edict  granting  important  privileges  to  professors  of  paint- 
ing."    Woltmann  and  Woermann :  History  of  Painting,  vol.  i,  p.  169. 

*  C.  J.  Hemans  claims  that  of  tiie  whole  mosaic  composition  in  Santa  Sabina  only 
these  two  figures,  representing  the  Jewish  and  Cliristiau  covenants,  are  original. 
V.  Academy,  1874,  p.  415. 

*  Barbet  de  Jouy:  Les  Mosaiques  chretiennes,  etc.,  pp.  18,  19.  Forster:  Unter 
Italien,  p.  27G.     Gerspach:   La  Mosaique,  pp.  47,  48. 

■•v.  Edmund  Tenables:  Article  "Mosaics"  in  the  Dictionary  of  Christian  An- 
tiquities, vol.  ii,  p.  1327.  Also  Lord  Lindsay :  History  of  Christian  Art,  2d  edition, 
London,  1885,  vol.  i,  p.  264;  Vitet:  Etudes  sur  VHistoire  de  VArt,  Paris,  1864, 
vol.  i,  p.  241. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  121 

in  the  temple.  In  the  first  division  of  the  third  zone  are  found  the 
Massacre  of  tlie  Infants  and  all  the  accompanying  circumstances  and 
persons — as  Ilerod,  his  guards  who  execute  his  orders,  and  a  grouj) 
of  females  who  shield  their  little  children  in  their  arms.  The  second 
division  is  occupied  by  the  cities  of  Bethlehem  and  Jerusalem,  made 
sacred  by  the  birth  and  death  of  the  Saviour.  The  mosaics  which 
are  arranged  on  the  entablatures  on  either  side  of  the  main  na\e  arc 
given  to  the  illusti'ation  of  Old  Testament  history.  By  destruction 
and  replacement,  the  original  forty-two  distinct  pictures  of  the 
series  have  been  reduced  to  twenty-seven.  The  first  series  begins 
in  the  upper  left  hand  portion  with  the  interview  of  Abraham  with 
Melchizedec,  and  terminates  with  the  history  of  Isaac  and  Jacob. 
On  the  right  hand  the  series  begins  with  the  finding  of  Moses,  and 
ends  with  the  battle  of  Beth-horon.  The  treatment  of  the  mosaics 
in  the  nave  is  far  superior  to  that  on  the  triumphal 
arch.  Much  animation  and  spirit  characterize  some  of 
the  figures.  The  presence  of  a  classical  freedom  and  excellence 
is  manifest  in  many  of  the  forms.  Yet  the  strong  biblical  char- 
acter of  these  mosaics  indicates  the  introduction  of  a  didactic 
principle  into  the  decoration  of  the  churches,  in  harmony  with  the 
teaching  of  the  more  influential  Christian  fathers.' 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  mosaics  of  Ravenna  must  also  be 
referred  to  this  centur3^  In  no  other  city  can  this  art  Mosaics  of  Ra- 
be  so  consecutively  studied  in  the  monuments.  They  veima. 
are  well-preserved,  and  have  suffered  fewer  changes  from  restora- 
tion. Moreover,  they  seem  to  have  been  arranged  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  architectural  plan,  rather  than  to  serve  the  purjjoses  of 
mere  decoration.  Nearly  all  of  them,  too,  were  constructed  upon 
classical  principles,  free  from  that  Byzantine  influence  which  a 
little  later  so  effectually  repressed  the  naturalness  of  art  ex- 
pression. 

The  earliest  mosaics  of  Ravenna^  are  preserved  in  the  baptistery 

'  For  a  description  see  Biinsen:  BnsiUken  Roms,  Bd.  iii,  Th.  2,  pp.  202,  etc.  For 
good  views  see  Bunsen :  plates  ix,  x ;  and  Garrucci :  Istoria,  etc.,  plates  ccxi-ccxxii. 
For  art  estimates  see  Vitet:  Ilistoire  de  Vart,  vol.  i,  pp.  241-243;  Lord  Lind.-say: 
nM.  of  Christ.  Art,  vol.  1,  p.  265.  For  a  very  full  description  of  this  church  v. 
Valentini :  La  patriar.ale  basilica  Liheriana.  This  is  one  of  four  treatises  on  the  four 
great  basilicas  of  Rome,  prepared  and  published  under  the  auspices  of  tlie  Roman 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

'^  For  the  mosaics  of  Ravenna  among  others  see  London  Times,  Sept.  25,  and  Dec. 
30,  187G.  Gerspach:  La  Mosaique.  Richter :  Bie  Mosaiken  Ravmnas,  Wien,  1878. 
Quast:  Die  alt  chrislKchen  Bauwerke  von  Ravenna.  Berlin,  1842.  Woltmann  and 
Woermaun :  Hist,  of  Painting,  vol.  i.  Texier  and  Pullan :  Les  ^jliscs  ByzuntiiuiS. 
Labarte :  Histoire  des  arts  indusiriels,  etc.,  vol.  iv. 


122  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

of  the  church  formerly  called  Ecclesia  Ursiana,  now  San  Giovanni 
San  Giovanni  in  i"  fonte;  they  date  from  A.  D.  430.  The  building 
fonte.  is   octagonal,    surmounted   by   a   cupola.       The    span- 

drels of  the  lower  tier  of  arches  are  enriched  with  eight  noble 
figures  of  prophets  upon  a  background  of  gold,  and  decorated  with 
acanthus  leaves  and  scroll  work.  The  cupola  is  divided  into 
two  zones,  the  lower  of  which  is  ornamented  with  colonnaded 
churches,  throned  crosses,  altars,  chairs,  tombs  ;  the  upper  con- 
tains   the  twelve  apostles,   who  circle  round  the  crowning  scene, 

the  baptism  of  Christ  by  John  in  Jordan.       The  ac- 

The  apostles  i  '' 

and  the  baptism  tion  of  the  apostles,  as  they  advance  with  jeweled 
of  Christ.  crowns  toward  the  figure  of  Christ,  is  spirited  and  in 

the  style  of  the  best  classical  work.  The  Baptist,  a  strong,  half 
nude  figure,  pours  Avater  from  a  shell  upon  the  head  of  the  Saviour, 
who  stands  in  the  stream,  while  the  descent  of  the  Spirit  in  the 
shape  of  a  dove  ratifies  the  sacrament.  The  one  incongruous  ele- 
ment is  the  representation  of  the  Jordan  by  a  river-god,  in  true 
mythological  style.  This  is  a  further  illustration  of  the  religious 
syncretism  which  was  so  widely  prevalent. 

Equally  interesting,  and  even  richer  in  mosaics,  is  the  mauso- 
Mausoieum  of  leum  of  Galla  Placidia,  built  in  A.  D.  440.  It  is  a 
Gaiia  Placidia.  church  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  and  is  now  known 
as  SS.  Nazario  e  Celso.  It  is  impossible  by  mere  description  to 
give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  magnificence  of  this  church.  Nearly 
the  entire  interior,  both  walls  and  ceiling,  is  covered  with  mosaics 
of  exceeding  richness  and  high  artistic  excellence.  They  can  be 
classified  under  neither  the  earlier  nor  later  school,  but  have  been 
justly  regarded  as  representing  a  transition  from  the  style  of  the 
earlier  catacombs  to  that  of  genuine  Byzantine  art.  Amid  the 
multitude  of  interesting  objects  two  figures  especially  arrest  atten- 
tion and  (challenge  careful  study.  The  first  is  in  the  chief  lunette 
opposite  to  the  entrance.  It  is  that  of  a  man  of  earnest 
mien  striding  rapidly  along,  his  robe  flying  in  the  wind, 
bearing  a  cross  upon  his  shoulder  and  an  open  book  in  his  right 
hand.  Before  him  is  a  burning  grate;  behind,  a  closet,  where  rolls 
supposed  to  represent  the  gospels  are  seen.  The  old  reference  of 
this  to  Christ  now  finds  few  defenders,  since  it  is  essentially  diffei- 
ent  from  all  other  delineations  of  our  Lord  known  to  art.  The  refer- 
ence of  it  to  St.  Laurence  and  his  martyrdom  seems  to  be  the  most 
reasonable  interpretation  of  the  scene.'     The  second  notable  figure 

'  Woltmann  and  "Woermann :  Op.  cit,  vol.  i,  p.  174.  Venables:  Article  "Mo- 
saics "  ia  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities.  Contra,  Gerspach  :  La  Mosaique,  p.  50, 
who  regards  it  a  picture  of  Christ.     Also  Quast:   Op.  cit.,  pp.  14,  15. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  123 

of   this  church  is  that  of  the  Good  Sliepherd,  found  in  the  arch 

over  the  entrance.     He  sits  in  the  midst  of  a  somewhat  The  Good  siiep- 

rugged  hmdscape,  clad  in   a  golden  tunic  and  pur2)le   herd. 

mantle,  holding  in  one  hand  a  shepherd's  staff  which  terminates 

in  a  cross,  while  the  other  is  stretched  across  the  breast  to  caress 

a  lami).     The  face  is  that  of  a  young  and  beardless  man,  the  hair  is 

long  and  flowing,  and  the  head  encircled  Avith  the  nimbus.     The 

general  mien  is  dignified,  and  the  figure  seems  to  express  the  ])er- 

sonality,  as  well  as  to  SAniibolize  the  ofiice,  of  the  Redeemer.     The 

animals  and  plants  are  of  inferior  style,  indicating  little  S3'm])athv 

with  a  purely  naturalistic  treatment.'     The  mosaics  of  this  cliurch 

are  exceedingly  important  in  revealing  the  art  tendencies  and  the 

character  of  the  religious  and  dogmatic  thought  of  the  fifth  cen- 

tur}'. 

Some   instructive  mosaics  are  still  preser\'ed  in  the  churches  of 

San  Lorenzo  and  San  Ambrogio  in  Milan,     The  Christ  ^.^  • 

.  .  Other  mosaics 

in  the  chapel  of  San  Aquilino  (San  Lorenzo)  is  of  oftheQfthcen- 
youthful  appearance,  beardless,  and  in  some  features  *^"'"^* 
suggests  the  type  found  in  the  earlier  catacombs.  There  is  an 
almost  entire  absence  of  Byzantine  influence.  The  figures  of  Christ 
and  the  apostles  are  varied  in  exjiression  and  attitude,  and  the 
landscape  is  treated  with  unusual  naturalness.  The  A.  S2.  in  the 
cruciform  nimbus  encircling  the  head  of  Christ  leaves  no  doubt 
respecting  the  personage  here  represented. 

The  mosaics  in  the  chapel  of  San  Victor  (San  Aml)rogio)  are 
of  a  high  order  of  merit.  They  have  by  some  archaeologists 
been  assigned  to  the  fifth  century.^  The  treatment  of  the  wreath 
encircling  the  head  of  San  Victor  is  skilful,  aiul  the  balancing  of 
the  parts  by  the  figures  of  the  evangelists  is  artistic  and  ])leasing. 

The  beautiful  chapel  of  the  archbishop's  jjalace  in  Ravenna, 
which  still  survives,  has  usually  been  ascribed  to  Bishop  Peter  Chry- 
sologus.  This  view  would  regard  it  as  a  work  of  about  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century.^  The  interior  arrangement  is  quite  similar  to 
that  of  SS.  Nazario  e   Celso   of    the  same  i)eriod   (v.    Fig.    Il'O). 

'  Compare  the  representation  of  viae  ornamentation  in  the  dome-vaulting  of  tliia 
church,  Fig.  41,  with  the  frescos  of  Santa  Domitilla,  Figs.  1  and  2. 

^  The  chronology  of  these  mosaics  has  been  a  matter  on  whicli  arciueologists  and 
historians  of  art  liavc  widely  differed.  Here,  as  in  so  many  other  cases,  may  not  the 
failure  to  discriminate  with  sufficient  care  between  the  original  parts  and  the  res- 
torations 1)6  one  reason  of  this  wide  divergence  of  opinion  ?  It  is  certainly  very 
difficult  to  refer  the  entire  work  of  these  mosaics  to  the  fifth  century.  Some 
portions  point  rather  to  the  eight  or  ninth  centurj'. 

*  Schnaase:   Op.  cit.,  Bd.  iii,  s.  206. 


124  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

Under  the  dome  of  this  chapel  are  mosaic  medallions  of  Christ  and 
six  of  the  a])Ostles,  three  on  either  side,  and  in  the  side  arches  on 
either  side  are  like  medallions  of  six  male  and  six  female  saints. 
Fig.  42  represents  the  mosaic  of  Christ.     The  jeweled   corona  in 


Fig.  42.— Mosaic  of  Christ  in  the  archbishop's  palace,  Ravenna,    Fifth  or  sixth  century. 

the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  the  treatment  of  the  hair,  and  the 
general  facial  expression  are  quite  unique.  Vigorous  young  man- 
hood is  here  expressed,  yet  the  cast  of  countenance  is  somewhat 
sedate;  the  drawing  is  accurate,  the  coloring  appropriate.  A  some- 
what striking  red  tints  the  cheeks,  while  a  brilliant  white  sets  off 
the  eyes  and  higher  lights.  As  a  whole  this  mosaic  scarcely-  con- 
forms to  any  of  the  known  types  of  Christ.' 

After  the  destructive  invasions  and  the  political  disruptions  of 
Mosaics  of  the  the  fifth  century,  art  activity  at  Rome  experienced  a 
sixth  century,  very  Considerable  revival.  More  clearly  than  ever 
before  the  power  of  the  Church  in  preserving  the  elements  of  civi- 
lization in  the  midst  of  threatened  barbarism  is  seen.  Of  the  mo- 
saics of  the  sixth  century  we  can  refer  only  to  some  of  the  more 
important.  Well  preserved  examples  are  found  in  Rome,  Ravenna, 
Parenzo  in  Istria,  and  Constantinople. 

ss.cosmasand  The  most  important  mosaic  monuments  of  this  cen- 
Damian.  ^xiry  at  Rome  are  preserved  in  the  Church  of  SS.  Cosmas 

e  Damiano,  which  was  built  by  Felix  VI.,  A.  D.  526-530  ;  they  are 

'  Sclinaase :  I.  c. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  1.25 

in  the  apse  and  triumphal  arch.  These  represent  three  distinct 
scenes  or  conceptions.  On  the  triumphal  arch  the  apocaly])tic  vision 
of  the  Laml)  amidst  the  seven  churches  is  pictured.  A  land>,  sur- 
mounted by  a  cross,  rests  upon  a  jeweled  altar,  on  either  side  of 
which  are  the  golden  candlesticks.  Beyond  these,  right  and  left, 
are  two  angels,  while  still  further  toward  each  extreme  are  symbols 
of  the  Evangelists.  The  most  elaborate  and  imposing  work  is  in  the 
apse  (Fig.  43).  The  central  figure  here  is  Christ,  who  is 
represented  as  floating  on  fleecy  clouds.  He  extends  the 
right  hand  in  benediction,  while  in  the  left  he  holds  a  roll — the  s^-m- 
bol  of  authoritative  teaching.  The  head  is  nimbused,  the  face 
bearded,  the  drapeiy  rich  and  flowhig,  and  the  mien  severely  majestic. 
On  the  right  (spectator's)  of  the  main  figure  is  Peter  leading  forward 
St.  Cosmas,  who  bears  a  crown  indicative  of  martyrdom  ;  l^cyond 
is  St.  Theodore.  On  the  left  Paul  in  like  manner  is  leading  St. 
Damian,  who  also  bears  a  martyr  crown,  while  beyond  is  Felix,  the 
founder  of  the  Church.  The  extremities  are  occupied  by  palm  trees, 
on  one  of  which  is  perched  the  phcenix,  symbol  of  immortality.  In 
a  narrow  zone  below,  the  third  scene  is  depicted.  A  The  lower 
nimbused  lamb  stands  upon  a  hill  or  mountain,  from  zone, 
whose  base  flow  four  rivers  marked  by  their  names.'  On  either 
hand,  pressing  toward  the  central  figure,  are  six  laml)s,  representing 
the  twelve  apostles,  while  on  the  extremes  the  sacred  cities  Jwusa- 
lem  and  Bethlehem  appear.  The  entire  mosaic,  in  each  of  its  three 
scenes,  is  full  of  naturalness  and  life,  and  is  a  remarkable  example 
of  the  recujierative  art  power  of  the  Clnirch. 

A  class  of  mosaics  of  exceeding  richness  and  value  in  Ravenna 
and  Constantinople  must  be  referred  to  the  sixth  century.  The 
reign  of  Justinian  was  powerful  in  its  influence  on  Cluircli  and  State. 
The  convenient  codification  of  the  civil  law  was  only  a  single  illus- 
tration of  the  painstaking  care  of  this  ruler  for  the  varied  interests  of 
the  empire.  Among  the  best  preserved  and  most  instructive  mosaics 
of  the  sixth  century  are  those  of  the  Church  of  San  Ai)ollinare  Nuovo, 
in  Ravenna.^  The  friezes  on  either  side  of  the  nave  are  occuitied  In- 
triumphal  processions  of  holy  men  and  women.  On  the  soutli  side 
martyrs  and  confessors,  chiefly  of  the  Ravenna  church,  clad  in  white 
garments,  press  toward  the  tribune  to  present  their  crowns  to  Christ, 
who   is  enthroned,  and  attended  by  four  angels.      The   figure  of 

'  Tlicse  are  not  sliown  in  tlie  cut. 

2  V.  d'Agincoiirt:  Architecture,  p.  xvii,  17-22,  who  gives  ground  plan,  section,  and 
a  few  details  of  this  church.  Quast :  Die  alt-christliche  Bamuerke  von  Kuvenna, 
m.  19,  20,  Taf.  vii.  Garrucci:  Storia  delV  art  criit.,  iv,  Tav.  ccxlii-cclii.  Richter; 
Die  Mosaiken  von  Ravenna,  1878,  s.  69. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS. 


137 


Christ  (a  partial  restoration)  is  most  imposing  {>\  Fig.  44).  Tlie 
expression  is  dignified,  tlie  face  bearded,  the  hair  long  and  flowing, 
the  head  encircled  with  the  cruciform  nimbus,  and  the  right  hand  in- 
dicative of  the  teaching  oflice.  On  the  opi)osite  or  north  frieze  is  a 
similar  procession  of  holy  women  clad  in  rich  attire,  bearing  crowns, 
passing  from  the  city 
of  Classe  to  join  the 
Magi  who  reverently 
offer  their  irifts  to  the 
Holy  Ci.ild  sitting 
upon  the  lap  of  Mar}^, 
also  enthroned  and  at- 
tended by  four  angels 
bearing  sceptres  in  their 
hands.  Both  mother  and 
child  extend  the  hand  in 
invitation  and  blessing. 

From  Fig.  97,  which 
represents  a  portion  of 
the  north  frieze,  it  will 
be  seen  that  these  pro- 
cessions are  full  of 
spirit  and  naturalness. 
This  cut  will  also  lielp 
us  to  understand  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  ricii 
mosaics  between  the  windows,  and  in  the  cornice  above,  also  tlie 
medallions  in  the  spandrels  of  the  arches.  The  peculiar  relations  of 
Mother  and  Child  in  this  mosaic,  especially  their  like  attitude  in 
the  act  of  blessing,  would  suggest  that  the  cultus  of  ]\Iary,  wliich 
soon  afterward  exalted  the  Mother  above  the  Hon,  had  already 
made  considerable  progress.* 

Interesting  mosaics  are  also  found  in  other  churches  of  Ravenna, 
as  Santa  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  San  Vitale  (the  arrangement  of  wliose 
mosaics  can  be  seen  from  Figs.  107,  109),  and  San  Apollinarc  in 
Clasae  {v.  Fig.  99). 

In  extent  and  richness  the  mosaics  of  St.  Sophia  were  entirt.  • 
worthy  of  the  grandest  church  of  the  Byzantine  Empire.  Tlie  mag- 
nificent pavements  and  dados  of  richly  variegated  marl)le  loiiiul 
their  counterpart  in  the  brilliancy  and  perfection  of  tlic  mosaics 
upon  the  vast  and  varied  expanses  of  ceiling  and  dome.     The  his- 

'  Qtiast:  Die  aU-christlichen  Bauiverlce  von  Eavenna,  s.  20,  also  Taf.  vii,  Fig- 
ures 3,  5. 


Fig.  44.— Mosaic  of  Christ  in  San  Apollinare  Niiovo,  Ra- 
venna.   Sixtli  century 


138  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTLVN  ART. 

toric  value  of  these  monuments  is  somewhat  lessened  by  the  uncer- 
tainty of  their  age.'  The  repeated  attemjjts  of  the  iconoclastic 
Mussulman  to  obliterate  the  mosaics  by  removing  the  tesserce, 
and  by  covering  the  whole  with  coats  of  w^hitewash,  greatly 
man-ed  their  original  incomparable  beauty.  The  repairs  of  this 
church,  under  the  direction  of  the  Italian  architect  Fossati,  gave 
opportunity  for  careful  drawings  of  the  parts  which  have  survived.^ 
These  mosaics  differ  from  those  of  Galla  Placidia  of  Ravenna,  Santa 
Pudenziana  of  Rome,  and  others,  in  that  there  is  little  attempt  at 
pictorial  effect  or  perspective.  They  are  for  the  most  part  isolated 
figures  of  prophets  or  saints,  genei^ally  of  great  dignity,  with  the 
attendant  ornamentation  of  vines,  borders,  flowers,  etc.  The  fixed- 
ness of  type  which  later  characterized  nearly  all  the  pictorial  art  of 
the  East  is  not  prominent  in  these  mosaics  of  St.  Sophia.  The 
adornments  of  the  panels,  of  the  spandrels  of  the  arches,  etc.,  are 
free  and  cheerful.  In  the  sections  of  the  vast  dome  the  outlines  of 
four  colossal  figui'es  of  seraphs  with  overshadowing  wings  are  still 
seen.'  They  have  a  vigor  and  freshness  of  treatment  indicative  of 
an  age  of  considerable  artistic  freedom.  Also  the  mosaics  of  the 
prophets  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel,  exhibit  much 
skill  in  the  origination  of  independent  forms  and  expression,  while 
their  va'riety  of  attitude  argues  wholesome  exemption  of  the 
artist  from  the  rigid  ecclesiastical  art  canons  which  later  became 
imperative. 

The  immense  mosaic  picture  (v.  Fig.  45)  of  Christ,  with  the 
prostrate  emperor  and  the  medallion  busts  of  Mary  and  an  angel 
(St.  Michael  ?),  is  believed  to  be  of  later  origin.  This  is  shown  by 
the  style  and  accessories  of  the  composition.  Christ,  seated  on  a 
magnificent  throne,  raises  his  right  hand  in  the  attitude  of  blessing 
or  teaching,  Avhile  the  left  supports  the  open  book.  His  head  is 
surrounded  by  the  nimbus,  the  face  is  bearded,  the  whole  mien  im- 
pressive. Before  him,  in  the  attitude  of  servile  prostration,  is 
the  emperor,"*  clad  in  most  gorgeous  attire,  Avith  nimbused  head  and 

■  Woltmana  and  Woermaun :  History  of  Painting,  vol.  i,  pp.  233,  refer  these 
mosaics  to  the  reign  of  Basil  the  Macedoiiiaii,  in  the  latter  part  of  tlie  ninth  century. 
Evidently  they  ai-e  of  various  dates,  but  some  bear  evidence  of  an  earlier  origin  than 
these  authorities  suppose. 

'  Fossati :  Aya  Sofia,  Constantinople,  as  recently  restored  by  order  of  H.  M.  the 
Sultan.  Abdul  Mejid.  London,  1852.  Salzenberg:  Alt-christliche  Baudenkmale  von 
Constantinople,  with  magnificent  plates. 

'  See  Fig.  116,  a  section  of  St.  Sophia,  where  two  of  these  are  shown. 

'•Opiuions  relative  to  the  sovereign  here  represented  are  various.  Some  CWolt- 
raaun  and  Woermann  and  others)  have  seen  in  it  Bnsil  L.  who  restored  the  western 
apse  of  the  church  into  which  this  entrance  leads ;  others  (Venables,  e<  a^.)  call  it 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTINGS  AND  MOSAICS.  129 

jeweled  crown.  Oriental  taste  is  prominent,  and  art  decadence 
is  here  painfully  manifest.  The  subjection  of  the  temporal  to  the 
spiritual  power  is  plainly  taught  by  this  mosaic  ;  the  supremacy 
of  the  "  Divine  Wisdom,"  to  whom  the  gorgeous  temple  was  dedi- 
cated, is  most  conspicuous.    The  other  mosaics  of  this  church,  many 


Fig.  4.5. — Mosaic  of  Christ  from  St.  Sopliia,  Constantinoiilu. 

of  which  are  of  exquisite  workmanship  but  of  varied  artistic  merit, 
cannot  here  l)e  described.  Each  has  a  valuable  lesson  for  the  his- 
torian of  art  and  for  the  student  of  the  history  of  the  Greek 
Chvirch. 

Nearly  contemporaneous  with  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople  is  St. 
Sophia  of  Thessalonica.  An  immense  expanse  of  mosaics,  said  to 
cover  nearly  six  hundred  square  yards,  rej^i'esents  the  ascension. 
The  parts  in  the  center  of  the  dome  have  suffered  much.  This  was 
occupied  by  the  ascending  Christ,  attended  by  angels.  The  other 
])rominent  personages  were  the  Virgin  and  the  apostles,  wrought 
out  in  colossal  figures  more  than  twelve  feet  high.  Texier  and 
Pullan'  are  of  the  opinion  that  these  mosaics  were  produced  before 
the  influence  of  ecclesiastical  art  traditions  had  checked  the  freedom 
of  the  Eastern  artisans.  They  notice  the  survival  of  creative  and 
technic  power  in  the  variet}'  of  posture  and  of  the  facial  expression 
in  tlie  figures.  Instead  of  the  stiff  uniformity  of  a  later  period, 
the  Virgin  and  the  two  angels  (one  on  either  side), who  address  the 
apostles,  have  each  decided  personal  characteristics.  The  treatment 
is  vigorous,  and  the  handling  of  the  colors  in  the  draper}',  etc.,  is 

Constantino  Potronatns ;  wliilo  still  others  (Gerspach,  e<  aZ.)  call  it  Justinian.  The 
general  st.\  lo  of  tliis  fi<jure  in  expression  ami  dress  is  so  different  from  well  knowu 
pictures  of  Justinian  elsewhere  preserved  tliat  it  is  very  difBcuIt  to  believe  that  it 
is  intended  for  this  emperor. 

'  Eijlises  Bijzantines,  plates  xl,  .\li.  pp.  1-12-141. 
9 


130  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

free  and  pleasing.  Instead  of  the  fixed  attitude  of  the  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries,  each  one  of  the  apostles  has  an  individuality  ;  some 
look  upward  into  heaven,  others  with  downcast  face  are  in  prayerful 
meditation,  while  others  raise  the  hands  in  expression  of  surprise.' 

Considerable  mosaic  work  is  also  found  in  the  apse  of  St.  Cath- 
arine's on  Mount  Sinai.  The  subjects  have  been  variously  described 
by  travellers.  The  transfiguration,  Avith  figures  of  Christ,  Moses, 
and  Elias,  is  the  central  scene.  The  accompanying  figures  of 
prophets,  apostles,  and  saints,  medallion  busts  of  Justinian  and 
Theodora,  and  the  oft-repeated  scenes  of  Moses  at  the  burning  bush 
and  the  receiving  of  the  tables  of  the  law,  contain  little  that  is 
peculiar.^ 

1  There  seems  to  be  a  very  intimate  connection  between  tliis  church  and  St. 
Sophfti  at  Constantinople. 

'^  No  thorough  study  of  tliese  has  yet  been  made  by  competent  speciaHsts.  Tlie 
want  of  trustworthy  photographs  or  plates  leaves  the  chronology  and  technical  exe- 
cution, as  well  as  the  archaeological  value,  of  these  mosaics  undetermined.  Many  val- 
uable articles  upon  Christian  mosaics  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  tiie 
European  reviews.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  supply  the  lack  of  monuments  by 
the  literary  references  to  many  now  lost  mosaics.  Among  the  most  skilful  and  suc- 
cessful of  these  workers  must  be  reckoned  Eugene  Miintz  of  Paris,  and  Professor 
Frothingham  of  Princeton  University. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SCULPTURE.  I3i 


CHAPTER  V. 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SCULPTURE. 

"We  have  before  (Book  i,  chap,  ii)  traced  the  effect  of  the  Jewisli 
law  and  of  the  Semitic  imagination  upon  the  cultivation  of  tlie  arts 
of  form  ;  also  the  influence  of  these  factors  in  the  development  of 
the  Christian  art  of  the  first  two  centuries. 

The  avoidance  of  the  seductive  power  of  beauty,  as  embodied  in 
the  matchless  creations  of  the  heathen  artists,  and  of  art  in  its  asso- 
ciations with  a  corrupting  polytheism,  was  most  manifest  with 
respect  to  sculpture.'     As  before  noticed,  the  pictures 

'■        .  ^  T,  1  Til-  Reasons  of  th(^ 

01  Christ  were  more  readily  tolerated  than  his  presenta-   seeming hostii- 
tion  in  free  statuary.     This  was  probably  due  to  the  "y'o"^''t- 
fact  that  sculpture  is  the  most  materializing  of  all  the  fine  arts.     It 
was  most  employed  in  connection  with  the  pagan  cultus,  and  was 
therefore  most  threatening  to  the  purity  of  a  monotheistic  faitli. 

There  was  no  agreement  in  the  traditions  of  the  early  Churdi  re- 
specting Christ's  physical   characteristics  and   appear-   j^gjjg„„g  ^^  ^^^ 
ance.     Moreovei",    when   the    Christian   Church  was  in   catienoe  of 
circumstances  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of   the  fine  s^"'i'^"''e. 
arts,  sculpture,  which  had  formerly  been  almost  the  foremost  art 
among  the   Greeks,  had  fallen  into  a  condition  of  sad  decadence,* 
and  painting  had  assumed  the   chief  prominence.     Hence  few,  if 
any,  works  of  Christian  sculpture  of  an  earlier  date  than  the   last 
of  the  third  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  have  been  pre- 
served to  our  day.     Indeed,  the  number  of  free  statues   no protraiturcB 
of    early    Christian     origin     is     exceptionally     small.   ^^  eiiiist. 
Scarcely  a  half  dozen  of  Christ  have  survived  from  the  first  tivi- 

'  "We  hfive  alreadj^  said  that  this  seeming  hostility  of  some  of  the  Christian  fathers 
to  the  patronage  and  production  of  works  of  art  was  not  due  to  a  lack  of  jcsthetic 
feehng,  but  it  arose  from  fear  of  the  contaminating  inHuonce  of  heathen  worsliip. 
The  same  tendency  is  noticed  from  time  to  time  in  tlie  history  of  the  Church.  The 
denunciations  of  the  revived  heathenism  in  the  Itahan  painting  at  the  close  of  tlic 
fifteenth  century, by  Savonarola,  produced  a  marked  revolution  in  the  style  of  some 
of  the  great  painters  of  the  period.  A  like  result  is  noticed  in  the  attempts  of 
Zwinglius,  Calvin,  and  others  in  removing  statues  from  the  churches,  v.  Lecky: 
Hint,  of  Raiiowilism,  vol.  i,  pp.  259,  260;  and  Grueneisen:  De  Protestuntivno  artihus 
haud  in/esto. 

'  Labarte:  Illstoire  des  arts  industrieh,  tom.  i,  p.  12. 


133 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


centuries.  While  Eusebius^  testifies  to  having  seen  at  Cfesarea 
Philippi  a  statue  of  Christ  extending  his  hand  toward  the  woman 
having  an  issue  of  blood,  to  cure  her,  and  Philostorgius^  speaks 
of  its  being  destroyed  under  Julian,  it  is  generally  agreed  that 
the  traditions  respecting  the  early  portraitures  of  Christ,  pictorial 
or  plastic,  have  very  slender  support.  The  free  statues  which 
remain  are  manifestly  not  designed  for  portraitures,  but  are  of  a 
symbolic  character.  In  all  alike  Christ  is  represented  as  the  Good 
Shepherd  "  who  careth  for  the  sheep,"  The  dress  is  that  of  the 
shepherd  of  the  period,  the  ordinary  tunic;  the  feet  are  either 
naked  or  sandaled,  while  the  implements  of  the  shepherd's  vocation, 
the  purse  and  the  staff,  are  sometimes  present. 

Figs.  46  and  48  are  representations  of  the  finest  and  best  preserved 

of  these  free  statuettes.  It  is  now 
in  the  Lateran  Museum  at  Rome. 
It  has  been  restored  in  parts.  The 
spirit  and  naturalness  of^j^^  Qood 
the  work  are  exceptionally  shepherd  in 
fine,  and  readily  suggest  free  statuary, 
a  classic  sympathy  and  origin. 

A  second  example  is  given  in  Fig.  47. 
The  original  is  also  in  the  Lateran 
Museum.  The  execution  is  rude,  and 
the  general  tone  of  the  work  is  far  in- 
ferior to  that  represented  by  Fig.  46. 
The  general  spirit  of  the  biblical 
symbol  is,  however,  fully  pi-eserved. 
Instead  of  the  shepherd's  purse,  as  in 
Fig.  46,  here  is  the  shepherd's  staff  or 
crook. ^ 

There  are  two  other  statuettes,  one 
preserved  in  the  church  museum  of  the 
College  of  Rome,  the  other  in  the 
l)asilica  San  Clemente,  which  differ  little  in  general  art  character  from 
the  last,  and  are  in  close  affiliation  with  it  in  subject  and  spirit.     Iliib- 


^^  Y?v 

^^m 

JS^^^H^ 

l^S!^^^^ 

^^,^m^^ 

f^fTM^^ 

li  ~^^l  '■  '.'*  ml/'A 

rl^ 

"fMK       1 

ft 

1 

iL    '"iiir    1 

Fig.  46.    Statuette  of  the  Good  Shep- 
herd.   Lateiau  Museum. 


'  Hist.  Eccles.,  vii,  18. 

*  IRst.  Ecdes.,  vii.  2. 

*  These  and  all  other  autotypes  used  in  this  chapter  are  taken  b.y  permission  from 
the  excellent  work  of  Th.  Roller:  Les  Catacombes  de  Rome.  We  have  preferred 
these  impressions  from  photographs  to  elaborate  engravings,  since  they  give  to  the 
lay  reader  a  jnster  idea  of  the  orig'nal  objects.  With  great  generosity,  M.  Roller, 
in  a  letter  full  of  the  true  spirit  of  the  Christian  scholar,  placed  all  his  plates  at  the 
disposal  of  the  author  of  this  hand-book. 


I 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SCULPTURE. 


133 


47.— Good  Shepherd  with  (;rook  i.r 
staff.    Lateral!  Museum. 


ncr'  has  described  a  small  statue  of  the  Good  Shepherd  found  in 
Seville,  Spain.  The  figure  of  the  lamb  is  wanting.  The  origin  and 
chronology  are  uncertain,  although 
he  inclines  to  place  it  near  the  close 
of  the  fourth  century. 

The  general  artistic  treatment  of 
these  statues  closely  conforms  to  the 
contemporary  heathen  art  ;  never- 
theless, in  all  alike  the  subject  is 
distinctively  Christian :  the  office 
work  of  the  Good  Shepherd  in  bring- 
ing back  to  the  fold  the  lost  sheep." 
The  difference  between  these  and 
the  statues  of  the  ram -bearing  Mer- 
cury, Hermes-Kriophoros,  is  man- 
Differenc.  of  ^^^st.  Invariably  a  full 
the  Good  shep-   drapery  is  found  in  the 

ram-b  earing    StatueS  of  the  Good  Shep- 

Merciiry.  ^^^.(1^    while    the   pagan 

Kriophori  have  complete  or  partial 
nudity  as  a  characteristic  feature.^ 
This  is  well  illustrated  by  comparing  Figs.  48  and  49. 

Another  work,  claimed  by  some  able  writers  to  be  of  Christian 
origin,  is  the  celebrated  bronze  statue  of  St,  Peter,  now  ^j^^  bronze 
found  in  the  middle  nave  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome.  Opin-  statue  of  St. 
ions  repecting  its  origin,  chronology,  and  motive  have  ^*^'*^''' 
been  various  and  sometimes  contradictory.  The  statue  is  certainly 
verj''  imposing,  and,  if  genuine,  must  be  regarded  as  by  far  the  most 
important  plastic  work  of  the  early  Christian  centuries.  The 
apostle  is  represented  seated  in  a  chair  of  Roman  style,  uplifting 
the  right  hand  in  the  attitude  of  teaching.  The  head  is  firmlv  set  ; 
the  hair  is  thick  and  curled,  and  is  of  the  type  traditionally 
ascribed  to  Peter,  which  is  met  upon  early  sarcophagi  and  in  fres- 
cos from  the  catacombs.  The  folds  of  the  drapery  are  not  unworthy 
the  best  classic  period,  while  the  general  pose  is  equal  to  that  of  tlu- 

'  Die  antiken  Bildwerke  von  Madrid,  Berlin,  1862,  s.  324. 

2  V.  Th.  Roller:  Les  Catacombes  de  Rome,  vol.  i,  p.  265,  where  the  extreme  view  ol 
Raoul-Rochette  respecting  the  absolute  lack  of  originality  of  Cliristian  art  is 
vigorously  treated. 

=*  Clianot:  In  the  Gazette  Archeologique,  1S78,  pp.  17.  d  seq.,  and  pp.  100,  d  s>:q. 
"We  liave  elsewlicre  more  fully  e.xamined  these  differences.  Book  i,  chap.  iii.  i'.  also 
Vcyries:  Les  Figures  Criophores  dans  Tart  grec,  Vart  Greco-romain  et  I'art  chretien, 
Paris,  1884,  pp.  Gl-81,  especially  pp.  SO,  81. 


134 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


more  celebrated  works  of  the  fourth  century.  Every  part  of  the 
statue  indicates  a  careful  adherence  to  some  antique  model,  and 
therefore  evinces  little  originality  of  treatment.^  The  key  in  the 
left  hand  is  an  addition  of  a  later  period,  probably  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 


FiR.  48. —  The  Good  Shepherd. 
To  compare  with  Hennes-Kriophoros, 
Fig.  48. 


Fig.  49.  —  Hermes-Kriophoros 
from  Wilton  House.  To  compare 
with  Fig  47. 


Another  work  in  free  sculpture  is  the  statue  of  St.  Hippolytus, 
now  preserved  in  the  Lateran  Museum,  Fig.  50.  It  was  discovered 
in  1551.  Only  the  lower  part  of  the  figure  and  the  chair  are  orig- 
inal, the  other  parts  being  modern  restorations.  In  its  statue  of  St. 
present  restored  form  it  represents  St.  Hippolytus  seated  Hippoiytus. 
on  a  cathedra,  clad  in  the  garb  usual  to  the  ancient  philosophers, 

'  Luebke:  History  of  Sculpture,  vol.  i,  p.  337.     It  is  for  this  and  other  reasons  tliat 
the  Christiau  origin  and  subject  of  the  statue  have  been  stautly  denied. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SCULPTURE. 


13.-) 


holding  in  his  left  hand  a  book  upon  which  rests  the  right  elbow. 
The  Canon  Paschalis,  or  table  for  calculating  Easter,  which  he  is 


I 


Fig.  50.— Restoretl  statue  of  Hippoljtus. 


snid  to  have  invented,  is  engraved  in  Greek  cliaracters  on  one  side 
of  the  chair  ;  on  the  other  is  a  partial  list  of  his  writings.     The  re- 


136  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

stored  statue  is  a  work  of  great  dignity  and  excellence.     As  in  the 
case  of  the  statue  of  St.  Peter,  there  has  been  much  controversy- 
respecting    its    Christian    origin.      There    seems   to   be    sufficient 
reason,  however,  for  believing  that  it  cannot  be  of  a 

Its      Christian  '  '  °  . 

origin  q  u  e  s-  later  date  than  the  sixth  century,  while,  from  artistic 
tioned.  considerations,  some  able  archoeologists  are  led  to  place 

it  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  third,  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century.  We  have  not  space  to  enter  into  the  examination  of  these 
arguments.' 

The  general  type  of  Christ  found  in  Christian  sculpture  is  rather 
that  of  the  early  Christian  frescos,  and  seems  to  conform  more  closely 
to  the  pagan  conception  of  deity,  that  is,  that  divinity  must  be  rep- 
T  e  of  Christ  I'esented  under  the  form  of  a  beautiful  and  vigorous 
i  n  Christian  manhood.  The  historic  scenes  are  usually  realistic.  The 
sculpture.  lessons  are  for  the  most  part  easily  understood  ;  mystery 

and  an  esoteric  exclusiveness  are  seldom  suggested.  Sometimes  a  pur- 
pose to  depict  scenes  in  the  order  of  their  historic  development,  or  of 
their  dogmatic  connection,  is  apparent  ;  at  other  times  the  principle 
of  artistic  grouping  or  balancing  seems  dominant.  Into  some  of 
the  most  noted  sarcophagi  an  architectural  principle  is  introduced, 
The  principles  whereby  the  surface  is  divided  into  sections  by  means 
christ'ian^  ^^  ^^  pillars  which  support  an  ornamental  entablature, 
sculpture.  Upon  these  surfaces  are  found  inscriptions  or  figures  in 

relief.  Sometimes  the  space  is  divided  into  zones,  in  each  of  which 
a  progressive  history  or  a  rich  symbolism  may  be  found. 

The  timid  caution  which  influenced  the  Christian  fathers  to  in- 
dulge but  sparingly  in  the  use  of  free  statuary  was  not  cherished 
respecting  these  works  in  relief.  From  the  first  part  of  the  fourth 
century  the  sculptures  on  burial  monuments  are  numerous.  In 
The  Christian  general  Style  they  adhere  quite  closely  to  the  contem- 
sarcophagi  porary  pagan  art.     In  the  distribution  of  motives,  in  the 

have  little  ar-    ■*-  "^   -*■     ~  ^ 

tistic  original-  po^^e  and  balancing  of  parts  to  make  a  harmonious  whole, 
*^y-  and  in  the  character  of  their  technique,  the  Christian 

sarcophagi  can  claim  little  originality.  The  marked  difference  is  in 
But  embody  the  changed  cycle  of  the  embodied  thought.  In  this 
new  thought,  respect  they  are  in  striking  contrast  with  similar  pagan 
monuments.    Nevertheless  the  subjects  sculptured  on  these  sai-coph- 

'Among  many  see  Bucher:  In  Migne's  edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Hippolytus. 
Engravings,  giving  both  side  views  of  the  statue  and  the  text  of  the  Cano7i  Paschalis 
are  there  given,  and  Bucher  examines  the  content  of  the  Canon  itself.  Bunsen : 
Hippolytus  unci  seine  ZeU.,  lie  Abth.,  ss.  163,  164.  Northcote  and  Brownlow :  RoTiia 
SoUerranea,  2d  ed.,  vol.  ii,  pp.  262-265.  Appell:  Monuments  of  Early  Christian  Art 
p.  5. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SCULPTURE.  137 

agi  are  very  like  those  of  the  frescos  and  mosaics.  Here,  too,  is  found 
a  rich  symbolism  ;  here  are  seen  the  suggestive  biblical  type  and 
antitype,  as  well  as  the  instructive  Scripture  history.  There  is  hardlv 
a  scene  that  has  not  already  been  met  in  the  discussion  of  Christian 
painting.  The  creation  of  our  first  parents,  the  temptation  by  the 
serpent,  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  Moses  in  the  presence  of  the  burning 
bush,  or  striking  water  from  the  rock,  the  history  of  Jonah,  the 
three  Hebrew  worthies  in  the  burning  furnace,  Daniel  in  the  li()n'> 
<len,  and  sometimes  the  translation  of  Elijah,  are  the  The  subjects 
chief  subjects  from  the  Old  Testament  history  ;  while  t^^ated. 
the  various  benevolent  works  of  Christ,  the  first  miracle  in  Cana  of 
Galilee,  the  multiplication  of  the  loaves,  the  healing  of  the  par- 
alytic, the  opening  of  the  eyes  of  the  blind,  the  cure  of  the  woman 
with  the  issue  of  blood,  and  the  raising  of  Lazarus  are  the  favorite 
scenes  from  the  New  Testament.  Incidents  in  the  life  of  Christ, 
the  nativity,  the  teaching  of  the  disciples,  the  ai'rest,  the  trial,  the 
denial  by  Peter,  the  handwashing  by  Pilate,  the  resurrection,  and 
probably'  the  ascension  are  also  found  sculptured  on  these  burial 
monuments.  Representations  of  the  crucifixion  are  for  Few  scenes  of 
the  most  part  avoided  during  the  first  four  and  a  half  sufferiiig. 
centuries;^  also  the  other  scenes  of  special  suffering  in  the  life  of  our 
Lord.  The  scope  of  these  sculptures,  as  well  as  their  art  value,  can 
best  be  learned  from  a  few  examples. 

Fig.  5 1  represents  one  of  the  older  Christian  sarcophagi  that  have 
been  preserved.  We  are  immediately  reminded  by  this  of  some  of 
the  earliest  frescos  of  the  catacombs.  The  joyous  scene  of  the  vint- 
age, the  pastoral  simplicity  shown  in  the  free  association  of  the 
genii  with  the  animal  world,  the  rich  luxuriance  of  the  vine  and  its 
fruit,  suggest  a  decorative  rather  than  a  symbolic  principle.  lu  the 
absence  of  the  figures  of  the  Good  Shepherd  there  would  The  decoraUve 
be  nothing  in  the  scenes  to  show  the  Christian  character  ]o7ijg/  to  the 
of  the  sarcophagus;  the}'  would  be  equally  becoming  to  symbolic, 
a  pagaii  burial  monument.  Indeed,  in  general  spirit  the  sculpture 
well  accords  with  that  found  on  many  works  of  heathen  origin.  Yet 
the  peculiarities  of  the  three  figures  bearing  the  sheep  upon  the 
shoulders,  to  which  reference  has  elsewhere  been  made  (v.  p.  133, 134), 
clearly  prove  them  to  be  designed  for  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  not 
for  reiu-esentations  of  the  ram-beai'ing  Mercury.  While,  therefore,  it 
may  not  be  unreasonable  to  regard  the  vintage  scenes  as  mainly 
decorative,  it  is  possible  that  to  the  mind  of  the  designer  or  of  tlu- 

'  Tlie  interpretation  of  the  Kceucs  in  whicli  some  urchieologists  see  the  asceusiou 
depicted  is  somewhat  donbtfnh 

"^  This  question  has  been  examined  elsewhere,  v.  p.  84. 


138 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


artizan  there  may  have  been  present  a  reference  to  the  symbol  of 
Possible  sym-  the  vine  and  its  branches,  and  to  the  joys  and  fruition 
holism.  of  those  who  are  under  the  tender  care  and  heavenly 

guidance  of  tlie  Good  Shepherd.     The  vigor  and  naturalness  of  the 

artistic  treatment  would 
point  to  an  origin  prior  to 
the  serious  art  decadence 
of  the  fourth  and  iifth 
centuries. 

The  translation  of  Eli- 
jah (Fig.  52)  is  a  subject 
of  ver}^  infrequent  occur- 
rence in  early  Christian 
art.    We   have  elsewhere 

(p.  61)  noticed    Trauslationof 

the  r  e  s  e  m-  Elijah, 
blance  of  this  to  the 
heathen  representations 
of  the  sun-god  and  his 
chariot.  The  Christian 
character  of  this,  and  of  a 
somewhat  similar  sarcoph- 
agus given  in  Bosio's 
work,  cannot,  however,  be 
doubted.  A  fresco  of 
the  same  scene  is  likewise 
found  in  the  catacomb  of 
SS.  Nereus  and  Achilles. 
At  a  somewhat  later  date, 
likewise,  it  reappears  on 
some  of  the  sarcophagi  of 
Aries.  The  two  main 
figures  and  their  action 
are  understood  without 
difficulty.  Plainly  the  as- 
cending prophet  is  giving 

to     his     SUCCeS-    its    slsnifl- 

sor  in  office  his  '^°'"- 
mantle,  and  therewith  is 
to  come    a  double  meas- 
ure   of    his    spirit.      The 
siornificance  of   the  small 


figures  in  the  central  back-  j 


I 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SCULPTURE. 


130 


ground,  and  of  tlie  bear  in  the  lower  right  hand  corner,  is  not  so  man- 
ifest. Some  have  suggested  that  herein  might  be  a  reference  to  the 
chiklren  Avho  mocked  the  prophet,  and  to  the  instrument  of  their  fear- 
ful punishment.  Tlie  other  sarcoi)hagus  in  Rome  which  sculptures 
this  scene  contains  a  plainly  m^^thological  element  in  the  a  myihoiogic 
form  of  a  river-god  that  personifies  the  Jordan.  This  is  a  element. 
majestic,  half-nude  figure,  in  a  reclining  posture,  with  rich  flowing  hair 


Fig.  5:i.— The  translation  of  Elijati.    Sarcopliaeus  in  the  Lateran  Museum. 

lield  back  by  a  band.  He  rests  one  arm  upon  an  urn  from  which 
flow  the  living  waters,  and  holds  in  the  right  hand  a  reed,  also  sym- 
bolic of  the  river.  The  action  in  these  sarcoi)hagi  is  full  of  life, 
and  the  artistic  quality  of  the  work  fairly  good. 

Fig.  53  represents  a  sarcophagus  from  the  crypt  of  Saint  Peter's. 
The  crowded  condition  of  the  objects  in  alto  relievo  causes  a  little 


Fifr.  53.— The  history  of  Jonah  and  other  scenes.     From  a  sarcci|.!Ki}:iis  in  the  Lateran  .Museuir.. 


obscurity,  and  consequent  uncertainty  in  the  interpretation.     The 
main  scene  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  sarcophagus  is  plain;  it  illus- 
trates the  history  of  Jonah.    The  tempest  is  indicated  b3'   The  history  ot 
the  full-swelling  sail,  and  by  the  figure  above,  blowing  Jo'^*''- 
upon  it  from  the  conch-shell.     The  sea-monster  receives  the  erring 


140  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

prophet  whom  the  crow  cast  overboard,  and  vomits  him  forth  upon 

the  land,  while  above  Jonah  is  represented  reclining  in  peace  under 

the  grateful  shade  of  the  gourd.     On  the  extreme  right  of  the  upper 

zone  the  Good  Shepherd  leads  forth  the   sheep  from  a  house,  the 

fold,  the  church,  while  at  the  extreme  left  appears  the   Wonder- 

And  its  attend-   worker    raising     Lazarus.      The     center    is     occupied 

aut  scenes.        Avitli  what   appears   to   be   the   scene   of   the   smiting 

of  the  rock  by  Moses,   where   the  people   slake  their  thirst  with 

the   refreshing   water.     The   history   of   Jonah    frequently   recurs 

on   the  Christian  sarcophagi,^  since  the  truth  it  foreshadowed  was 

among  the  most  distinctive  and  precious  of  all  which  the  apostles 

inculcated. 

A  work  of  much  artistic  excellence  is  represented  by  Fig.  54.     It 

was  formerly  in  the  church  San  Paolo  fuori  le  mura,  Rome,  but  is 

A  notable  sar-   noAV  in  the  Lateran  Museum.     The  two  busts  in  the 

•  ophagusof   g]igi[4i]j^e  frame  are   in  alto  relievo,  SiS  are  most  other 

the   Lateran  '_     _ 

Museum.  figures  of  the  sarco^jhagus.     The  artistic  handling  and 

execution  are  exceptionally  vigorous.  The  grouping  is  varied  and 
natural,  the  pose  well-studied,  the  drapery  wrought  out  with  unusual 
care.  The  division  of  the  space  into  two  zones  is  often  met.  While 
the  reference  in  most  of  the  scenes  is  readily  understood,  it  is  not 
easy  to  discover  any  necessary  relation  of  these  ideas  one  to  the  other 
Its  subjects  and  in  the  Order  of  a  series.  The  principle  of  artistic  balanc- 
treatment.  ing  is  manifestly  observed,  also  the  study  of  economy 
of  space.  In  the  upper  zone  on  either  side  of  the  busts  are  noticed 
eight  larger  figures,  while  the  cock,  in  the  scene  of  the  denial  of 
Peter,  is  balanced  by  the  child,  in  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac.  The 
hand  of  Moses,  receiving  the  table  of  the  law,  is  balanced  by  the 
outstretched  arm  of  Abraham  which  is  arrested  by  the  hand  break- 
ing forth  from  the  clouds.  In  the  lower  zone,  also,  eight  adult 
figures  are  on  either  side  of  the  central  scene,  while  one  of  the  lions 
on  the  left  is  balanced  by  the  figure  of  the  blind  receiving  his  sight. 
It  is  noticeable  that  liere,  also,  the  type  of  Christ  in  each  of  his  acts — 
of  raising  Lazarus,  of  rebuking  Peter,  of  opening  the  eyes  of  the 
blind,  and  of  multiplying  the  loaves — conforms  to  that  of  the  earlier 
frescos  of  the  catacombs,  and  is  more  consonant  with  the  pagan 
notion  that  divinity  should  be  represented  under  forms  of  highest 
physical  perfection. 

The   frequency  of   the  recurrence    of    several    Scripture    scenes 

'Burgon:  Lttlers  from  Rome  (Letter  xx),  says  that  of  fifty-five  sarcophagi  which 
lie  examined  twenty-three  contained  tlie  history  of  Jonah.  Of  one  hundred  and 
i.inety-five  in  Rome,  oui&ide  the  Lateran  Museum,  twenty-eight  contain  this  history. 
V.  p.  ]42,  note  2. 


V 


lis  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 

is  quite  remarkable.  On  fifty-five  sarcoi)liagi  which  Burgoii'  exam- 
Freciuency  of  iiied  ill  the  Lateraii  Museum,  he  found  the  smiting  of  the 
the  recurrence   j.^^j^  ^^  occur  twenty-three  times  ;  the  miracle   of  the 

of  various  sub-  .        •  ....  i  ,  •     t 

jects.  loaves,  twenty  times  ;    the  giving  sight   to  the  blind, 

nineteen  times;  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  sixteen  times;  Daniel  in  the 
lions'  den,  fourteen  times  ;  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  eleven  times. 
AVliile  these  are  thus  frequent,  the  crowning  with  thorns  occurs  but 
once,  and  of  a  real  crucifixion  there  is  no  trace.  One  hundred 
and  ninety-five  Christian  sarcophagi  at  Rome,  outside  of  the  Lat- 
eran  Museum,  contain  the  history  of  Jonah  twenty-eight  times; 
Moses  smiting  the  rock,  ten  times;  our  first  parents,  nine  times; 
sacrifice  of  Isaac,  eight  times;  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  six  times;  the 
multiplication  of  the  bread,  and  the  miracle  in  Caiia,  each  six  times.* 
Rich  architectural  effects  are  met  upon  several  of  the  best  sar- 
.,     =      cophagi  in  the  vaults  of  the  Vatican  and  in  the  Chris- 

Sarcophagus  _  l       » 

wiih  architect-  tiaii  museum  of  the  Lateran.  One  face  of  such  sar- 
urai  features,  gophagus  is  represented  in  Fig,  55,  The  seven  com- 
partments are  formed  by  columns  richly  ornamented  with  the  vine 
and  its  tendrils.  The  central  figure  is  plainly  Christ  in  the  attitude 
of  the  teacher,  in  the  midst  of  his  apostles.  The  roll  held  in  his  left 
hand  is  supported  by  one  of  the  disciples,  Avhile  the  positions  of  the 
hands,  both  of  Christ  and  of  those  whom  he  is  addressing,  are  indi- 
cative of  conversation,  rather  than  of  the  formal  discourse  of  the 
great  Teacher.  The  Christ  is  of  the  more  youthful,  vigorous,  and 
pleasing  type,  and  has  in  it  elements  which  are  suggestive  of  the 
better  period  of  sculpture.  The  other  figures  are  self-explanatory. 
On  the  extreme  right  is  Christ  before  Pilate,  who  is  washing  his 
hands  in  token  of  his  innocency  of  the  blood  of  the  royal  Victim. . 
On  the  extreme  left  is  the  frequently  recurring  scene  of  the  sacrifice 
of  Isaac,  which  here,  more  than  is  usual,  seems  to  be  a  type  of  the 
great  Sacrifice  for  the  sin  of  the  world.  The  curious  figure  beneath 
the  Saviour,  who  is  holding  a  veil  above  the  head,  is  not  easy  of 
A  doubtful  eie-  interpretation.  It  occurs  in  one  or  two  other  sarcophagi, 
ment.  notably  in  that  of  Junius  Bassus,     Perhaps  the  sugges- 

tion that  a  mythological  element  is  here  introduced,  the  figure  rep- 
resenting either  Uranus,  the  heaven,  or  Tellus,  the  earth,  may  be 
most  satisfactory,' 

^  Letters  from  Rome,  Letter  xx. 

"Groiisset:  ^ude  sur  Thistoire  des  sarcophages  Chretiens,  Paris,  1885,  8vo. 

^Sclinaase:  Geschichfe  d.  bildenden  Kilnste,  Ite  Aiifg.,  Bd.  iii.,  s.  75,  Liibke:  Hist. 
of  Sculpture,  Transl.,  vol.  i,  p.  345,  rep;ards  it  as  a  figure  of  Oceanus.  Northcote  and 
Brownlow:  Roma  Sotterranea,  vol.  ii,  p.  256,  say,  "  The  vault  of  heaven  beneath 
His  feet  being  expressed  (as  in  pagan  monuments)  by  the  veil  which  the  female 
figure  holds  above  her  head." 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  SCULPTURE. 


143 


Pi-obably  the  most  elaborate  sarcophagus  of  the  early  sarcophagus  oi 
Christian  centuries  which  has  been  preserved  is  that  of  Junius  Hiussus. 
Junius  Bassus,  in  the 
crypt  of  St.  Peter's, 
Rome.'  The  inscrip- 
tion along  the  upper 
band  of  this  monu- 
ment gives  the  de- 
sired information 
relative  to  the  char- 
acter and  age  of  the 
person  whose  mem- 
ory is  hereby  perpet-  ^ 
uated.  It  is  as  fol-  ^ 
lows:  IVN.  BASSVS  f 
VC  QUI  VIXIT  AN-  ^ 
NIS.  XLII  MEN.  II.  i 
IN  IPSA  PKAEFEC-  | 
TVRA  VRBI.  NE- 1 
OFITVS  IIT  AD  2. 
DEVM.  VIII  KAL  | 
SEPT  EVSEBIO  ET  ? 
YPATIO  COSS.  I 
"  Junius  Bassus,  of  g 
patrician  rank,  who  | 
lived  forty-two  years  ^ 
and  two  months.  In  ^ 
theveryyearinwhich  i 
he  became  prefect  of  g 
the  city,  a  neophyte,  S 
he  went  to  God  on  5 
the  23d  of  August, 
Eusebius  and  Hypa- 
tius  being  Consuls  " 
(A.  D.  359). 

'  Good  casts  of  this  sar- 
cophagus are  found  in  the 
Lateran  Museum,  also  in 
the  Museum  of  Christian 
Arciia3olor!:y,  Berlin,  which 
was  founded  by  Professor 
Piper,  and  under  his  in- 
defatigable labors  has  be- 
come one  of  the  most  use- 
ful collections  in  Europe 
for  purposes  of  study. 


144 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


The  facts  of  the  inscription  are  confirmed  bj'  contemporary  his- 
its  inscrip-  torians,  thus  giving  positive  information  respecting  the 
tions.  time  of  the  origin  of  the  monument,  and,  therefore,  aid- 

ing in  appreciating  the  cycle  of  subjects  here  portrayed,  as  well  as 
the  artistic  value  of  the  work.  The  architectural  principle  is 
The  subjects  likewise  introduced  into  this  sarcophagus,  dividing  the 
introduced.  surface  into  compartments,  in  each  of  which  is  found  a 
scriptural  scene.  On  the  extreme  left  of  the  upper  zone  is  the  sac- 
rifice of  Isaac,  in  which  the  knife  raised  to  slay  the  boy  is  arrested 
by  a  hand  stretched  out  from  the  clouds,  while,  near  at  hand,  the 
substituted  ram  is  found.  It  is  diflicult  to  account  for  the  frequent 
introduction  of  this  event  in  Scripture  history,  except  that  it  may  have 
a  typical  or  symbolical  signification — pointing  to  the  real  sacrifice,  the 
Lamb  of  God,  who  was  to  "  take  away  the  sin  of  the  world."  On 
the  other  extreme  is  the  hand- washing  of  Pilate.  The  lower  zone  is 
equally  significant,  showing  in  the  middle  portion  Christ's  triumphal 
entry  into  Jerusalem.  On  the  right  is  the  representation  of  Daniel  in 
the  lions'  den.  Here  in  the  case  of  Daniel  a  draped  figure  is  intro- 
duced, while  in  other  delineations  of  the  same  scene  the  figure  is 
entirely  nude.  On  the  left  is  the  temptation  of 
our  first  parents.  The  serpent  is  winding  around 
the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  ;  the 
sheaf  of  wheat  by  Adam  indicates  the  life  of 
labor  which  he  must  lead,  and  the  lamb  symbol- 
izes the  employment  of  Eve.  Some  interpreters 
find  in  this  figure  of  the  lamb  a  symbol  of  the 
l^romised  Redeemer.  The  relation  of  the  ele- 
ments of  this  scene  can  best  be  studied  from 
Fig.  56.  The  middle  figure  of  the  upper  zone  has 
been  variously  interpreted.  Some  have  seen  in 
it  the  teaching  Christ,  the  two  figures  being  those  of  his  disci- 
ples. The  roll  and  the  attitude  of  the  hand  would  suggest  this. 
Others  have  associated  it  with  the  central  scene 
in  the  lower  zone.  As  the  latter  is  representative 
of  his  triumph  before  the  people,  so  is  the  upper 
scene  (?;.  Fig.  57)  the  transfiguration,  with  Moses 
and  Elias  as  his  companions.  This,  it  is  claimed, 
is  indicated  by  the  figure  below,  which  is  to  rep- 
resent earth  as  his  footstool,  under  the  form  of 
Tellus,  who  holds  a  veil  over  the  head,  thus  s^^m- 
Fijr.  5r.— FroiiitheJii-  bolizing  the  firmament.  The  latter  interpretation 
niusBassus  monument,  ^^^^^^rs  hardly  accordant  with  the  principles  of 
a  rational  symbolism.     The  other  scenes  are,  respectively,  on  the  ex- 


Fig.  56.  — The  Fall. 
From  sarcophagus  of 
Junius  Bassus. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   SCULPTURE.  14a 

trerae  left,  in  the  lower  zone,  the  humiliation  of  Job;  on  the 
right  the  arrest  of  Peter;  on  the  upper  zone,  Christ's  arrest,  and 
his  arraignment  before  Pilate.  In  the  spandrels  of  the  arches  is 
a  most  suggestive  symbolism.'  In  one  part  a  sheep  ^  suggestive 
is  striking  with  a  staff  the  rock,  whence  flows  water  syniboiism. 
which  another  sheep  is  drinking.  In  another  section  a  sheep  is 
receiving  the  table  of  the  law;  in  another  it  performs  the  miracle 
of  the  loaves;  a  third  la^'-s  its  forefoot  upon  the  head  of  another, 
over  which  baptismal  Avaters  flow,  while  the  rays  stream  from 
the  beak  of  the  dove  which  represents  the  Holy  Spirit.  Thus 
in  all  the  symbolic  character  of  the  lamb  is  most  manifest;  the 
central  thought  being  Christ  the  source  of  power,  blessing,  and 
life. 

Th?  sculpture.  Fig.  58,  is  of  later  origin,  probably  of  the  sixth 
century.  The  central  figure  is  one  quite  frequently  met  x  luer  sar- 
in the  frescos — an  orcude — on  either  side  of  whom  eopiiapus. 
stands  a  figure  whose  signification  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  The 
presence  of  the  palm-trees  points  to  the  thought  of  victory  or 
of  joyousness  in  the  heavenly  inheritance.  The  extension  of  the 
hands  in  prayer  is  the  usual  attitude  met  in  the  early  monuments — 
frescos,  sculptures,  and  mosaics.  It  is  plain  that  this  position  of 
standing  with  outstretched  hands  in  prayer  was  the  usual  or 
prescribed  one.  No  instance  of  prayer  to  God  in  the  kneeling 
posture  is  met  in  the  monuments.  Supplication  for  Attitude  in 
aid  from  another,  as  in  case  of  the  woman  with  the  prayer, 
issue  of  blood,  etc.,  may  be  met;  but  that  this  was  not  the  usual 
attitude  in  case  of  public  Avorship  seems  evident.  In  this  the 
monuments  and  the  literary  evidence  are  in  entire  accord.  The 
other  members  of  this  sculpture  are  familiar.  On  the  right  the 
multii»lication  of  the  loaves  in  the  hands  of  the  disciples — a  most 
favorite  scene  with  the  early  Christians;  on  the  left  the  first  mira- 
cle in  Cana  of  Galilee,  which  is  hardly  less  frequent  upon  the  early 
monuments.  The  extreme  right  has  been  by  some  interpreted  to 
be  the  afflicted  Job  sitting  in  ashes,  attended  by  one  of  his 
friends."  This  is  less  certain  in  its  reference  than  the  other  portions 
of  the  sarcophagus.  As  a  work  of  art  this  is  much  inferior  to 
many  others  :  it  indicates  a  wide  departure  from  the  classic  spirit, 
and  a  decay  of  originating  power,  as  well  as  feebleness  in 
execution. 

The  representation   of  the   Nativity  and   its   attendant  circum- 

'  Unfortunately,  tliese  do  not  appear  witli  mucli  distinctness  in  our   plule,  oii 
account  of  llie  dilficnlties  of  photograpliing  in  tiiese  dark  crypts. 
'  Roller:    Catacomhts  d<j  Rome,  vol.  i,  p.  297. 
10 


146 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


stances 
In  the 


is  quite  exceptional  on  the  Christian  sarcophagi.   The  Nativity  in 
Lateran  collection  but  a  single  example  is  met,   sculpture. 

upon  a  fragment  of  a  small  sar- 
cophagus, represented  in  Fig.  59. 
The  scene  is  easy  of  interpreta- 
tion. Joseph  and  Mary  occupy 
the  extreme  right.  The  central 
portion  suggests  the  manger  scene, 
the  sacred  babe  in  swaddling 
clothes  laid  in  a  basket,  while  the 
ox  and  the  ass  in  their  stall  help 
to  complete  the  picture  of  the 
lowliness  of  the  birthplace  of  the 
Lord.'  Toward  the  left  the  magi, 
clad  in  their  usual  dress,  are 
bringing  gifts.  On  the  extreme 
left  is  a  winged  genius  in  the  pe- 
culiar st3^1e  of  pagan  art,  showing 
the  syncretism  of  thought  in 
Christian  sculpture,  or,  at  least, 
the  readiness  with  which  these 
figures  were  introduced  for  deco- 
rative purposes. 

The  interesting  sarcophagus 
represented  by  Fig.  60  is  from 
the   latter  part   of   the   The  appear- 

iir-.i  .  A  ance   of   the 

fifth  century.  As  a  ^^^,  ^,.^^^  .^ 
Avork  of  art  it  plainly  sculpture, 
belongs  to  the  period  of  deca- 
dence. The  scenes  in  the  life  of 
Christ  also  show  by  their  peculiar 
treatment  that  the  age  of  i^er- 
secution  is  past,  and  the  age  of 
triumph  has  been  reached.  The 
hand-washing  by  Pilate    is  mani- 

'  Some  interpreters  have  sngtrested  that 
reference  may  be  had  to  Isa.  i,  3 ;  that 
while  tlie  brute  creation  recognise  tlieir 
Lord  and  Creator,  and  the  heathen  world 
(the  magi)  is  full  of  expectation,  and  is 
ready  to  worship  the  infant  Redeemer, 
"  Israel  doth  not  know,  my  peop'e  doth  not 
consider." 


522«^i^ 


143 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


festly  the  scene  presented  on  the  extreme  left.      This  is  indicated 
by  the  basin,  the  pouring  out  of  the  water  from  the  pitcher  by  the 

soldier,  the  attitude  of  the 
sitting-  figure,  etc.  Next  is 
tlie  figure  of  Christ  attended 
by  the  soldier,  who  bears  a 
:  spear  and  wears  the  usual 
l  Roman  helmet.  Christ  seems 
-_  in  the  attitude  of  speaking. 
j  The  position  of  the  hand,  with 
:  the  two  forefingers  extended, 
'  as  is  customary  with  the 
:  teacher,  might  suggest  the 
I  answer  to  the  inquiring  Pi- 
l  late,  "  M}^  kingdom  is  not  of 
I  this  world.  .  .  ."  "  Art  thou 
I  a  king  then  ?  "  "  Thou  sayest 
;  that  I  am  a  king."  The  scene 
t  first  on  the  left  of  the  center 
I  is  plainly  the  crown-  j^terpreta- 
ing  of  Christ  by  the  1 1 o n  of 
I  soldier.  But  may  not 
=  the  time  of  the  origin  of  this 
:    sculpture  be  conjectured  from 

5  the  fact  that  the  crown  is  no 
^    longer  one  of  thorns  but  of 

6  garlands  ?  On  the  extreme 
=  left  is  the  cross-bearing.  To 
=  what  extent  the  crown  of  gar- 
=  lands  may  suggest  triumph,  or 
I  how  far  it  may  be  merel}^  or- 
=  namental,  and  is  used  to  com- 
I  plete  the  artistic  balancing  re- 
E  quired  by  the  like  crown  in 
''''  the  hand-washing,  may  not  be 
i  determined  with  certainty. 
=j    The  central  portion  is  full  of 

suggestion.  A  curious  com- 
bination of. elements  indicates 
that  the  period  of  suffering 
and  the  time  when  the  cross 
must  bo  concealed  are  past.  The  Constantinian  monogram  rests 
upon   the  cross.     This  would  be  indicative  of   sacrifice,  but  it  is 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    SCULPTURE. 


UT 


crowned  by  a  chaplet  which  is  emblematic 
Triumph  rather  of  victory.  This  woukl  be  f  ur- 
than  suffering  ther  emphasized  by  the  idea  of 
suggested.  ^j^^  resurrection,  sus^gested  by 
the  watch  of  Roman  sokliers  who  were  set 
to  guard  the  sealed  tomb. 

Early  Christian  art  contains  few  refer- 
ences to  the  retributions  of  a  future  state. 
Herein  it  is  in  completest  contrast  with  the 
art  of  the  later  Middle  Ages,  and  with  some 
of  the  most  celebrated  works  of  the  Re- 
naissance. In  this  we  observe  the  influence 
of  that  spirit  of  simple  faith  and  love  wdiich 
led  the  early  Christians  to  dwell  rather  upon 
the  beneficent  offices  of  our  Loril,  and  upon 
the  more  cheerful  and  winning  aspects  of  the 
religion  which  he  established.  The  state- 
ments already  made  in  relation  to  the 
frequency  on  the  early  monuments  of  such 
scenes  in  the  life  of  Christ,  and  of  events  in 
the  biblical  history  which  contemplate  the 
The  last  judg-  elevation  of  the  individual  or  of 
ment.  the    race,    fully    confirm    this 

opinion.  In  the  sarcophagus,  Fig.  61,  is 
almost  the  only  instance  of  a  representation 
of  the  last  judgment  in  early  Christian 
sculpture.  It  is  a  simple  reproduction  of 
Its  scriptural  the  Scripture  statement  in  Matt. 
character.  xxv,  31-46.     Here  is  the  shep- 

herd, not  the  angry  judge,  separating  the 
sheep  from  the  goats.  The  whole  action  of 
the  sculpture  is  most  effective.  The  press- 
ing forward  of  the  sheep  in  obedience  to 
the  glad  invitation,  "  Come,  ye  blessed  of 
my  Father,"  the  hand  laid  approvingly  upon 
the  head  of  the  nearest,  the  face  of  the 
shepherd  turned  toward  those  who  had  done 
his  will  in  acts  of  beneficence,  are  in  strik- 
ing contrast  to  the  attitude  of  the  proud 
goats  who  wei'e  approaching  with  eager  con- 
fidence, but  who,  arrested  by  the  fearftd 
words,  "  Depart  from  me,  ye  cursed,"  now 
shrinlc  back  from  the  touch  of  the  averted 


■^iSi 


m^ 


m 


m 


150  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

hand,  and  are  troubled  by  the  face  turned  away  in  sorrowful  con- 
demnation. Nothing  could  more  fully  and  effectively  express  the 
decisions  of  the  last  judgment  in  a  manner  completely  in  harmony 
with  the  Scripture  conception.' 

CARVINGS    IN   IVORY. 

Another  very  interesting  class  of  objects  are  the  carvings  in  ivory. 
They  are  considerable  in  number,  and  on  account  of  the  durability 
of  the  material  have  suffered  less  from  the  forces  which  have  seri- 
ously marred  works  in  stone  and  bronze. 

Some  of  the  most  important  of  these  ivory  carvings  prior  to  the 
eiohth  century  are  in  the  form  of  diptychs.     This  tei"m. 

Ivory  diptychs.  .  . 

while  properly  applying  to  any  thing  folded  together 
(dlTTTvxov),  has  more  especial  reference  to  tablets  used  by  the 
ancients  for  writing  with  a  stylus  of  ivory  or  metal.  They  often 
had  three  leaves  (triptychs),  sometimes  four  and  more.  The  inner 
surface  was  covered  with  a  thin  film  of  wax,  the  outer,  or  cover 
proper,  was  often  elaborately  carved. 

For  general  art  archaeology  the  most  important  of  these  are  the 
Consular  dip-  consular  diptychs,  since  they  are  usually  larger,  more 
l^,^^tf.°f  f!^'r  elaborate,  and  bear  dates  and  legends  which  are  often 
chronoiogry.  helpful  in  the  solution  of  historic  and  chronologic  prob- 
lems. These  were  usually  presents  which  the  newly  appointed  con- 
suls were  accustomed  to  send  to  their  friends  and  adherents,  and 
differed  in  value  and  artistic  excellence  according  to  the  social 
rank  or  political  influence  of  the  recijiients.  Some  of  the  consular 
diptychs  were  afterward  presented  to  churches  and  ecclesiastical 
communities,  and  were  changed  in  their  character  from  secular  and 
heathen  to  Christian  b}^  the  removal  of  portions  of  the  original 
carving  and  the  substitution  of  subjects  of  religious  significance. 
As  might  be  anticipated,  they  sometimes  present  a  commingling  of 
heathen  and  Christian  elements. 

Diptychs  \\ere  also  quite  common  in  the  public  service  of  the  early 
Church.  Their  uses  have  been  well  summarized  as  follows:  First, 
like  the  church  registers  of  modern  times,  they  contained  names  of 
all  baptized  and  unbaptized  persons  of  the  parish  or  district ;  secondly, 
in  them  Avere  recorded  the  names  of  bishops  and  chief  personages 
w^io  had  been  benefactors  and  patrons  of  that  particular  church; 
thirdly,  they  contained  the  names  of  those  who  had  suffered  mar- 
Ecciesiasticai  tyrdom,  or  who  were  of  specially  saintly  character — 
diptychs.  these  names  being  often  read  at  the  public  services  to 

show  the  unity  of  the  Church  militant  and  the  Church  triumphant; 
1  Roller:   Catacomhes  de  Rome,  vol.  i,  pi.  xliii,  No.  3. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN  SCULPTURE.  lol 

fourthly,  there  were  diptychs  in  which  were  written  the  names  of  the 
deceased  members  of  the  particular  church  or  district,  who  were  to 
be  remembered  at  mass.'  This  was  regarded  a  matter  of  extreme 
interest,  since  the  erasure  of  a  name  from  the  diptychs  was  equiv- 
alent to  actual  excommunication,  and  the  name  so  erased  could 
no  longer  be  mentioned  in  the  prayers  of  the  church."  The 
number  of  ecclesiastical  diptychs  prior  to  A.  D.  700  is  very 
small;  yet  they  are  of  peculiar  interest  in  the  illustration  of  the 
sculpture  of  the  period  prior  to  the  liberation  of  Christianity'  from 
(irieco-Roman  influence,  and  of  the  development  of  an  art  peculiarly 
its  own. 

A  single  leaf  of  a  beautiful  Christian  diptych,  plainly  of  Byzantine 
origin,  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It  represents  ^heir  import- 
au  angel  of  young  and  vigorous  mien  standing  under  '^'^'-'^■ 
an  arch  supported  by  Corinthian  columns.  He  is  clad  in  a  tunic 
and  flowing  mantle.  In  the  right  hand  he  bears  a  globe  surmounted 
by  the  cross,  very  much  in  the  style  of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  and 
with  the  left  supports  a  long  scepter  similar  to  the  lance  borne  by 
warriors.  The  general  character  of  the  work  is  good, 
and  suggests  that  the  artist  must  have  been  influenced 
by  the  classic  statues  with  which  Constantinople  then  abounded.' 
A  second  example  from  the  sixth  century  is  now  in  the  British 
collection  ;  both  leaves  are  preserved.  One  represents  the  Virgin 
and  child  enthroned,  with  two  angels  in  waiting  ;  on  the  other 
leaf  Christ  is  seated  between  SS.  Peter  and  Paul.  A  third,  now 
belonging  to  the  treasury  of  the  Cathedral  of  Monza,  also  from 
the  sixth  century,  has  both  leaves  preserved.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  it  was  early  converted  from  a  consular  diptych  to  the 
cover  of  an  antiphonarium  of  Gregory  the  Great.*  On  one  leaf 
is  a  figure  in  consular  robes;  but  the  head  shoAvs  the  tonsure, 
and  the  staff  terminates  in  a  cross.  It  has  been  claimed  to  be 
a  representation  of  Gregory  himself.  The  other  side  contains  a 
somewhat  similar  figure,  but  lacks  the  tonsure,  and  is  associated 
with  the  inscription,   DAVID  REX.     This  association  of  Gregory 

'  Gori:  Thesaurus  vekrum  diptijcliorum,  Florentiffi,  1759,  t.  i,  pp.  242,  243.  Bing- 
ham: Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church,  Book  xv,  cli.  iii,  §.  18. 

*  Amon<r  ollier-s  see  Bingham:  Op.  cit.,  Book  xvi,  cli.  iii,  §  12;  Book  xi.v,  ch.  ii, 
§  11.  Dodwell:  Fifth  Cyprian  Dissertation.  Ad  Epistolam  X.  De  Tuyininum  e  dip- 
(ychis  ecclesicerecitatio7ie  ill  Eacharistia.     O.xen,  1684. 

'  Labarte :  Op.  cit.,  t.  i.  pp.  30,  31.  Oldlield :  Select  Examples  of  Ivory  Carviivj  from 
the  Si.'CO)id  to  the  Sixteenth  Century.     London,  1855,  p.  10. 

*  Gori:  Op.  cit,  t.  i,  p.  201.  Oldlield:  Op.  cit.,  p.  10.  Maskell:  Ivories,  Ancient 
and  Mediceval,  etc.,  p.  xxxvi.  Contra,  Pulszky :  The  F^Jevdry  Ivories,  p.  23.  La- 
barte :  Op.  cit.,  t.  i,  p.  16. 


153 


ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


and  David  has  been  thought  to  be  very  appropi'iate  on  account 
.  of  their  similar  interest  in  sacred  music  and  song.  While  the  work 
is  rude,  and  indicates  great  artistic  decadence,  it  is  nevertheless  of 
great  importance  in  the  art  study  of  a  period  from  which  comj^ara- 
tively  few  examples  of  sculj^ture  have  survived. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  by  investigators  of  early  Christian 
I  monuments  that  they  are  remarkably  free  from  scenes  of  suffering, 
as  the  early  inscriptions  furnish  few  examples  of  the  expression  of 
a  sj^irit  of  complaining,  despair,  or  vindictiveness.  It  is  quite  gen- 
erally agreed  that  in  the  first  four  centuries  no  instance  of  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  crucifixion  of  Christ  upon  the  monuments  has  yet 
been  found.  The  reason  of  the  avoidance  of  these  scenes  has  else- 
where been  suggested  («.  p.  104).     Hence  the  agony  in  the  garden, 


Fgi.  62.— A  Cruciflxion.    From  an  ivory  in  the  Maskell  Collection  in  British  Museum.    Probably 

of  the  fifth  century. 

the  scourging,  the  cross-bearing,  and  the  crucifixion,  all  of  which 

became  favorite  subjects  of  art  portraiture  in  the  medireval  period, 

are  rarely  met  in  the  art  of  the  first  three  and  a  half  centuries. 

Fig.  62  is  from  an  ivory  carving,  and  is  believed  to  be  one  of  the 

The     earliest    oldest  representations  of  the  crucifixion  yet  discovered. 

representation    j^  cannot  be  of  a  date  earlier  than  the  fifth  century.   From 

of  the  crucifix-     _  •' 

ion.  its  general  style  and  resemblance  to  the  sculptures  of  the 

Roman  sarcophagi,  its  genuineness  has  come  to  be  accepted  by  the 

best  critics,  and  its  date  determined.     It  is  now  in  the  collection  of 

the  British  Museum,  and  was  part  of  the  celebrated  Maskell  cabinet 

of  ivories  which  have  come  to  be  so  highly  prized.    The  scenes  here 

represented,  one  of  four  divisions  of  the  ivory,  are  manifest.     The 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   SCULPTURE.  153 

Saviour,  extended  upon  a  Latin  cross,  receives  the  thrust  from  tlie 
soldier's  spear,  while  on  the  other  side  appear  the  beloved  discijile 
and  the  sorrowing  mother  (John  xix,  26,  27).  On  the  extreme  left 
is  the  representation  of  the  history  given  in  Matt,  xxvii,  5:  "And 
he  cast  down  the  pieces  of  silver  in  the  temple,  and  departed,  and 
went  and  hanged  himself."  Previous  to  the  discovery  and  de- 
scription of  this  ivory  carving,  the  earliest  representation  of 
the  crucifixion  was  believed  to  be  that  contained  in  the  decora- 
tion of  a  Syriac  manuscript  of  the  gospels,  now  in  Florence,  which 
bears  the  date  A.  D.  586. 

An  interesting  instance  of  ivory  carving  u))on  covers  of  books 
is  found  in  the  National  Library  of  Paris.  Three  prin-  carvingsonthe 
cipal  scenes  are  represented;  namely,  above,  the  An-  covers  of  books, 
nunciation;  in  the  centre,  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi;  below,  the 
Massacre  of  the  Innocents.  The  entire  composition  is  in  very  supe- 
rior style  of  art,  indicating  the  thorough  acquaintance  of  the  artist 
with  the  best  works  of  antiquity.' 

A  second  example  of  like  character  is  in  the  treasury  of  the  Ca- 
thedral of  Milan.  Both  covers  have  been  preserved.  The  central 
portion  of  the  one  is  occupied  by  a  richly  jeweled  Agnus  Del  with 
circled  and  jeweled  nimbus.  In  the  upper  part  is  represented  the 
Nativity,  flanked  by  symbolic  figures  of  Matthew  and  Luke.  In 
the  lower  portion  is  depicted  the  massacre  of  the  Innocents,  while 
on  either  side  of  the  cover  are  three  scenes  from  Gospel  histor}'. 
The  center  of  the  other  leaf  contains  a  jeweled  cross,  above  which 
is  the  adoration  of  the  Magi,  with  symbolic  representations  of  Mark 
and  John;  below  is  the  marriage  in  Cana,  while  six  scenes  from  the 
life  of  Christ  enrich  the  sides.  From  the  circumstance  that  Christ 
is  represented  as  young,  unbearded,  and  without  a  nimbus,  as  well 
as  from  the  fact  that  while  his  presentation  to  the  women  after  the 
resurrection  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  carvings,  the  crucifixion  is 
her-e  avoided,  some  have  been  inclined  to  assign  this  ivory  to  a 
very  early  date.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  it  cannot  antedate 
the  fifth  century.^ 

This  last  work  in  ivory  is  surpassed  in  value  and  interest  only  by 
the  noted  cathedra  of  Bishop  Maximianus,  nowpreserved  c„thedra  of 
in  the  sacristry  of  the  Duomo  in  Ravenna.     It  is  entirely   BisHop  Maxiiu- 
covered  with  carvings,  many  of  which  are  of  the  finest  de- 
sign and  technic.     Ten  scenes  from  the  life  of  Joseph  are  of  very 

'  Labarte:    Op.  at,  t.  i,  p.  32. 

'  This  celebrated  work  has  been  described  by  many  writers.  Labarte,  Op.  cif., 
t.  i.  p.  32,  h:is  given  a  very  fine  plate;  aud  Oldfiield,  Oj).  cit.,  p.  11.  has  giveu  a  par- 
tial description. 


154 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART 


superior  Avorkmanship,  while  the  animals  and  plants  reveal  a  warm 
sympathy   of  the  artist  with  nature.      Only  the  figures  of  saints 

that  fill  the  front  side  show  the 
stiffness  and  artificiality  of  the 
later  Byzantine  style.  Fig.  63 
represents  one  of  these  figures — 
an  ecclesiastic  in  the  attitude  of 
preaching.  The  sacred  book  lies 
open  upon  the  ambo,  or  reading 
desk,  and  the  two  forefingers  of 
the  right  hand  indicate  the  ofiice 
of  the  teacher.  The  attitude  of 
the  figure  itself  is  constrained, 
while  the  whole  artistic  treat- 
ment, from  the  head  to  the  san- 
dals upon  the  feet,  is  stiff  and 
unnatural.  This  and  other  like 
figures  are  specially  helpful  as  a 
means  of  ascertaining  the  vest- 
ments of  the  clergy  and  their 
position  in  preaching,  as  well  as 
suggesting  the  quality  of  the 
church  furniture  then  in  use. 

In  a  few  instances  ancient 
ivory  boxes,  or  ^j»^cces,  are  still 
preserved.'  They  were  gener- 
ally placed  upon  the  altar  to  con- 
tain the  consecrated  eucharistic 
elements  which  were  to  be  dis- 
tributed to  the  sick.  Garrucci 
claims  that  the  subjects  depicted 
upon  fourteen  of  the  fifteen 
known  sacred  pixes  relate  directly  to  the  eucharist.  The  only  excep- 
tion is  an  ivory  pix  from  the  early  part  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, which  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  Upon  it  aie 
represented  the  martyrdom  and  glorification  of  the  Egyptian  saint, 
Menas.  This  circumstance  has  therefore  suggested  another  use  of 
these  sacred  pixes;  namelj^,  to  contain  relics  of  saints  and  martyrs.' 
This  St.  Menas  was  held  in  highest  veneration  by  the  Egj^ptian 

'  V.  Hahn:  F'dnf  Elferibein-Gefasse  des  frilhesien  Mittd- alters.  Hanover,  18G2. 
Lebarte :  Eistoirt  des  arts  industriels. 

"^  V.  Garrucci  and  Nesbitt,  in  the  Archceologia,  vol.  xliv,  pp.  320-330,  and  plates 
X  and  xi. 


Fig.  63.— Ivory  carving  from  the  cathedra  of 
Bishop  Maxlmianus,  in  the  Duomo  of  Ravenna. 


Ivory   pixes. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   SCULPTURE. 


155 


Christians,  and  also  in  Rome.  He  is  often  represented  upon  the 
flattened  flasks  or  bottles  which  are  found  in  considerable  numbers 
in  Egypt. 

Another  interesting  class  of  antiquities  are  the  Christian  lam})s. 
They  are  numerous  and  of  different  materials,  as  terra  sculptured 
cotta,  bronze,  silver,  and  amber.  They  are  of  various  lamps, 
forms,  and  contain  a  great  variety  of  symbols,  as  the  dove,  the 
cross,  the  Constantinian  monogram,  A  i2,  etc.  The  Christians  used 
these  lamps  not  only  to  lighten  the  otherwise  gloomy  recesses  of 


Fig.  64.— A  Christian  lamp,  with  Constantinian  monogram. 

the  catacombs,  but,  in  common  with  the  heathen  peoi)les,  attached 
to  them  a  symbolic  significance,  especially  when  used  in  connection 
with  the  burial  of  the  dead.  Some  of  these  lamps  are  works  of 
liigh  art,  and  show  an  exquisite  taste  in  matters  of  form  as  well  as 
in  respect  to  workmanship  and  symbolic  import.  Fig.  04  is  one  of 
the  finest  of  the  hanging  lamps  in  bronze.  It  contains  three  orifices 
for  lighting,  and  its  handle  is  wrought  out  in  an  elaborate  -^  and  the 
representation  of  Jonah  reclining  under  the  shadow  of  the  gourd. 

For  over  two  hundred  years  great  interest  has  attached   Ampuihp,     or 
to  a  class  of  relics  found  more  especially  in  the  Roman   I'looiipuiais. 
catacombs  and  crypts  of  churches;  these  are  the  so-called  ainpuUte, 


156 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


or  blood-pliials,  Fig.  Go.     An  almost  acrimouious   controversy  has 
continued  respecting  the  uses  of  these  clay  and  glass  phials  and 

their  contents.  One  cause  of 
this  controversy  was  a  decree 
of  the  Conrjregatio  Hituuni  et 
Hellq  tear  urn,  issued  in  1668,  to 
the  effect  that  the  marks  of 
true  relics  of  the  martyrs,  as 
distinguished  from  the  false  or 
doubtful,  shall  be  the  presence 
of  the  palm-branch  and  a  vessel 
coloured  with  their  blood.  This 
test  was  maintained  as  decisive 
by  nearly  all  the  old  arch»olo- 
gists,  and  has  been  very  vigour- 
ously  defended  by  many  in  the 
present  century.  Two  opinions  of  the  contents  of  these  phials  have 
been  held:  one,  that  they  contained  the  blood  of  martyrs;  the  other, 
that  the  colouring  matter  found  in  them  was  due  to  wine  used  for 
eucharistic  purposes.  The  question  is  not  yet  satisfactorily  settled. 
Many  other  interesting  and  instructive  objects  of  antiquity  are 
found  in  museums  and  private  collections.  The  subject  of  seals  and 
rings  has  received  careful  attention.  Numismatics  has  become  a 
special  science,  also  glyptic  art  has  contributed  much  toward  a 
knowledge  of  Christian  thought  during  the  first  six  centuries. 
The  special  examination  of  these  archaeological  remains  is,  however, 
precluded  by  the  limits  of  this  hand-book. 


Fig.  65.— A  so-called  Blood-phial, 
catacombs. 


From  Roman 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  157 


CHAPTER  VI. 

EARLY     C  H  RI  S  T  I  A  X     A  R  C  li  I  T  l-J  C  T  U  R  E. 

SECTION  I. 

THE    CHRISTIAN    BASILICA. 

§  1.    Origin  of  the  Christian  Basilica. 

The  origin  of  the  species  of  Christian  churcli  called  basilica  has 

been  most  earnestly  investigated.      The  answer   to   the   question, 

"  Whence  arose  Christian  architecture  ?  "  would  also  fur- 

.   ,  Tin  •  PI  Origin   of    the 

nish  a  partial  answer  to  the  related  questions  oi  the  con-   christian    ba- 

dition  of  art  feeling  in  the  early  Church,  the  originality  ''''^*^*' 
of  monuments  usually  called  Christian,  and  the  connection  of  the 
Roman  Christian  and  Gothic  architecture  with  the  early  Christian 
basilica  in  a  process  of  organic  art  development.'  The  subject  is 
one  of  great  difficulty,  on  account  of  the  fewness  of  surviving 
monuments  from  the  first  three  centuries,  and  from  the  meagre 
references  to  this  subject  in  the  writings  of  the  Christian  fathers, 
or  in  Vitruvius,  the  only  architect  of  the  first  century  whose  works 
have  come  down  to  our  time.  It  is  not,  therefore,  surprising  that 
able  writers  should  have  differed  in  their  account  of  the  origin  of 
the  Christian  basilica. 

Various  opinions  have  divided  the  archaeologists.  1.  The  first  is 
that  advocated  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  Aiberti's  the- 
l)y  Alberti,'  which  claims  that  the  early  Christian  basilica  J'^'n/^J"  ^  a- 
is  a  close  imitation  of  the  Roman  pagan  basilica,  with  silica. 
unimportant  departures  from  the  original.  By  placing  the 
plan  of  each  side  by  side,  to  the  superficial  observer  this  simi- 
larity appears  quite  striking  and  the  theory  plausible.  This  opinion 
was  accepted  by  leading  archaeologists  for  three  and  a  half  centuries.' 
2.  It  remained  almost  unchallenged  until  subjected  to  a  most  rig- 

'  ■•  With  respect  to  the  discovery  of  new  germs  (of  art)  in  the  period  of  llic  down- 
fall, the  following  questions  especially  would  come  under  examination:  First,  the 
question  in  how  far  Christianity  liad  a  share  therein?"  etc.  v.  Mothcs:  Die  Bau- 
kunst  OttS  MifMalters.  etc.,  Bd.  i,  ss.  2,  3. 

^  De  Re  yEdificatoria.  Florentiis,  1485. 

'The  English  authorities  seem  to  know  no  other  theory  of  the  origin  of  theClirist- 
ian  basilica  {v.  article  Basilica,  in  Encychpaidia  Britannica,  and  in  Dictionary  of  Christ- 
ian Antiquities);  this  also  prevails  in  America. 


158  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

idly  critical  examination  by  Zestermann '  in  1847.  This  writer  con- 
cedes that  the  resemblance  of  the  churches  of  the  fourth  century  to 
the  Roman  basilicas  in  respect  to  the  rows  of  columns  on  either  side, 
Zestermann's  the  lean-to  roof,  the  enclosing  wall,  and  the  windows  rest- 
theory,  ing  upon  the  columns  beneath,  justifies  the  classification 
of  such  Christian  churches  under  the  term  basilica;  but  these  are 
insufficient  to  establish  an  organic  connection  between  the  Christian 
and  the  heathen  structures.  He  argues  that  the  Christian  basilica 
A  development  ^'^^  chiefly  developed  through  the  needs  and  spirit  of 
from  the  the  Christian  church  itself,  and  is,  therefore,  a  distinct 
forum.  stjde  of  architecture.  In  the  solution  of  this  question 
the  stoa  basilica  and  the  agora,  found  at  Athens  in  the  time  of 
Pericles,  are  successively  examined  with  an  earnestness  and  learning 
truly  praiseworthy.  The  first  of  the  so-called  basilicas  at  Rome  was 
built  by  Marcus  Porcius  Cato  in  B.  C.  184.  After  this  followed 
others,  the  most  noted  of  which  were  the  Basilicas  Emilia,  Fulvia, 
Julia,  and  Ulpia.  From  Rome  these  buildings  were  extended 
throughout  the  entire  empire.  Zestermann  claims  that  they 
Zestermann's  ^ ^H  under  four  general  classes,  according  to  the  jDurposes 
four  classes.  which  they  served;  namely,  the  law  basilicas,  the  private 
basilicas,  the  basilicas  for  pedestrian  exercises,  and  the  wine  basilicas. 
Each  of  these  had  peculiar  features  adapting  it  to  its  specific  uses. 
All  alike  appear  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  Roman  forum,  this 
general  type  being  modified  only  so  far  as  might  be  necessary 
by  the  greater  or  smaller  building  area.  This  author  rejects 
the  derivation  of  the  word  from  the  Greek,  in  the  sense  of  "  a 
house  of  the  king,"  or  "  a  royal  habitation,"  but  claims  that  even 
in  the  time  of  Plautus  the  word  basilicus  had  already  become  a  dis- 
tinctivel}^  Roman  adjective,  meaning  "magnificent,"  "imposing," 
"  grand."  Hence,  to  distinguish  it  from  other  porticos,  the  building 
of  Cato  was  called  "po7'ticus  basilicics,^^  the  magnificent  house,  and 
afterward  simply  "basilica." 

The  Christians  applied  the  term  basilica  to  an  imposing  building 
used  only  for  ecclesiastical  purposes.  Zestermann  claims  that  the 
groundplan  and  the  arrangement  and  development  of  all  its  parts 
Sole  reference  had  sole  reference  to  the  purposes  and  needs  of  Christ- 
c^hrisuan^wor-  ^^"  Worship,  and  no  relation  whatever  to  Roman 
ship-  pagan  buildings  of  like   name.     He  sees  the  progres- 

sive growth  of  the  Christian  society  revealing  itself  in  the  basilica, 
slowly  transforming  and  perfecting  it,  as  new  wants  arise,  until  the 

'  Die  antiken  u.  die  christlichen  Basiliken  iiach  iliren  Entstelmmj.  Aushildung,  u.  Bezie- 
hung  zu  einander.  Tliis  was  crowned  as  the  prize  essay  by  the  Belgian  Academy  of 
Arts,  Literature,  and  the  Fine  Arts. 


J^ 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  159 

imposing  structures  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries  were  the 

outcome.     In  harmony  with  this  opinion  he  })rofesse8 

to  be  able  to  group  the  early  churches  into  five  classes,   ciassiQcation 

'='.'■  -^  .  '    of  early  Christ- 

each  one  of  which  represents  a  stage  in  the  attempt  to   iaa  churches. 

properly  adapt  them  to  the  needs  of  Christian  worship  : 

(1.)  Buildings  of  an  oblong  form  with  a  middle  and  side  naves. 

(2.)  Those  of  oblong  form  with  middle  and  side  naves  and  an 
apse. 

(3.)  Those  of  oblong  form,  middle  and  side  naves,  apse,  and  tran- 
sept. 

(4.)  Those  of  oblong  form,  middle  and  side  naves,  apse,  and  tran- 
sept; but  Avithout  an  atrium,  and  having  the  porch  leaning  on  the 
main  building. 

(5.)  Those  having  the  characteristics  of  the  last  class,  but  having 
several  apses. 

This  writer  defends  his  theory  with  great  learning,  and  concludes 
that  "  the  origination  and  development  of  the  Christian  basilica  are 
completely  explained  by,  and  find  their  justification  in,  the  activities 
and  needs  of  the  Christian  spirit."^ 

3.  A  third  opinion  has  been  defended  with  much  earnestness  and 
with  great  wealth  of  learning.  It  holds  that  the  early  Christian  ba- 
silica was  developed  from  the  ancient  private  house  and  the  Greek  hy- 
psethral  temple.^  The  following  considerations  are  urged  in  favor 
of  this  origin  :  After  their  complete  separation  from  Hyp£ethrai 
the  Jewish  Church  the  Christians  assembled  in  private  temple, 
houses  for  worship.     This  is  distinctly  stated  in  the  Acts  of  the 

Apostles,  in  the  Epistles,  and  by  the  early  Christian 

^  '  ^  '  -^  <•    1      T->  Private  house, 

fathers.     The  accepted  and  regular  form  of  the  Roman 

house  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  can  be  well  ascertained, 

and  the  adaptation  or  adjustment  of  such  a  room  to  the  purposes  of 

a  Christian  assembly  can  be  easily  traced.     The  resemblance  of  these 

'  Zestermann  lias  a  zealous  disciple  in  J.  Kreuser:  ChristUcher  Kirchenbmt,  1851 
and  1860:  and  still  more  positively  in  his  Wiederum  ChristUcher  Kirchenhau,  18G8. 
This  author  ho'.ds,  1.  That  the  Christian  basilicas  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  attic  royal 
hall.  2.  Under  the  term,  hypfcthral  temple,  he  can  understand  nothing  more  nor 
less  than  a  building  that  is  open  and  free  to  the  light  and  air.  Diogenes's  tub  in  the 
street  might  be  an  example  of  a  hyptethral  building.  3.  Zestermann  is  the  foremost 
and  best  author  who  has  written  on  the  basilica,  and  his  explanation  of  its  origin  is 
the  only  correct  one.  4.  Egypt  had  the  first  basilica.  From  two  passages  in  the 
Talmud  it  is  evident  that  this  name  was  peculiar  to  Egyptian  works  of  architecture. 
5.  Tiie  Egyptian,  or,  more  strictly,  the  Africano- Palestine,  method  of  building  was 
copied  in  Rome,  and  from  these  arose  the  basilicas  for  holding  the  courts  of  law. 

"  \V.  Weingartner  :  Urfpruug  und  Entwickelung  des  christlichen  Kircheivjtbdudea. 
Leipzig,  1858. 


IGO  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

to  the  early  Christian  churches  is  seen  in  the  peristyle,  and  the  so- 
called  ceci  lying  behind  it.  These  two  rooms  were  related  to  each 
other  both  in  space  and  situation  very  nearly  as  were  the  parts  of 
Herod's  temple  at  Jei'usalem,  which  was  built  in  the  Grecian  style. 
After  the  destruction  of  this  temple,  and  the  spread  of  Christianity 
over  the  known  world,  it  was  natural  that  the  Christians,  when  erect- 
ing independent  houses  of  worship,  should  take  their  suggestions  from 
the  GriBco-Roman  temples,  which  contained  all  the  essential  parts  of 
a  Christian  church.  It  was  also  natural  that  the  form  should  be 
selected  which  had  been  most  perfected,  and  most  nearly  satisfied 
the  demand  for  the  observance  of  their  own  religious  services. 
This  was  the  hyptethral  temple.  It  was  open  to  the  sky,  thus 
giving  abundance  of  light,  and  had  a  recess,  the  cella,  where  could 
stand  the  high  altar  for  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  This 
cella,  which  was  taken  from  the  circular  or  polygonal  burial  temples, 
was  demanded  by  the  Christian  societies,  since  soon  afterward  a 
place  of  worship,  and  a  place  of  burial  for  the  martyr  or  saint 
to  whom  the  church  was  dedicated,  were  combined  in  the  same 
building.  With  the  exception  of  the  greater  elevation  of  the 
middle  nave,  the  outer  form  of  the  hyptethral  temple  corresponded 
to  that  of  the  Christian  church.  Still  more  close  was  the  likeness 
of  their  interior  arrangement.  This  influence  of  the  pagan  temple 
upon  the  Christian  building  was  most  apparent  in  the  time  of 
Constantine.  It  was  seen  in  the  use  of  like  terms,  in  the  adoption 
of  the  circular  or  polygonal  groundplan,  and  in  working  out  the 
details  of  the  interior.  The  ground  outline,  the  rows  of  columns, 
and  the  consequent  division  of  the  interior  space  into  naves,  the 
lower  porticos,  the  choir  and  its  general  arrangement,  the  sacra- 
mental table,  the  baldachin,  the  place  of  burial  for  the  martyr, 
the  crypts  beneath,  the  apse,  and,  later,  the  amhos,  or  reading 
desks  near  the  front  railing,  are  all  prefigured  in  the  Roman  pagan 
temples.  The  purest  form  of  the  continuation  of  the  antique 
temples  Avere  the  Roman  basilicas,  which  maintained  their  peculiar 
characteristics  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century.' 

This  writer  thus  attempts  to  show  the  intimate  relation  and 
dependence  of  the  early  Christian  churches  on  the  private  house, 
and  especially  on  the  hypaethral  temple,  both  in  external  form 
and  interior  arrangement.  He  holds  that  the  law  basilicas  of 
the  Romans  were  so  entirely  different  from  the  Christian  that  it 
is  unscientific  to  regard  the  latter  as  the  continuation  and  per- 
fection of  the  former,  and  claims  that  the  Christian  church  could 
only  be  derived  from  the  ancient  private  house,  with  such  sug- 
'  V  Weingarlner :    Op.  cit,  pp.  136,  137. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  ir,| 

ijestions    as     were     afforded     by     the    hypaethral     temple    of    tho 
(i  reeks. 

4.  A  fourth  theory  of  the  orio-'m  and  development  of  the  Christ- 
ian basilica  has  been  sngij^ested  and  very  ably  defended    Messmer's  tiie- 
by  Dr.  J.  A.  Messmer.'     He  starts   from  the  well  at-  o^y. 
tested  fact  that  the  earliest  Christian  societies  were  accustomed  to- 
assemble  in  the  private  house  of  some   one  of  their  number,  and  in 
the  room  most  spacious  and  convenient  for  their  services,  and  which 
at  the  same  time  would  best  afford  protection  from  sudden  interrup- 
tions by  their  enemies.     Plainly   this  would  be  the  triclinium,  or 
l)anqueting-room.      Among  the  Romans  this  was  a  rec-   From  ihc   in- 
tanglc,    whose  length    was    twice    the    breadth.       The   fiiniuin. 
more  wealthy  the  owner  of  the  house  the  more  spacious  and  elegant- 
was  this  room,  and  tlie  more  nearly  did  it  resemble  the  foiin  of  the 
l)asilicas  which  were  found  in   the  palaces  of  the  more  noted   Ro- 
mans.    These  dining-rooms  of  the  nobles  are  so  minutely  described, 
by  Vitruvius  that  we  cannot  be  in  doubt  with  regard  to  their  form,, 
arrangement,  and  decoration  (v.  Fig.  78).     Rows  of  columns,  both' 
Corinthian  and  Egyptian,  often  supported  architraves  and  beams  on 
which  a  place  for  promenading  was   constructed,  while  above  were 
other  columns  supporting  a  roof  or  a  wall  pierced  with  windows  for 
lighting  the   interior.       In   these    rooms   public  business   was  fre- 
(piently  transacted  and  legal  causes  determined.     We  also  read  of 
a  chunth  in   the  houses  of  wealthy  public   men  who  had  accejjted 
Christianity,  as  in  the  case  of  Pudens  and  Aquila.^ 

Jerome  assures  us  that  the  noble  Lateranus  opened  his  private 
basilica  for  the  assembly  of  the  Christians,  and  that  it   ^        ,         , 

J  '  Examples      of 

afterward  was  transformed  into  one  of  the  most  rn)i)ie  ('luist- 
splendid  churches  of  Rome.  Ammianus  Marcellinus'  *''"**• 
says  that  a  like  assembly  found  a  stated  place  of  meeting  in  t\\c. 
Hasilica  of  Sicinianus,  another  noted  Roman.  There  is  trustworthy 
evidence  tliat  such  change  from  the  triclinium  of  the  house  of 
a  wealthy  citizen,  named  Theopliilus,  to  a  Christian  church  took 
place  at  Antioch  in  the  first  half  of  the  third  century;  and  it 
seems  incredible  that  the  pseudo-Clement  could  mention  in  his  ro- 
mance these  transformations  of  private  basilicas  into  Christian 
diurches  unless  the  fact  was   well   known.     Thus,  while  the  triclin- 

'  Ueber  den  f^rspmng.  die  F/ntwickclun'j,  v.nd  Bedeutung  der  Bnsilika  in  dt^'  christ- 
lichen  Baukuniit  Lcipziij,  1854.  Also  and  more  tlioroiif^lily  in  Jin  article,  Utbcr  den 
Urxpnmg  der  cli n'.stlirlwn  Basil i/:<i,  in  ihe  ZeiMirift  Jiir  christliche  Ardunologie  und 
Kunst.  1859,  vol.  ii. 

^  r  Cor.  xvi.   19.     V.  »Un  \\  :w. 

*  Ammian.  Marcellin..  .\.\vii,  :{.     '"  Kl  in  concertaiionc,"  etc. 
11 


162  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

ium  of  the  private  house  and  the  private  basilicas  of  the  more 
wealthy  were  used  for  the  assembly  and  worship  of  the  early  Christ- 
ians, it  was  found  that  they  combined,  more  fully  than  any  others, 
elements  of  architecture  which  were  afterward  developed  into 
the  distinctive  edifice  known  by  the  generic  name  of  Christian  ba- 
silica. While  the  Roman  name  was  I'etained,  the  building  was  trans- 
formed by  the  peculiar  power  of  the  new  religion.  Thus  was  pro- 
vided a  ty[)e  of  church  architecture  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  genius 
of  Christianity,  and  in  many  respects  the  most  convenient  ever 
devised.  Christianity  became  the  heir  to  the  late  Roman  art,  but 
its  inheritance  was  improved  and  perfected  by  a  new  and  living 
spirit. 

5.  A  fifth  theory,  very  ably  advocated  by  Dehio,'  finds  the  germs 
r^  ^.  ,  „  of  the  Christian  basilica  in  the  private  house,  in  which 

Dehio  s  theory,     _  _  r  ' 

from  the  pii-  for  two  centuries  the  early  Church  was  accustomed  to 
vate  house.  meet  for  worship.  He  attempts  to  trace  this  develop- 
ment, step  by  step,  from  the  sim])lest  structure  of  the  common  Ro- 
man dwelling-house  to  its  perfected  form  in  the  imjjosing  basilicas 
of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries. 

6.  The  latest  theory  is  that  recently  advanced  by  Professor  Lange, 
From  the  scho-  of  Halle,'^  and  substantially  accepted  by  Professor  G. 
'SB-  Baldwin  Brown, ^  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  This 
theory  traces  the  beginnings  of  Christian  architecture  to  the  pa- 
gan schold.  While  the  architectural  evidence  cited  in  support  of 
this  view  is  not  decisive,  it  is  believed  that  from  the  outward  resem- 
blance of  the  Christian  communities  to  the  various  religious  organi- 
Arffued  from  ''-''^tions  and  clubs  of  the  heathen  world,*  and  from  the 
the  likeness  of   confounding  of  these  by  the  legal  authorities,  it  would 

the     church     to  ^^  ^  ^^  1  1       •  1  p  11 

other  organiza-  naturally  follow  that  then-  places  of  assembly  must 
''°"^-  have  been  similar  in  outward  appearance  and  in   in- 

ternal arrangement.  The  adaptation  of  these  schoke  to  the  needs 
of  Christian  worship  is  pointed  out,  and  the  fact  that  the  protection 
of  government  given  to  the  clubs  would  thus  be  extended  to  the 
Christian  assemblies  is  emphasized. 

These  different  theories  of  the  origin  of  the  Christian  basilica 
An  eclectic  illustrate  the  difficulties  of  the  subject.  It  seems  prob- 
^'®^'-  able  that  each  contains  a  partial  truth,  and  that  by  a 

judicious  eclecticism  a  juster  view  of  the  beginnings  and  growth 

'  Die  Genesis  der  christlirhen  Basilika.     Munchen,  1883. 
'  ffam  rmd  Iltille.     Leipzig:,  1885. 
•''  From  Srhola  to  Cathedral.     Edinburg'h,  1886. 

••  Hatch:  Organization  of  the  Earli/  Christian  Churches,  London,  1882,  has  devel- 
oped this  subject,  using  willi  great  effect  tlie  moiiumerital  evidence. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  163 

of  early  Christian  architecture  may  be  trained.     Let  us  look  at  some 
well-established  facts. 

The  first  Christians  assembled  for  worship  in  the  temple,'  in  j)ri- 
vate  houses,'  in  upper  rooms,  through  fear  of  disturbance  and  perse- 
cution from  their  enemies,'  in  the  synagogues  of  the  Jews,*  and  bv 
the  river  side.*  In  the  synagogues,  which  had  been  founded  in 
every  chief  city  of  the  empire,  the  apostles  could  ad-  Advantapes  of 
dress  a  multitude  composed  of  Jewish  and  non-Jewish  '"«  synaKOKue,. 
elements.*  Doubtless  the  free  republican  spirit  which  characterized 
the  service,  in  marked  contrast  with  the  exclusiveness  of  the  temple, 
was  another  reason  for  the  assembling  of  the  apostles  and  first 
Christians  in  these  buildings.  Moreover,  the  synagogues  were 
places  for  consultation,  and  for  discussion  of  questions  upon  whicli 
the  opinions  of  tlie  rabbis  were  divided;  so  that  persons  of  vigorous 
intellect  and  of  inquiring  spirit  were  often  attracted  to  them. 
This  is  manifest  from  the  accounts  given  of  the  Berean  Jews,' 
as  well  as  from  the  fact  that  Paul  could  speak  freely  in  the  synagogue 
at  Ephesus  "  for  the  space  of  three  months,  reasoning  and  persuad- 
ing as  to  the  things  concerning  the  kingdom  of  God.* 

The  fact  that  some  of  the  Judaizing  sects,  as  the  Ebionites,  still 
resorted  to  the  synagogues  for  worship^  ^^^y  suggest  one  reason 
why,  during  the  first  century,  the  pagan  world  regarded   r-fjristians 
the  Christians  as  only  a  sect  of  Jews,  and  why  the  fierce  judged  a  sect 
opposition  of  the  latter  to  the  Christians  was  judged  by   of  the  Jews, 
the  Roman   governors  to  be  of  little  importance  in  the  eye  of  the 
civil  law.'"     While  despised  by  the  pagan  world,  the  Jews  had,  nev- 
ertheless, received  at  the  hands  of  some  of  the  emperors   Privileges    of 
very  favorable  regard,  and  were  granted  some  most  val-  the  Jews, 
uable  immunities.     The  inscriptions  and  art  remains  of  the  Jewish 
catacombs  at  Rome  entirely  confirm  the  testimony  of     incidentally 
the  literary  monuments  touching  this  point.     With  this     ^,/u" ''infant 
erroneous    conception    respecting    the    true    nature   of     cimrcii. 
Christianity  was  connected  a  decided  advantage  to  its  first  adherents. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  tliereby  the  early  Church  secui-ed 
exemption  from  sweeping  persecution  just  at  the  time  of  its  great- 
est need.      Even    at  the    close  of   the   second  century  a  Christian 
father  of  eminent  ability  recognises  this  obligation." 

'   Acts  iii,  1;.  v,  12.  *  Acts  xii,  12.  seq. 

3  Acts  i,  13;  XX,  7-9.  "  Acts  ix,  20;  xiii,  5,  16,  et  al. 

0  Acts  xvi,  13.  «   Acts  xiii,  1«,  26,  44,  46,  48;   xiv,  1  ;   xviii,  4. 

^  Acts  xvii,  11.  "  Acts  xix,  8. 

9  Iren«ns:   Adv.  Ha^es,  ]\h.  i.  c.  26.  '*  Acts  xviii,  12-17. 

"  TertiiUian:  Apohget.,  c.  21. 


164  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN   ART. 

But  from  the  first  it  was  manifest  that  Christ  liad  established  a 
(Church  whose  spirit  eouhl  not  be  confined  within  the  narrow  limits 
of  Judaism.  The  events  at  Ephesus  are  instructive.  The  awakened 
hostility  compelled  the  withdrawal  of  the  Christians  from  the  syna- 
gogue, and  they  assembled  in  the  school  of  one  Tyrannus,*  where 
these  meetings  were  "  continued  by  a  space  of  two  years."  A  some- 
what similar  state  of  things  existed  in  Corinth.^  Various  pas- 
sages in  the  history  of  the  apostolic  Church  clearh^  prove  that  the 
A  separate  customary  places  of  meeting  were  in  upper  rooms'  or 
piaceofpratber-   -^^  pHvate  houses.^     This  was  the  case  at  Troas;^  and 

iug  in  private  ^  _  '  , 

houses.  Aquila   and   Priscilla,^    "  with    the    church    that    is   in 

their  house,"  send  salutations  to  the  Corinthian  brethren.  Also 
Paul  sends  greetings  to  "  Nymphas  and  the  church  which  is  in 
his  house," '  and  to  Philemon  and  "  the  church  in  thy  house."  * 
His  own  custom  for  two  years  was  to  receive  all  who  came  unto 
liim  in  his  own  private  house  at  Rome,  "  preaching  the  kingdom 
of  God  and  teaching  those  things  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ."' 

The  continuance  of  the  custom  of  gathering  in  private  houses 
The  custom  after  the  apostolic  age  is  clearly  evidenced  from  the 
(!ontiDued.  literary   monuments  both   Christian   and   pagan.     It  is 

well-nigh  demonstrable  that  the  worshiji  of  the  Christian  Church  for 
nearly  two  hundred  years  was  chiefly  a  private  service,  avoiding 
the  publicity  permitted  to  a  religion  already  recojaiised  and  pro- 
tected by  the  state.'"  So  far  as  can  be  known,  to  the  close  of  the 
second  century  no  stately  or  characteristic  buildings  for  the  cere- 
monies of  Christian  worship  had  been  erected.  Probably  some 
houses  had  already  been  erected  and  set  apart  for  Christian 
services,  but  they  must  have  been  unpretentious,  and  probably 
mostly  of  the  nature  of  private  halls,  or  of  the  class  of  buildings 
called  scholce,  Avhich  were  either  given  by  the  wealthier 

Scholae.  -,^  ^  ^        r  \  l>         I 

members,  statedly  thrown  open  for  the  use  of  tlie 
societies,"  or  built  by  means  of  a  common  fund.  Doubtless,  how- 
ever, these  unpretentious  buildings  contained  evidences  of  the  art 
susceptibility  Avhich  had  already  found  exi)ression  in  the  earlier 
pictures  of  the  catacombs. 

In   consequence  of  the  high   esteem   felt  for  the  confe.'-sors  and 

'    Acts  xix.  9.  -^   Acts  xviii.  7.  ^  Acts  i,  13. 

^  Acts  vii,  15.  5   ActF  xx.  7,  8.  «   1   Cor.  xvi.  10. 

'  Col.  iv,  15.  «   Pliilf'in.  2.  »  Acts  xxviii,  :!0,  31. 

'"  Pliny:  Ejn'sL,  lib.  x,  ep.  9G. 

"  The  houses  of  Pudciiiiunn  ;inrl  of  Lncina  at  Rome,  and  of  Briccins  and  Eiito- 
chiuR  at  Tours,  are  fsimiliar  examples. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  165 

martyrs,  the  practice  of  burial  feasts  and  festivals  soon  arose. 
(Celebrated  in  the  houses,  and  during  seasons  of  Buriai  festivals 
persecution  in  the  catacombs,  these  exerted  a  powerful  andcimpeis. 
influence  on  the  architectural  arrangement  of  the  places  of  meetini:, 
and  on  the  furniture  and  art  of  the  church.  Feasts  in  honor 
of  the  dead  were  very  common  among  the  pagan  ])eo-  pagan  sugges- 
ples,  and  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the  tJ""- 
Christians  found  in  them  many  suggestions  for  their  own  practices. 
From  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  burial  festivals  became  espe- 
cially frequent,  on  account  of  the  great  number  of  devoted  men 
and  women  who  were  victims  of  the  terrible  persecutions.  It  is 
plain  that  the  arrangement  of  the  meeting-houses  and 

^  '^     .  -^  Influence       of 

the  nature  of  the  services  were  modified  through  the   tiie   tombs  of 

great  reverence  for  tliose  whose  remains  were  dejjosited   •"'^'''^y"- 

in  crypts  beneath  the  altars  of  the  churches,  or  in  the  small  chapels 

where  the  hunted  Church  gathered  for  the  celebration  of  the  meal 

in  memory  of  the  sainted  dead. 

There  is  abundant  evidence  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  cen- 

tur\^  private  houses  were  still  in  general  use  for  divine  worship,  and 

for  the  meetings  of  the  Christian  societies.     Optatus  is  very  specific 

in  his  information   touching   this  subject,   speaking   of   Meetings      in 

various  members  in  whose  houses  such  assemblies  were   P"^'^'^'^   '""*'^') 

in     the     third 

accustomed  to  be  held.'  But  the  changed  social  con-  century, 
dition  of  the  Church,  which  now  reckoned  among  its  adherents  some 
of  the  noted  families  of  the  capital  and  of  the  empire,  was  more 
favorable  to  the  erection  of  buildings  devoted  exclusively  to  Chris- 
tian .uses.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  their  number,  size,  and 
degree  of  elegance.  Optatus  informs  us  that  the  Notices  of 
s<rhismatics  destroyed  forty  churches  which  had  been  churches  in  the 
the  property  of  the  orthodox  jiarty  at  Rome,  He  calls  '^''■'^  century, 
them  "  basilicas,"  but  their  peculiar  character  he  does  not  indi- 
cate. We  also  have  the  account  of  the  erection  of  a  very  impos- 
ing structure  at  Nicomedia  in  the  last  i)art  of  the  third  century,'^ 
as  well  as  of  its  destruction  at  the  beginning  of  the  execution  of 
Diocletian's  edict  to  raze  all  the  Christian  cburche-*  nnd  burn  the 
sacred  books. 

It  must,  however,  be  remembered  tliat  not  until  the  reign  <»f 
(■ommodus  did  entire  families  of  the  Roman  aristocracy  pass  over 
to  the  Christian  Church,  and  that,  two  generations  after  Con- 
slantine,  Christianity  could  claim  hardly  a  majority  of  the  prom- 
inent families  of  Rome.     For  the  first  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 

'   De  scldsnt.  Donat.,  i,  14,  2:5 ;  v.  also  Acta  Martymm,  cc.  S,  'J. 
'  Eiisebius:   IHkI.  Ecdesiai,  lib,  viii,  cc.  1,  2. 


166 


ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN   ART. 


the  adherents  of  Christianity  were  largely  of  the  middle  and  lower 
classes,  and  were,  therefore,  accustomed  to  the  simi)le  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^ 
Roman  dwelling-house,  or  were  crowded  together  in  the  wealthy  christ- 
niany-storied  tenant  houses  of  Rome  and  of  the  larger  '^°^- 
towns.  While  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that,  from  the  second 
century,  converts  from  noble  families  opened  or  devoted  their  spacious 
dwellings  to  the  Church  for  Christian  worship,  this  number  must, 
nevertheless,  have  been  comparatively  insignificant.  In  times  of 
peace  the  common  dwelling-house  was  the  usual  place  for  the  cele- 
bration of  the  sacraments,  and  for  the  instruction  and  edification  of 
believers.     It  is  incredible  that  these  forty  so-called  basilicas  at 

Rome,  near  the  close  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, were  elegant  dwellings  furnished 
by  the  richer  and  nobler  Relations  of 
members.  Rather  must  housed  ^tLe 
we  suppose  that  the  main  churches. 
features  of  the  rooms  in  which  the 
Christians  were  accustomed  to  as- 
semble, and  of  the  service  which  had 
been  adjusted  to  this  environment  for 
two  and  one  half  centuries,  would  im- 
])ress  themselves  upon  the  more  impos- 
ing churches  which  were  erected  during 
the  peaceful  interval  of  forty  years  be- 
between  the  reigns  of  Decius  and 
Diocletian,  and  after  final  exemption 
from  persecution  had  been  ensured. 
It  is,  therefore,  inojiortant  to  examine 
the  form  and  arrangement  of  the  or- 
dinary dwelling-house  of  the  empire. 
There  was  a  general  uniformity  in 
the  internal  arrangement  of  the  early 
Greek  and  the  Italian  private  house.' 
The  chief  sources  of  information  are  Vitruvius,  the  Capitoline 
Fragments,  and  the  houses  which  have  been  disinterred  ^^^  Roman 
on  various  sites,  as  Pompeii,  Herculaneum,  etc.  From  dwell  in  g- 
these  we  infer  the  most  important  portions  of  the  Ro- 
man house.  First  was  the  vestibidum,  which  was  a  vacant  space 
before  the  door,  forming  a  kind  of  court,  one  side  of  us  arrange- 
which  opened  upon  the  street,  the  other  sides  bounded  "^^"^^• 
by  the  house  itself.  From  the  vestibule  a  passage  or  hall,  called 
the  ostium  {v.  Fig.  66,  A),  led  to  the  main  room  of  the  interior,  which 
*  Mominsen :  Ilistorij  of  Rome,  vol.  i,  pp.  46  and  307. 


Fig.  66.— The  House  of  Pansa  (Cam  lU 
PiUiM),  Pompeii.  An  ele^rant  Roman 
house. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


167 


went  under  the  nanus  of  the  atrium  and  cavoedliim,  B  {cacutn 
iBdii(in).  This  was  roofed  over,  with  the  exception  of  an  openin«r 
in  the  center,  the  coz/qjliw/um,  toward  which  the  roof  slojjed  to 
(conduct  the  rain  into  a  cistern  in  tlie  floor,  the  implitviion,  I.  In 
the  rear  of  the  atrium  was  the  tahlmuni,  E,  and  right  and  left  the 
(dm,  DD.  On  the  sides  of  the  atrium  were  found  the  sleepint,^- 
rooms,  cuhicula,  CC,  and  behind  and  on  either  side  the  triclinium 
were  the  servants  rooms,  CC.  The  triclinium  is  open,  and  allows 
an  uninterrupted  view  of  the  other  parts  of  the  house.  Vitruvius 
refers  to  five  kinds  of  atria,"  representing  as  many  stages  in  the 
development  of  the  Roman  liouse.  The  atrluia  Tas-  ^xsa  classes  or 
canlcuiii  Avas  the  earliest  and  most  simple  (Fig.  67),  tiieatiiuui. 
In  this  the  roof  was  supported  by  four  beams,  crossing  at  right 
angles,  thus  forming  the 
compluvium.  It  is  plain 
that  this  construction  was 
available  only  in  the  sinaller 
liouses.  The  atrium  tefni- 
styluin  difiPeredfrom  the  first 
in  that  the  beams  were  sup- 
ported at  their  intersection 
by  columns,  instead  of  ex- 
tending to  the  walls  of  the 
house.  This  would  admit 
of  an  enlargement  of  the 
atrium.  In  the  atrium 
corintJiiuiii  the  beams  were 
supported  by  rows,  of  col- 
umns, thus  giving  opportu- 


Fig.  67.— Atrium  Tiisranlcum. 


roof 
Description. 


nity  of  farther  enlargement.'^  In  the  atrium  displuriutiun 
sloped  outward  toward  the  walls,  instead  of  inward  to- 
ward the  compluvium — thus  carrying  the  water  away 
fi-om  the  interior  impluvium  (v.  Fig.  68).  The  (itrium  testudina- 
/«^M  was  entirely  roof ed  over,  and  lacked  the  compluvium,  and  con- 
sccpiently  the  interior  impluvium  {v.  Fig.  69).  The  atrium  was  the 
chief  room.  In  the  ordinary  dwellings  it  was  devoted  to  rsos  for  tiiH 
a  variety  of  uses,  to  the  customary  intercourse  and  the  """"""• 
festivities  of  the  family;  in  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  it  was  fitted 
up  with  magnificence,  and  was  the  recei)tiou  room  where  the  patron 
was  accustomed  to  meet  clients,  hear  petitions,  and  (lisj)cnsi'  favois. 

'  vi,  3. 

*Tn  fiij.  67  thcpe  columns  and  iheclianged  interior  tlins  resulting  can  be  easily  aup- 
plied  by  the  ininginntion. 


168 


ARCII.EOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN    ART. 


Fig.  68.— Atrium  flispliivicatum. 


At  the  further  end  of  the  atrium,  opposite  the  entrance,  was  the  deep 
recess  or  room,  called  the  tabllnnui,  which  could  be  made  private 
by  means  of  folding  doors  or  hangings.  It  was  the  place  of  honor, 
lu  the  repubii-  tlie  seat  of  the  householder.  On  either  side  of  the  atrium, 
can  period.  leading  right  and  left,  were  small  recesses  or  rooms, 
called  (ike  (v.  Fig.  67).  Such  seems  to  have  been  the  sim])le  arrange- 
ment of  the  Roman  house 
at  the  end  of  the  republican 
period.  In  the  country,  and 
during  the  early  history  of 
the  cities,  it  was  of  one  story, 
or,  at  most,  it  added  a  second 
story  in  which  were  the  ciibi- 
cula,  or  bed-chambers,  whose 
breadth  and  height  to  the 
cross  beams  were  one  thiid 
or  one  fourth  the  length  of 
the  atrium. 

But  in  the  period  of  the 
empire,  when  the  crowded 
condition  of  the  towns  made 
building  sites  expensive,  and  the  increasing  wealth  of  leading 
families  created  a  demand  for  more  elegant  dwellings,  the  con- 
struction of  the  Roman  house  underwent  an  important  change 
which  is  connected  with  the  history  of  early  Christian  architecture. 
The  enlargement  of  the  dwelling  could  be  attained  only  by  in- 
Eniarq-ed  in  ci'easing  its  length;  hence  the  more  elegant  Roman 
tiie  imperial  houses,  after  the  manner  of  the  Greeks,  added  to  the 
simple  atrium  a  large  space  in  the  reai\  This,  the  peri- 
sti/le,  (Fig.  66,  GG),  was  a  court  open  to  the  sky  in  the  center, 
which  was  surrounded  by  columns,  and  was  somewhat  lai'ger  than 
The  peristyle  the  compluvium  of  the  atrium.  In  the  center  of  this 
and  tnciiniura.  peristyle  Avas  a  plot  for  grass  and  flow^ers,  and  at  the 
sides  the  triclinia,  KK,  or  rooms  in  which  the  couches  and  tables 
Avere  usually  placed  for  social  or  religious  feasts.'  At  the  rear  of 
the  peristyle  in  the  larger  and  more  imposing  houses  was  found  the 
<eci(s,  L,  which  held  the  same  relation  to  the  peristyle  as  did  the 

'  Fortunately  tlie  excavations  have  revealed  examples  of  each  class  of  the  Roman 
Kxampies  from  ''*^"'^®-  '^^^^  so-called  casa  di  Sallustio  (Saihist's  house),  in  Pompeii, 
Pompeii.  ^^-'^  '^  groundpUm  almost  precisely  answering  to  our  description  of 

the  atrium,  M^ith  its  a'a3  raised  to  admit  the  liglit;  while  the  casa  di 
Panm  (Fig.  6(>)  is  a  tine  example  of  the  more  pretentious  houses,  with  the  peristyle 
and  its  arcliitectural  accompaniments. 


EARLY    CmilSTIAN    AllCIIITECTURE.  169 

tabliimiii  to  tlie  atriuiu.  It  was  soinctiines  semicircular.'  From  the 
a>cus  a  passage  led  to  the  porch,  PP,  whence  was  a  way  to  the  gar- 
den in  the  rear. 

Doubtless  the  private  basilicas  of  tlie  more  wealthy  familic  •  that 
had  embraced  Christianity  contained  architectural  elements  wiiich 
afterward  found  expression  in  the  churches  of  the  Constantinian 
and  post-Constantine  periods,  but  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  they 
fi'.niished  all  the  essential  norms  of  the  Christian  architecture  of 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.^ 

The  lighting  of  the  dwelling-house  is  connected  directly  with  the 
history  of  Christian  ecclesiastical  architecture.  In  the  simj)lest 
Roman  house  the  atrium  was  lighted  from  the  vestibule.  At  a 
later  stage  of  the  development,  the  alae  were  extended  Ligiitinj,'  uie 
to  the  roof  and  sides,  thus  admitting  abundant  light  to  iuteiior. 
the  interior.  When  the  houses  in  the  towns  became  continuous, 
and  the  sides  were  bounded  by  continuous  walls,  a  new  method  of 
lighting  the  inner  rooms  was  required.  The  most  obvious  way  was 
to  admit  light  through  the  compluvium.  But  the  defence  against 
moisture  and  cold  required  that  this  central  opening  be  protected, 
while  liglit  might  still  be  admitted.  The  construction  Gimnimg  th« 
of  a  gabled  roof,  supported  by  columns  above  the  com-  cuiiii.Uiviimi. 
pluvium,  thus  shielding  the  interior  from  cold  and  rain  and  yet 
allowing  a  free  admission  of  light,  was  the  next  step  in  the  solution 
of  the  problem.  This  gave  rise  to  a  structui'c  re[)resented  by 
Fig.  68,  which  is  a  conjectural  reproduction  of  the  form  which 
the  atrium  displuviatum  would  thus  assume.  From  this  figure 
it  may  be  seen  how  the  spaces  on  the  enclosing  walls,  as  well  as 
on  those  separating  the  atrium  from  the  lateral  apartments,  were 
preserved,  and  which  afterward  furnished  opportunity  for  the 
extended  ornamentation  introduced  into  the  churches. 

The  more  recent  excavations  in  Rome,  Syria,  and  North  Africa 
have  brought  into  prominence  other  architectural  forms  which  had 
manifest  influence  on  the  development  of  the  Christian  basilica. 
They  are  the  curia,  the  cella,  Siwd  the  sc/tola.  These  terms  The  ceiia  and 
were  applied  to  the  meeting-houses  of  associations, where  schoia. 
the  members  Avere  accustomed  to  assemble  for  business  purposes 

'The  cel?l3rated  villa  of  Herciilaneum,  the  Inrgest  and  richest  wliicli  has  yd  hceii 
oxcaviited,  lacks  the  oecus.      The  villa  in  the  Farnese  <,'arden  and  the 
lioii-e  of  Livia  on  the  Palatine  have  no  peristyle;  while  the  recently     j.j'j',y„„      ^^j 
discovered    atrinni   of    Vesta,    whicii    is   one   of  the    most   ele<rant     nome. 
dwellins'-iionses  yet  excavated  in  Rome,  has  a,  very  spacious  oecus, 
but  lacks  the  peristyle. 

'  This  is  virtually  the  theory  of  Messmer. 


170 


akchtEOLOGY  of  christian  art. 


or  for  advancing  the  interests  of  tlieir  organization.  These  socie- 
ties were  very  numerous,  and  were  carefully  guarded  by  legal 
enactments.     The  places  of  gathering  were  called  curiae,  or  scholae, 


Fig.  69.— Atrium  displuviatum  with  covered  compluvium. 

according  to  the  dignity  and  importance  of  the  body  therein 
assembling;  usually  the  term  curiae  being  applied  to  halls  of  greater 
size  which  were  used  for  public  business,  the  term  scholae  to  build- 
ings occupied  by  private  clubs.  Among  the  more  imjiortant  of 
such  organizations  were  the  burial  guilds.  On  account  of  the  great 
regard  of  the  Romans  for  their  dead,  special  privileges  The  burial 
were  granted  to  these  associations  to  hold  groundplots  su'ids. 
for  the  interment   of  their  deceased  members.      On   thein  (which 

were  beyond  the  city  walls)  a  building 
was  erected  for  the  celebration  of  the 
memorial  feasts,  and  still  others  for  tlic 
occupancy  of  the  persons  specially  charged 
with  the  care  of  the  cemeteries.  This 
space,   having    the    technical 

»  "  , ,  ,         T       The  area. 

name  or  area,  usually  enclosed 
by  Avails  and  often  embellished  with  stat- 
ues, flowers,  etc.,  was  a  spot  of  peculiar 
privacy  and  sacredness. 

On  the  Via  Appia  are  found  the  remains 
of  these  scholae  of  heathen  origin.    Fig.  60, 
is  the  groundplan  of  such  a  one.'     It  was  a  building  of  square  form, 
with  three  semicircular  niches,  fronted  by  a  columned  portico. 
^v.  Caiiiiia:    K/a  Jjrpia,  Tav.  xx. 


,  70.— Heathen  scholu,  Via  Appia, 
Eoine. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    AKCJHITECTURE. 


171 


One  represented  by  Fig.  71  is  likewise  on  llie  Via  Apjiia.  Here 
are  six  niches,  and  tlie  tendency  is  to  the  circiUar  form.  Tiiis  por- 
tico is  lacking  in  cohinins.'  Some  whose 
outlines  closely  resemble  those  of  the  eau'li- 
est  Christian  churches  have  also  been  exca- 
vated at  Pompeii.  Moreover,  the  testimony 
Testimony  of  <>t  ^^^  inscriptions  is  full  and 
iaseriptions.  explicit  respecting  these  struc- 
tures. Much  information  is  given  con- 
cerning their  legal  tenure,  the  donoi's  of 
the  grounds  and  of  the  buildings  erected 
thereon,  the  purposes  to  which  they  were  Fig.  7i -Heathen  schoia,  via  Ap- 
devoted,  the  character  of  the  feasts,  etc.  P'""  liome. 

Structures  of    like  form   and   used    for  like    purjjoses  have  also 
<^    .,r,^«t^H   been  discovered  in  connection  with  Christian  cemeteries 

(_/OllIlG  CtBQ  

with  Christian  in  various  parts  of  the  Empire.  Two  such  celhe,  meas- 
cemetenes.  xxr'mg  about  thirty  feet  on  each  side  of  the  square,  have 
been  found  in  the  open-air  portion  of  the  cata- 
comb of  San  Calisto  in  Rome^  (Fig.  12);  also 
the  oratories  in  the  cemetery  of  San  Pretestate 
are  of  like  general  character. 

Many  suggestions  relative  to  the  forms  and 
arrangement  of  these  earlier  Christian  meeting- 
nlaces  are  found   upon   the  sarcophagi,   in  the  ^  , 

'     .  ^  .  .      '       ''  Fig.  72.  —  Christian  schoia 

buildings  which  are  depicted  in  the  great  mo-    above  san  caiisto,  Rome. 

saics  of  Rojne,  Ravenna,  and  Thessalonica,  and 

sometimes  in  objects  of  less  striking  character.     Fig.  73  represents  a 


Fip.  73.— Form  of  an  early  basilica,  a  bronze  lamp  found  in  Africa. 

'  O.mina :    Op.  cit,  t.  i.x. 

^  De  Rossi:  Roma  Sottcrraned.  iii,  p.  468.     Rittor  calls  tlicm  "  llie  first  early  Christ- 
ian cliiuclics  Iniill  above  "■found.'' 


172 


arciijeolcktY  oi'   c'iikistian  art. 


bronze  lamp  discovered  iu  Africa.'  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  primitive 
basilica  or  schola.  Almost  precisely  the  same  form  is  met  in  the 
i^reat  mosaics  of  St.  George,  Thessalonica.^  By  a  comparison  of  these 
with  the  plans  and  outlines  of  buildings  found  in  the  Capitoline 
fragments  and  at  Pompeii,  little  doubt  can  be  felt  relative  to  the 
resemblance  of  the  early  Christian  meeting-houses  to  the  scholge  and 
(ruriie  of  pagan  Rome.  By  a  comparison  of  Figs.  70  and  72  the 
likeness  of  the  heathen  burial  chapel  to  fhe  Christian  cella  will  be 
obvious.  That  like  principles  of  construction  and  arrangement  held 
in  each  must  be  manifest. 

The  cella  of  San  Sisto  at  Rome,  situated  in  the  midst  of  an  open 
Cella  of  San  air  cemetery  (Fig.  74),  affords  a  good  illustration  of  the 
^^^^^-  form  of  these  burial  chapels,  and  of  their  relation  to  the 

places  of  sepulture  and  the  enclosed  area.     It  was  a  principle,  hold- 


Tig.  74. — Cella  and  arrancpment  of  graves  above  San  Sisto,  Rome. 


ing  in  the  arrangement  of  the  cemeteries  controlled  by  the  burial 
clubs,  that  the  area  of  the  open-air  plot  should  exactly  correspond 
to  that  of  the  subterranean  space.  Great  care  was  observed  that  no 
society  should  intrude  upon  the  rights  of  another.  It  will  be  seen 
that  this  cella  terminates  in  a  semicircular  apse,  whose  u]>per  por- 
tion suggests  the  beginning  of  the  semidornical  or  conchoidal  style. 
It  also  shows  the  probable  location  of  the  altar,  and  the  space  for 
the  distribution  of  the  couches,  etc.,  in  the  celebration  of  the  burial 

'  de  Eossi :    Bulktlmo  di  ArcheoJocjia  crisfiana.  1 866. 
^Texier  et  Piillan:  Arch.  Byzantine,  pi.  x.xx-xxxiv. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURK. 


173 


feasts.  The  principle  of  the  cella,  oratory,  or  sehohi  finds  furtlier 
ilhistration  in  tlie  room  discovered  in  18U8  in  the  cemetery  <jf  Suriti 
(4enerotm,  near  Rome  {Vii^.  V5).  The  apse  is  almost  yauta  (iem; 
perfect.  In  the  extreme  rear  part  is  found  another  rosa. 
smaller  recess  or  apse  for  the  cathedra  of  the  bishop;  back  of  this 
is  a  window.  Further  excavations  behind  the  window  revealed  a 
cubiculum  on  whose  walls  were  frescos,  the  style  of  which  points 
to  the  seventh  centurv  as  the  time  of  their  origin. 


Fig.  75.— Basilioa  in  Santa  Generosa,  Rome. 

Another  interestin<r  exam])le  of  an  excavated  Christian  basilica, 
illustratinu!'  the  same  structural  arranii^ement,  is  Santa  Petronilla, 
at  Rome,  Fii^s.  7G  and  77.  The  vestibule,  the  four  rows  of  col- 
umns, dividing  the  interior  space  into  five  naves,  tiie  terminal 
semicircular  apse,  are  clearly  preserved.  Moreover,  the  mui-al 
paintino^s,  of  a  style  not  inferior  to  the  best  contemjiorary  art, 
the  ornanientation  in  stucco,  crypts  of  <>;reat  extent,  not  lu'wn 
in  the  rock  as  elsewhere,  V)ut  carefully  and  eleurantly  constructed 
out  of-  terra-cotta  and  building  stone,  with  i)ilasters  and  other 
architectural  details,  show  that  the  Church  was  not  ojijiosi'd  to  art, 
nor  in  a  condition  of  extreme  poverty  and  persecution,  but  all  the 
reverse.  Also  a  large  number  of  inscrijjtions,  not  materially  differ- 
ent in  form  from  the  best  heathen  work,  whose  dates  in  some  cases 
reach  back  to  the  second  century,  further  confirm   this  view.'     De 

'  Kraus;  Roma  SoUi'.nxmta,  ss.  87,  83. 


174 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF    CHRISTIAN   ART. 


Kossi '  has  shown  that  this  Petronilla  belonged  to  the  Flavian 
family,  and  lived  in  the  first  century.  The  groundplan  (Fig.  76) 
shows  the  complexity  of  the  structure. 


Fisr.  76.— Groundplan  of  basilica  in  Santa  Petronilla,  Rome. 

Do   IJossi '   reported  a  most    important  discovery   made    at   the 
entrance  of  the  most  ancient  catacomb  at  Rome,  Santa  romitilla. 

'  V.  Bulhitinn  Arch,  crist,  1874,  1875. 
"  BulltUino  Cristiano,  1865. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  175 

The  use  of  the  intei-ior  space  was  suggested  by  the  stone  bench 
which  runs  along  the  walls  ;   "  an  immense   triclinium  for  a  great 
number  of  guests;  in  fine,  a  schola  sodaUum  very  like  ganta     Domi- 
to  those  of  the  pagan  brotherhoods  founded  for  burial    i'"'i- 
purposes."     Somewhat    similar    triclinia    have    been  discovered    ;U 
Pompeii,    whose    internal    arrangements    bear    a   very     ..^ 
close    resemblance   to  this    anteroom   to  the   cemetery   peii. 
of  Santa  Domitilla. 

We  must  here  consider  the  structure  of  the  pagan  basilicas, 
a:id  determine  their  influence  upon  early  Christian  ar-  Qrimn  of  the 
( hitecture.  They  are  believed  to  liave  been  derived  pasan  Roman 
immediately  from  the  Greeks,  but  had  been  brought  "'''''^'^• 
to  their  greatest  perfection  at  Rome  during  the  later  perio<l  of  the 
republic,  and  the  reign  of  the  first  emperors.  The  resemblance  of 
the  Roman  basilica  to  the  Roman  forum  is  well  known.  Their 
uses,  also,  somewhat  corresponded. 

The  opinion  that  the  basilica  derived  its  form  from  the  forum 
has  good  foundation.  Vitruvius  connects  the  basilicas  with  the 
markets,  and  says  they  should  l)e  built  in  the  warmest  places  in 
order  that  the  traders  might  there  meet  in  winter.'  In  this  state- 
ment he  seems  to  mistake  the  object  of  these  buildings,  since  among 
the  Romans,  as  among  the  Greeks,  they  were  certainly  used  as  halls 
of  justice,*  So  far  as  can  be  known  the  first  basilica  was  built  at 
Rome,  B.  C.  184,  by  Marcus  Porcius  Cato,  from  whom  it  was 
named  the  Basilica  Porcia.  Seven  of  rare  magnificence  are  men- 
tioned during  the  republic. 

The  law  basilicas  of  Rome  were  oblong,  rectangular  buildings, 
whose  length  was  usually  twice  their  breadth.  They  rorm  of  the 
were  of  one,  three,  or  five  naves,  were  usually  without  '^^  basilica, 
roof,  and  open  to  the  sky.  The  rectangular  space  was  inch)sed 
by  a  wall.  This  has  been  questioned  by  some  writers'  An  enclosing 
who  believe  that  the  early  basilica  lacked  the  full  en-  ^^''"• 
closing  wall.  This  opinion  is  chiefly  supported  by  the  remark  of 
Plutarch, that  the  Roman  knights  and  armed  men  stormed  through 
the  Basilica  of  Paulus.  But  the  j)assage  can  be  easily  explained  by 
the  existence  of  numerous  doorways  or  openings  in  the  side  walls, 
while   the  positive   testimony  of  equally  trustworthy  *  writers   in- 

'  I.  C. 

■^  Ilirt:  Die  Geschichle  der  Baukunsi  hei  den  Alkn,  1827,  Dd.  iii,  ss.  ISO.  ISl. 

■''  V.  Sclinaase  :    Gesclrkhte  d.  hildende  Kunste. 

*  Vitruvius,  Quiniilian,  and  Seneca  anion<j  tlie  ancients.  Anionj,' nioiicrn  writers 
sec  Ottfried  Miillcr,  Bunscn,  Zestcrmann,  and  Mcssmer.  Tiio  excavations  uiako  it 
probalile  that  the  Basilica  Julia  lacked  this  outer  bounding  wall. 


Fis.  ?;•.     Vittw  n;  lia.<ilira  In  Saiit.i  I'ftn.nilla, 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


177 


The  apse. 


I 


duces  the  belief  that  the  Roman  hiw  basilicas  generally  had  the 
enclosing  wall. 

The  earl}^  Roman  basilica  terminated  opposite  the  entrance  in  a 
semicircular  niche,  called  the  apse  or  tribune  (see  Fig. 
78).'  This  was  not  an  unusual  form  for  other  Roman 
buildings.  It  is  seen  in  the  baths  of  Titus  and  of  Diocletian,  while 
in  the  baths  of  Pompey 
the  long  hall  terminated 
in  a  clearl}^  defined  semi- 
circular niche,  which 
formed  a  half -domed  re- 
cess above.  A  like  ar- 
rangement is  noticed  in 
many  of  the  temples, 
where  the  semicircular 
niche  was  often  occupied 
by  a  pedestal,  on  which 
was  a  statue  of  the  god.^ 
Vitruvius  distinctly  men- 
tions this  recess  or  apse 
as  connected  with  the 
Roman  basilicas,  and  his 
description  of  the  tribune 
leaves  no  doubt  as  to  its 
location  and  purpose. 
The  semicircular  termi- 
nation of  the  pagan  ba- 
silica^ corresponded  to  its 
purpose,  and  to  its  deri- 
vation from  the  forum. 
The  latter  structure  has 
clearly  preserved  this  ar- 
rangement in  a  semicircu- 
lar portico  supported  by  columns.  To  the  same  result  would  point 
the  representation  of  the  Basilica  Ulpia,  found  on  the  Caiiitoline 
Fragments,  where  a  like  outline  of  the  tribune  is  2^^^,,,^,^  J.^^^.^ 
clearly  seen.  The  Basilica  of  Constantine  the  Great  ami  of  Cou- 
also  contains  the  same  form.  The  latter  monument  is  stantme. 
of  great  value  for  the  determination  of  this  question,  since  its  loca- 

'  V.  Canina  ;    Via  Appia,  l.  xxxii. 

2  V.  Otlfr.  Miiller:  Ardmologie  der  Kumt,  ss.  344-.346. 

»  Contra,  v.  Zestermann  and  Kreuscr:   "The  old  basilica  had  no  apse."     Kreuscr: 
Christlichen  Kirchenbuu,  s.  28. 

la 


Plan  of  basilica  from  the  villa  of  Quiiitilian. 


178  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

tion,  the  time  of  its  erection,  and  its  founder  are  well  known.  Its 
ruin's  are  also  so  well  preserved  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  fair  ex- 
ami)]e  of  an  aneient  basilica,  and  one,  too,  which  probably  was  after- 
ward devoted  to  Christian  purposes.  Also  the  Basilica  of  Otricoli 
entirely  corresponds  to  this  form.  From  all  the  evidence  to  be 
i^ather'ed  from  baths,  halls,  curiae  temples,  and  even  from  porticos, 
the  conclusion  may  be  safely  reached  that  the  semicircular  termi- 
nation was  a  peculiarity  of  this  style  of  Roman  archi- 
ConcUision.  |-^^,^.t^,.(^,_  History,  ancient  authors,  and  monuments 
unitedly  furnish  good  reason  for  concluding  that  the  public  basilicas 
of  the  Romans  often,  if  not  generally,  terminated  in  a  semicircular 
ajtse.' 

Upon  an  elevated  ]»latform,  opposite  to  the  entrance,  the  high 
judge,  surrounded  by  his  assistants,  presided.  Below  and  on  either 
To  what  uses  ^itl^  were  the  judges  ;  in  front  were  the  witnesses  and 
devoted.  advocates,  while  the  remaining  space  of  the  apse  was 

for  the  use  of  the  people  who  gathered  to  hear  the  causes.  On  the 
rows  of  columns,dividing  the  interior  into  three  or  five  naves,  rested 
either  entablatures  or  that  type  of  round  arch  seen  in  the  palace  of 
Diocletian  at  Spolatro,  on  the  coast  of  Dalmatia"  (Fig,  79).  Above, 
Construetive  ^  second  row  of  columns  supported  a  wall,  on  w  hich 
elements.  rested  the  rafter-work  and  the  ceiling  supports.     Ac- 

cording to  Pausanius  the  ceiling  of  the  Basilica  Ulpia  was  bronzed. 
The  ceiling  of  the  temple  at  Ephesus  was  w^rought  out  most  elabo- 
rately in  cedar,  Avhile  the  interiors  of  some  of  the  public  buildings  of 
the  west  were  made  most  beautiful  and  impressive  by  the  rich 
carving  and  gilding  of  the  ceilings.  The  portico  was  quite  the 
ordinary  arrangement  in  the  more  pretentious  public  buildings  of 
Rome,  such  as  palaces,  temples,  and  basilicas,  and  in  some  private 
houses.' 

The  Christian  basilica  of  the  fourth  century  was  evidently  the 
result  of  growth.  The  theory  which  attributes  its  immediate  origin 
Erroneous  to  the  toleration  of  Christianity  granted  by  Constan- 
theories.  tine  and  his  sons,  or  which  supposes  a  direct  and  slavish 

adoption  of  the  Roman  law  basilica,  or  claims  a  widespread  conver- 

'  Of  many  wlio  substantially  agree  with  this  view  may  be  cited  Oitfried  Miiller: 
ArchmAofjie  ikr  Kunst,  %  291.  Kugler :  Geschichfe  der  Baukunst,  1856,  Bd.  i,  ss.  280, 
281.  354.  Schnaase:  GuscMchte  d.  hikhnden  iTwrtsfe,  Bd.  iii,  ss.  44,45.  Carrieie: 
Die  KnnM  im  Zmammenhang  der  Culturentwickdung,  Bd.  iii,  s.  96. 

«  Schnanse:  Op.  at.,  iii,  2:^,  24.  "The  long  rows  of  columns  no  longer  support 
an  architrave,  but  arches;  the  wide  wall  surfaces  are  ornamented  with  iws  of 
round  windows,  or  niches,  between  lofty  columns  wliich  support  corbels  '  •  ipare 
Mollies:  Die  Baukunst  des  Mittelaltrrs,  Bd.  i,  ss.  12-24. 

•  V.  Ottfr.  Miiller :    Op.  cit.,  s.  384. 


ISO  AHCII.EOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

sion  of  the  heathen  law  basilicas  into  Christian  churches,  lacks 
historic  foundation.  The  main  elements  of  the  Christian  basilica 
had  been  well  known  from  the  first,  and  the  churches  which  are  met 
in  the  fourth  century  are  the  result  of  two  and  a  half  centuries 
of  growth  and  seemingly  unconscious  appropriation  to  its  wants 
of  whatever  was  useful. 

On  comparison  of  the  Roman  law  basilica  Avith  the  Christian 
(ienerai  re-  Church  of  the  same  period,  certain  general  resem- 
seiiibiances  of  blances  are  noticed,  giving  rise  to  a  theory  of  its  origin 
nin'ltuin  *ba-  which  was  unquestioned  for  two  and  a  half  centuries, 
silicas.  and  is  still  embraced  b}'  a  large  class  of  writers  on 

arclia-ology.' 

Tliere  is  no  earlier  notice  of  the  use  of  the  basilica  for  distinctively 
Earliest  no-  ^'hristiau  purposes  than  that  in  a  letter  written  to  Ma- 
lices, carius  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Emperor  Constantine,  whose 
attention  had  been  directed  to  the  peculiar  beauty  and  magnificence 
of  a  Christian  basilica  in  that  city.  The  theory  that  the  name 
(iaaiXtKTj  was  derived  from  the  Emperor  Constantine,  (iaatXevg,  is 
untenable.  The  letter  of  Constantine  Avould  show  that  the  peculiar 
class  of  buildings  to  which  he  refers  was  well  known  to  Macarius 
himself,  hence  must  have  been  widely  diffused  at  the  time.^  More- 
over, the  statement  of  Optatus  regarding  the  forty  basilicas  at  Rome 
at  the  time  of  Diocletian  strengthens  this  opinion.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  no  attempt  to  ti-ace  the  derivation  of  the  word  is  met  before 
the  seventh  century.  When  Isodorus  Ilispanus  says,  *'  Formerly  ba- 
silicas were  called  dwelling  places  of  kings,  hence  the  name,  since 
fiaoiXevg  is  a  king  and  basilicas  are  royal  habitations;  but  now  di- 
vine temples  are  named  basilicas  because  therein  are  offered  service 
and  sacrifice  to  God,  the  King  of  all,"  we  may  find  a  useful  sugges- 
tion to  the  later  Christians,  but  it  scarcely  affords  a  satisfactory 
explanation  of  tlie  origin  of  a  name  which  had  characterized  a 
whole  class  of  structures  from  the  fourth  century.  That  the 
same  name  was  attached  to  the  heathen  building  and  to  the  Christ- 
ian is  probably  owing  to  their  partial  resemblance  and  likeness  of 
arrangement.^ 

'v.  J.  Richlcr:  ChristUche  Architecture  u.  Plasfik  in  Bom  vor  Constantine  dem 
Orassen.  "  Notwithstanding  tlie  most  thorough  investigatious  it  cannot  be  posi- 
tively denied  that  the  Christian  basilica  was  derived  from  tlie  pagan  iiall  of  justice." 

"We  caiuiot,  willi  Kourad  Lange,  Hau.s  unci  Halle,  s.  324,  understand  this  to  re- 
fer to  the  then  existing  basilicas  which  were  used  as  halls  of  exchange,  or  to  some 
nio<lilicationsof  thes-  to  adapt  them  to  the  purposes  of  Christian  worship  '  .  •- 
churches  which  had  previously  existed. 

*Messmer:    Ueher  den  Ursprung,  dieEntwickelung.und  Bedeutung  der  Basilika        ■' 
chnstlichen  Baukunst,  Leipzig,  1854,  ss.  15,  16. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  181 

The  navcd  and  columned  church  resembled  ihe  heat'.icn  b:>il- 
ica  in  being  an  oblong  rectangular  structure,  whose  in- 

^      •  T    •  1     1    •    ^      xi        "  I'  1  Resemblance 

tenor  was  divided  into  three  or  hve  naves  by  two  or   to   pa-an  bu- 

four  rows  of  columns  extending  throughout  its  leiK^th,  '''"^''• 
In  some  of  the  older  churches  these  columns  were  taken  directly 
from  heathen  monuments,  thus  introducing  into  the  composition  an 
element  of  strange  incongruousness.'  The  columned  arrangement 
would  be  as  readily  suggested  by  the  banqueting  hall  of  the  more 
wealthy  Romans  a^  by  the  law  basilicas  themselves.  In  this  case 
the  result  would  be  a  three-naved  building,  wliich  was  the  more 
usual  form. 

The  Christian  Church  was  a  body  of  believers,  an  organism,  in 
Avhich  the  dependence  of  each  part  on  every  other  was  „,  ,.,  . .. 
SO  vital  that  "  whether  one  member  suffer,  all  the  mem-  ciiunh  an  fi- 
bers suffer  with  it"  (1  Cor.  xii,  26).  In  it  there  must  «'*"'>*'"• 
be  chosen  men  to  minister  in  holy  things.  The  sacerdotal  character 
of  this  ministry  had  already  been  recognized.  The  Church  of  the 
fourth  century,  therefore,  required  a  place  of  assembly,  and  a  high 
altar  where  the  sacrifice  of  the  holy  eucharist  could  be  made,  and 
whence  the  divine  will  and  purpose  could  be  declared.  In  the  Con- 
stantinian  churches,  the  thought  of  the  worshipper  was  directed 
toward  the  spot  where  communication  was  believed  to  be  establishe  1 
between  the  invisible,  eternal,  all- wise  God  and  the  body  of  believ- 
ers, through  the  ministrations  of  the  priesthood.  In  the  Christian 
basilica  this  spot  was  the  semicircular  niche  opposite  the  entrance, 
where  stood  the  high  altar  with  its  accompanying  furniture,  and 
Avhere  the  bishop  and  his  attendants  conducted  the  im|>osing  i^nv- 
inonial.     In  Christian  literature  this  niche  is  called  the  ^. 

The   apse    the 

apse.       The   term    is    found   in   common    use    by   the   unifying  mem- 
eavly  Christian  writers,  and  always  in  the  same  sense.'   '^''• 
The  name  \va,s  evidently  of  Roman  origin,  and  is  important  in  the 
study  of  the  development  of  Christian  architecture. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  law  basilica  likewise  termi- 
nated in  an  apse.  But  the  principles  governing  the  two  DitTerpnt  pnn- 
structures  are  entirely  different.     Wldle  busini'ss  of  di-   •""^"'    p"^''™ 

.  In  Ihe  heathen 

verse  character  might  be  transacted  m  various  ]»arts  .jnd  thiistiau 
of  the  heathen    basilica,  in    the  Christian   clninli   the   basilica. 

'Schnaase:  Op.  cit.  Bd.  iii,  s.  48.  '-The  columns  taken  from  bnikiinps  of  llie 
pagan  period  are  very  seldom  enrirely  alike,  but  often  of  different  materials  and 
various  dimensions.  In  order  to  have  the  height  of  the  capitals  equal,  the  columns 
whicli  are  too  high  are  shortened  or  sunk  into  the  earth  ;  such  as  are  too  short  are 
placed  upon  a  higher  base." 

^For  numerous  authorities  confimiatury  of  this  statement  see  especially  Kreuser: 
Civistliche  Kirchenbau.  ss.  84-87. 


182 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


inte'ivst  of  the  entire  assembly  was  one  and  common.  In  the  heathen 
hasilica,  therefore,  the  apse  assumed  no  such  importance  as  in  the 
Christian  church.  This  is  manifest  from  the  difference  in  the  col- 
uniiiar  structure.  In  the  heathen  hasilica  the  columns  were  extended 
across  the  side  opposite  to  the  main  entrance,  making  the  colonnade 
continous  on  the  ground  floor  and  in  the  galleries,  thereby  obscuring 
the  view  of  the  apse;  in  the  Christian  basilica,  on  the  contrary,  the 
columnar  arrangement  is  absent  from  the  apsidal  termination,  its 
jiiace  being  often  supplied  by  the  triumphal  arch  {v.  Fig.  82).  Thus 
was  secured  an  uninterrupted  view  of  the  apse,  which  was  the  center 
of  all  religious  interest,  toward  which  all  lines  of  the  building  con- 
verged and  the  thought  of  all  worshippers  was  directed.  Here  was 
the  throne  of  the  bishop,  who  was  supported  on  either  side  b}^  hif;. 
])resbyters,  while  near  at  hand  were  the  deacons  ready  for  service. 
Facing  the  east  the  bishop  officiated  at  the  altar  in  front  of  his 
ihair,  while  the  attention  of  the  entire  congregation  was  concen- 
trated on  this  point  of  supreme  interest,  without  architectural  hin- 
diance.  For  this  reasou  a  class  of  writers  have  found  the  origin 
The  apse  sug-  ^^  ^^^®  ^P"**^  ^^^  the  cella  of  the  burial  chapels.'  But  it 
KMted  by  the  would  seem  to  have  an  earlier  suggestion  in  the  tab- 
liimra  of  the  private  house,  where  the  householder 
was  wont  to  preside,  and  where,  without  doubt,  was  the  seat 
of  the  officiating  bishop  during  the  period  when  Christ- 
ian worship  retained  its  household  character.  The  fact 
that  in  a  few  structures  the  rectangu- 
lar form  of  the  apse,  especially  in  its 
exterior  outline,  is  still  retained  would 
seem  to  further  strengthen  this  opin- 
ion." This  is  seen  in  the  basilica  pre- 
of  Hadrian,  Served  in  the  ruins  of  the  villa  of 
Tivoii.  Hadrian,  at  Tivoli  (Fig.  80),  whose 

apse  is  rectangular  with  a  breadth  of  more  than 
sixteen  feet.  Another  room  connected  with  this 
villa  is  single-naved  and  terminates  in  a  semicir- 
cular apse  (Fig.  81). 

In  the  heathen  basilica  the  second  story  was 
ii-ually  a  j.lace  of  promenade  from  which  the  visitor  gained  a  view 
«»r  the  business  transacted  on  the  ground  floor.  The  columnar 
arrangement  corresponded  to  that  of  the  first  floor.  This  is  seen 
in  the  Basilica  Sessoriana  (Fig.  88),  and  in  the  palace  of  Diocletian 

"Soe  tl.e  nble  article  '■  Basilika  "  by  Kraus  in  the  Real- EncyUopMie  der  christlichen 
■Alltrthumer,  pp.  U 8-1 -20. 

'■'u.  Dehio:  Die  kirchUche  Baukmsl,  Ite  Lief.,  s.  336.  '■> 


Fie.  80. -Ba- 
silica from  villa 


Fig.  81.— Basilica  from 
villa  of  Hadrian,  Tivo:i. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  183 

(Fig.  79),  and  seems  to  have  been  preserved  in  a  few  oblon,:^' 
Christian  basilica*,  as  in  the  five-naved  church  St.  Demetrius  at 
Thessalonica  {v.  Fig.  100).  But  this  was  not  the  law  governing 
the  second  story  of  the  Christian  church.  Instead  of  a  L^^'illerv 
for  the  free  intercourse  of  visitors,  or  for  promenade,  as  in 
the  law  basilicas,  in  the  Christian  churches  above  the  first  row 
of  columns  was  usually  a  continuous  wall  whose  upper  part  was 
pierced  with  windows  for  lighting  the  interior.  By  this  con- 
struction opportunity  was  afforded  for  more  extended  decora- 
tion, as  is  noticed  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  San  Apollinare  in 
Classe,  and  other  churches  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries. 
It  hardly  seems  credible  that  so  important  a  modifica-  This  radical 
tion   could  have  occurred   suddenly  on  the   transition  ^^'^'"■ence  not 

r  .1       /n  1     X-  T.-  I-  •  1  suddenly  real- 

ot  the  Church  from  a  condition  of  persecution  to  tliat  ized. 
of  toleration.  Rather,  may  not  tliis  wall  expanse  be  but  a 
slight  modification  of  the  essential  features  of  the  <(trluru  cUsjiluvia- 
tum  (Fig.  68),  where  the  walls  of  the  lower  portions  are  changed  to 
columns,  while  the  upper  portions  are  preserved  as  wall  expanses  ? 
Also  the  arrangement  of  tlie  roof  of  the  three  and  five  naved 
churches  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  private  liouse  and  the  i)rivate 
basilica,  rather  than  from  the  perfected  law  basilicas  of  Rome. 

Moreover,  the  construction  of  the  ceiling  in  the  two  classes  of  build- 
inars  was  at  times  widely  <Iiffcrent.     The  heathen  basilica  ^^.     ,,„ 

^  _  -  .....  The  illlTerencf 

very  uniformly  preserves  a  symmetrical  division  of  the  in  ceiiinir  cn- 
space  into  squares,  with  rosette  ornaments.  The  ceiling  struction. 
of  the  main  nave  of  the  early  Christian  church,  while  sometimes 
adhering  to  this  classical  type,'  more  frecpiently  consisted  of  open 
rafter-work  and  beams  ornamented  with  gilt,  bronze,  and  colors,  to 
inspire  the  feeling  of  hope  and  aspiration'  (San  Pietro  in  Vaticano, 
see  Fig.  92),  or  were  of  the  cylindrically  vaulted  type,  as  in  tlu> 
churches  of  Egypt  and  Syria. 

We  therefore  regard  the  oblong  Christian  l)asilica  as  a  growth 
from  elements  with  which  the  Church  had  been  familiar  during 
the  first  two  and  one  half   centuries  of   its  varied  history.     The 

ordinary    private    dwelling-house,   the    triclinia    of    the 

.        "^        1  1        /•       •!•         1         11  Conolusiiin. 

more  elegant  houses  of  the  nobler  tannlies  tliat-liad  em- 
braced Christianity,  the  lodge-rooms,  the  celhe  of  the  burial  cha]:- 
els,  and  the  imposing  interior  arrangement  of  colonna<les  in  the  hea- 
then law  basilicas,  are  the  sources  whence  are  derived   the   germs 
which,  under  the  fostering  and  insi)iriiig   spirit  of   tlic  new  leligioii 

'  In  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  at  Home  tlic  ceiling  is  of  later  origin. 
2  Old  San  Pietro  was  a  fine  example  of  this  open  rafter-work.     v.  Schiiaasfl:  Op. 
■  iL,  Bd.  iii,  ss.  48,  49. 


1S4  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

(lurin*'-  periods  of  toleration  and  peace,  were  developed  into  a 
distinctively  Cliristian  architecture,  whose  chief  characteristics 
continued  for  a  thousand  years.' 

§  2.    The  Parts  of  the  Basilica. 

The  adaptation  of  the  basilica  to  Christian  needs  will  appear 
from  a  more  full  description  of  its  parts,  and  of  the  particular  uses 
to  which  they  were  devoted. 

The  unifying  i)ower  of  the  apse  has  already  been  noticed.     The 

tendency  of  all  lines  of  the  building  toward  the  semicircular  niche 

was  indicative  of  the  concentration  of  attention  on  this  focal  point 

of  interest  to  the  worshipers.     So,  also,  the  transformations  which 

we  have  already  noticed  show  the  supreme  importance 
The   moulding  -,      ,.    •  t  *       i 

powerof  Chris-  of  tlie  tribune  and  oi  its  attendant  parts.     As  the  new 

tianity.  wine  of  the  Gospel  could  not  be  contained  in  the  old 

bottles  of  Roman  thouglit  and  life,  so  the  Christian  spirit  was  not 

content  to  simply  enter  into  existing  structures  and  use  them  for 

worship,  but  by  its  superior  power  it  moulded  these  heathen  elements 

into  forms  essentially  new.     The  symbolic  character  of  much  of  the 

ritual  demanded  fit  means  for  its  embodiment.     From  a  general 

adaptation  the  basilica  was  adjusted  in  all  its  details  to  the  needs 

of  the  church. 

The  simjile  semicircular  recess  of  the  pagan  basilica  was,  in  the 

The  furniture  Christian,  elevated  and  covered  by  the  conchoidal  or 

of  the  apse.        vaulted  roof;  the  altar  was  protected  by  a  baldachin, 

sujiported  by  four  columns,  from  whose  under  side,  in  the  form  of 

a  dove  descending  upon  the  altar,  hung  the  vessel  containing  the 

eucharistic  elements.     Somewhat  further  toward  the  middle  nave  a 

space  was  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  building  by  railing  for  the 

use  of  the  lesser  clergy  and  the  singers.^     On  the  north  side  of  this 

Ambos  space  stood  the  lectorium  (ambo),  or  reading-desk,  for 

the  gospel;  on  the  south  side,  that  for  the  epistle.     The 

apse  and  the  triumphal  arch  were  highly  decorated;  the  pavement 

was  wrought  out  in  marble  mosaic;  the  rafter  work  of  the  ceiling 

'  The  conclusion  reached  by  Koiirad  Lange,  Haus  wul  Halle,  s.  323,  "that  the 
I.anjre'8  oj)iu-  Kdiet  of  Milan  is  the  determinate  event  for  the  introduction  of  the 
'""•  basilica  form  in  place  of  the  single-naved  church  which  had  before  pre- 

vailed, and  that  the  year  313  (and,  in  a  broader  sense,  tlie  year  323)  is  the  birth-year 
of  the  Christian  basilica,  whose  introduction  is  the  monumental  expression  of  the 
elevation  of  Christianity  to  be  the  religion  of  the  state."  seems  to  us  untenable. 
It  disregards  the  great  law  of  historic  development,  and  does  not  accord  with  the 
monumental  and  literary  evidence. 

»  To  aid  in  gaining  a  clearer  conception  of  the  parts  of  the  basilica,  consult 
Figs.  82  and  83. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAX  ARCHITECTURE. 


185 


added  picturesqucness  to  tlie  interior  s^pace  (u.  Fig.  82).  Fol- 
lowing outward  from  the  altar,  the  main  nave  was  entered,  at 
whose  farther  end  doors  led  to  the  vestibule  or  entranee  jjortieo. 
In  the  earlier  form,  tliis  vestibule  was  an  open  space 
bounded  by  rows  of  columns,  in  Avhose  center  stood  '^^^'  ^*-''*''''"^®- 
the  fountain  (cantharus)  for  the  purification  of  the  entering  wor- 


Fi<:.  83.  — Iiucriiir  of  San  Clemente,  Rome. 

shii)pers  {».  Fig.  8:3).  In  later  structures  this  open  space  was  covered, 
and  became  an  appropriate  spot  for  meditation  and  i)rnitcnee,  i.r 
was  more  thoroughly  incor])orated  into  the  main  structure,  as  in 
San  Lorenzo  (v.  Fig.  94).  The  vestibule  was  always  jtrcscnt  in  the 
eastern  churches  ;  in  some  of  the  western  it  was  lacking.  From 
this  circumstance  some  writers  have  believed  that  in  the  jiiulico 
were  found  traces  of  the  Jewish  s])irit  an<l  intiuencc. 

While  a  careful  comparison  of  the  Roman  with  tlie  early  Christ- 
ian basilica  reveals  a  general  resemblance,  there  is  an  almost  total 


'So 


ARCIK^OLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


want  of  likeness  in  tlie  details,  and  in  individual  members  of  the 
buildinf,^s.  In  outline  each  old  Roman  basilica  had  a  Contrast  be- 
niavked*  individuality;  the  oblong  Christian  basilicas,  ^'^^.''^'JeiirSla- 
howevei;,  with  "wide  liberty  respecting  minute  details,  tan  basilica, 
have  a  stereotyped  plan  which  controls  the  entire  development.'  So 
in  the  Christian  basilica,  the  form,  the  gar- 
ment, Avere  Roman;  but  the  dedication  of 
the  building  to  a  distinct  purpose,  by  making 
the  sanctuary  the  central  and  controlling 
thought  of  the  entire  structure,  caused  it 
to  lay  aside  the  old  and  assume  a  new  and 
distinctive  character.  The  whole  building 
now  had  a  richer  significance.  From  a  tribu- 
nal of  justice  and  place  of  business  it  became 
the  house  of  the  King  of  kings,  the  Victor 
over  the  world  and  the  grave.  Tliis  com- 
])letes  the  transformation  of  the  The  compiote 
Roman  into  the  Christian  basil i-  transformation, 
ca.  Now  for  the  first  time  the  earlier  expla- 
nations of  its  meaning  seem  appropriate.  It 
is  now,  indeed,  the  dwelling-place  of  the 
one  eternal  King — the  only  wise  Lord  God 
Almighty.  The  tribunal  of  the  imperial 
praetor  has  lost  its  significance;  it  has  now- 
been  transformed  into  the  seat  of  concoid 
and  unity,  where  Christ,  the  Mediator,  in- 
sures the  truest  and  highest  peace  between 
God  and  man.^ 

In  the   earlier  and   smaller   basilicas  the 

FiK.  83.-.irou.ulplan  of  San    southern    nave    was    usually    set    Tbe  separation 

(ifiiirnip,nnme.  Vestibule  and  apart  for  the  men,  the  northern  of  the  sexes. 
caMiha.usm  front.  f^^.  ^|^^  ^omen  ;  in  such  cases  the  middle 

nave  was  occupied  by  the  clergy  for  the  responsive  and  choral 
service.  In  the  more  spacious  and  elegant  basilicas  this  arrange- 
ment Avas  no  longer  necessary,  since  the  tribune  itself  was  of  suffi- 
cient cajiacity  to  accommodate  all  the  officiary.  In  the  western 
chnivh  the  separation  of  the  sexes  gradually  fell  into  disuse,  but 
continued  in  the  East. 

'I'lie  middle  nave  with  its  indej^endent  and  loftier  roof-construc- 
linn,  and  the  side  naves  with  their  lower  ceilings  and  ThepriTioipieof 
dependent  roof,  constitute  a  harmonious  balancing  of  baiancinn; parts. 
the  parts.     The  side  naves  become  the  complementary  numbers  of 

'  Stockbiuier:  Dtr  chrislliche  Kirchenhau,  s.  4.  ^  Messmer:    Op.  cit,  p.  61. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  1S7 

the  main   nave   right  and  left,   as  do  the  apse  and  tlie  entrance 
portico  in  the  direction  of  the  length. 

The  early  Christian  basilica  impresses  by  its  chaste  yet  noljle 
simplicity  ;  in  it  the  student  of  delicate  art  sensibility  may  discover 
the  germs  of  that  richer  and  fuller  develoi>ment  which  was  after- 
ward realized  in  the  Gothic  cathedral.  Here  is  seen  ihe  problem 
the  solution  of  the  most  important  problem  of  sacred  ar-  solved, 
chitecture;  namely,  to  develop  the  form  through  the  influence  of  the 
religion  whose  rites  were  therein  to  be  celebrated;  in  other  words,  to 
effect  a  harmony  between  the  containing  material  and  the  contained 
and  inspiring  spirit.'  This  significant  victory  was  achieved  by  the 
Christian  religion.  Herein  is  noticed  the  difference  between  the 
Greek  and  the  Christian  idea  of  architecture.^  The  spir-  ,j.^  riirisu 
itual  significance  of  the  interior  of  the  Christian  basilica  vs.  the  ureek 
is  in  strong  contrast  Avith  the  imposing  grandeur  of  the  ^'^'"'" 
exterior  of  the  Greek  temple.  Subjective  truth  and  ])eauty  are  here 
shown  to  be  of  more  worth  than  material  splendor.  Instead  of 
passing  from  a  perfect  exterior  to  an  unmeaning  interior,  the  basilica 
obeys  the  law  of  all  true  develo))ment  and  growth  in  first  invigo- 
rating and  purifying  the  subjective  spirit,  and  then,  by  virtue  of  the 
transforming  power  of  truth,  subordinating  to  this  the  exterior  form. 

It  was  not  to  be  expected,  therefore,  that  the  somewhat  conglom-  ^ 
erate  character  of  the  earliest  Christian  basilica  would  remain  un- 
changed.    By  degrees  the  heterogeneous  elements  disappeared,  and 
from  the  original  form  was  developed  a  new  type  of  Christian 
architecture. 

The  most  important  de])arture  from  the  fundamental  form  re- 
sulted  from   the   introduction    of   the   transejjt.      The  T^e  imer  de- 
monotony  caused  by  the  long  extent  of  unbroken  space   veiopment. 
in  the  naves  Avas  relieved  by  opposing  to  it  the  transept  of  equal 
height  and  breadth  of  the  middle  nave.      This  would  furnish  an 
appro})riate  termination  to  the  longitudinal  extension,  and  give  to 
the  sanctuarium  still  greater  dignitv  and  iini)ressiveness. 
The  enlargement  of  the  transept  to  the  Avulth  ot   the 
entire  church  soon  followed.     At  length  the  walls  of  the  cross  nave 
were  projected  beyond  those  of  the  main  structure,  giving  to  the  7 
foundation  the  form  of  the  Latin  cross.^     The  transept  thus  became 

'  Messraer:   Op.  cit.,  p.  6.3. 

2  '•  At  all  time.s  tlie  rulitiji  idea  in  arcliilociiiral  art  lias  been  caseiiliiiily  deUTmiiicd 
by  the  prevailin,£r  position  of  relisrion  in  the  general  spiritual  life  of  a  people.'* 
V.  Dehio:  Die  kirchliche  Baukunsl  d'S  Abtndlaadti.'i,  s.  15. 

3  This  i.s  seen  in  the  noted  Basilica  of  St.  Paul,  and  also  in  that  of  St.  Peter'a,  at 
Rome.     V.  Fig.  92. 


188  ARCILEOLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

an  intermediate  member  between  the  apse  and  the  middle  nave, 
and  connected  the  sanctuarium  with  the  space  occupied  by  the 
body  of  worsliii>pei-s.  At  the  place  of  intersection  of  the  transept 
The  t'riuinpiiai  a"*^  '"'"^i"  "^ve,  a  lofty  arch,  reaching  from  one  wall  to 
arch.  the  otiier,  spanned  the  intermediate  space  (see  Fig.  81). 

>  This  so  called  triumphal  arch  rested  upon  two  columns  at  the 
terminus  of  the  middle  nave,  and  constituted  a  most  important 
feature  of  the  later  and  more  elaborate  basilicas.  The  spaces 
on  the  ceilings  were  generally  ornamented  with  forms  of  Christ  and 
his  apostles,  of  saints  and  of  angels  wrought  out  in  painting  or 
rich  mosaics,  while  imposing  pictures  of  Christ  usually  filled  the 
altar  niche.'  At  a  still  later  period  the  naves  were  intersected  by 
two  or  more  transepts.  By  this  means  two  or  more  triumphal 
arches  resulted,  and  an  increased  wall  and  ceiling  surface  was 
secured  for  more  elaborate  ornamentation.  The  wide  departure 
from  the  simplicity  of  the  early  Christian  basilica  during  the  later 
mediaeval  period  resulted  in  serious  architectural  decadence. 


§  3.   The  Influence  of  the   Christian  Basilicd   on    other  forms  of  Clirktlan 

lirchltecture. 

The  parts  of  the  basilica  were  brought  into  still  more  harmo- 
nious relations  by  means  of  the  vaulted  roof,  while  the  whole, 
was  unified  in  idea  by  the  sanctuarium.  This  marks  the  further 
transition  from  the  earlier  form  of  the  Christian  basilica  to  the 
round-vaulted  or  Roman  style  of  church  architecture.  The  devel- 
opment of  the  basilica  did  not  at  first  admit  of  the  round-arched 
The  provision  vaulting,  but  of  that  which  resulted  from  the  intersection 
upon  the  outer  *^^  ^'^^  n\:im  nave  with  the  transept.  The  thrust  or 
walls.  pressure  upon  the  lateral  walls  was  too  great  to  allow 

of  a  cylindrical  vaulting  over  the  middle  nave, except  where  these 
walls  were  of  unusual  thickness,  whereas  the  arches  resting  upon  the 
terminal  columns  of  the  middle  nave,  and  extending  diagonally  to 
like  columns  or  pilasters  at  the  boundary  of  the  apse,  would  dis- 
tribute one  half  of  the  pressure  from  the  imposed  mass  in  the 
direction  of  the  line  of  the  wall  {v.  Fig.  84).-^  Thus  the  support 
of  the  triumphal  arch  would  be  secured  without  unduly  increasing 
the  thickness  of  the  enclosing  wall. 

The  intersection  of  the  vaulted  roof  of  the  main  nave  with 
that  of  the  transept  necessarily  so  divided  the  space  as  to  compel 
the  use  of  the  cross  vaulting  rather  than  the  cylindrical.     A  likti 

'  V.  Sdinaasc,  Kuder,  Quast,  and  others  on  this  transformation. 
*  Messracr:   Op.  cit.,  pp.  77,  78. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


189 


necessity  to  distribute  the  thrust  of  the  sujiported  roof  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  series  of  columns  led  to  the  construction  of  diai^'onal 
ribljed  arches,  and  the  consequent  transformation  of  the  pirsi  germs  of 
cylindi'ically  vaulted  ceiling  into  a  series  of  cross-vaulted  the  ooiiiic. 
spaces,  which  mark  the  first  stages  in  the  development  of  Gothic 
architecture.' 


Fiff.  84.— siiowin?  t!ie  lievelopinent  of  the  cross-ribbed  arches,  and  distribution  of  tlie  pressure. 

Thus  by  successive  changes  and  transformations  the  contradic- 
tions and  incongruities  of  the  early  Christian  basilica  were  removed, 
the  various  parts  were  brought  more  nn<l  more  into  harmony,  until 
the  richer,  more  comi)lete,  and  glorious  Gothic  style  was  the  final 
outcome  of  all  the  struggle  of  the  preceding  centuries. 

In  the  simple  basilica  Avere  contained  those  germs  which,  under 
the  quickening  influence  of  the  Christian  religion,  developed  into 
the  style  of  architecture  which  may  be  called  preeminently  Christ- 
ian, in  which  every  minutest  part  equally  with  every  xht-  unifyinff 
necessary  member  finds  its  truest  significance  in  being  sp"""- 
included  in  a  richer  and  more  comjdett'  organism.  This  is  in  exact 
accordance  with  the  philosophy  of  the  sj.iritual  edifice  "built  ujjon 

'  Rudolpli  Wiogiiiaiin  :  Ueher  dm  n-fipuny  rZ-'v  Fipitzhngemtils,  s.  28.  A  carcfnl  com- 
parison or  Fijrs.  84  and  86  witii  Fijrs.  01  and  95  will  liclp  to  an  adequate  conceplioti 
of  the  process  of  transformation  from  the  early  Christian  basilica  to  tlie  Gothic 
cathedral. 


190  ARCPIJEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

tlie  foundiition  of  the  apostles  and  proi)hets,  Jesus  Christ  himself 
being  the  chief  cornerstone  ;  in  whom  all  the  building  fitly  framed 
together  groweth  unto  a  holy  temple  in  the  Lord  :  in  whom  ye 
also  are  builded  together  for  an  habitation  of  God  through  the 
8i)irit"  (Eph,  ii,  20-22)  ;  or  of  the  bodily  organism  which  sug- 
gested the  other  :  "  For  as  the  body  is  one,  and  hath  many  mem- 
bei-s,  and  all  the  members  of  that  one  body,  being  many,  are  one 
body:  so  also  is  Christ.  For  by  one  Spirit  are  we  all  baptized 
into  one  body,  whether  we  be  Jews  or  Gentiles,  whether  we  be 
bond  or  free  ;  and  have  been  all  made  to  drink  into  one  Spirit. 
1  Cor.  12,  13. 

What  the  ancient  basilica  contained  in  itself  as  a  possibility  the 
Gothic  cathedral  realized  in  its  rich  efllorescence  and  crowning  unity. 
This  interior  unity  first  appeared  in  the  pointed  arch,  and  in  the 
architectural  style  which  it  originated.  In  the  pointed  style  the 
basilica,  which  was  the  normal  type  of  Christian  architecture,  was 
developed  into  the  greatest  beaut}^  the  richest  variety,  yet  the 
purest  simplicity.  The  essential  features  of  the  original  groundplan 
and  outline  were  retained  and  bi'ought  to  their  highest  possibilities. 
The  longitudinal  extension,  and  the  tendency  of  the  whole  interior 
toward  the  sanctuarium,  were  not  changed,  but  rather  found  in  the 
])olygonal  termination  of  the  choir  of  the  Gothic  cathedral  their 
structural  unification  and  goal.  The  simple  apse  was  transformed 
into  the  unifying  choir;  the  vestibule  was  closely  and  constructively 
joined  to  the  main  and  side  naves,  and  as  the  supporting  member  of 
the  towers  it  became  the  real  entrance  to  the  sanctuarj^,  the  point 
of  transition  from  secular  thought  to  genuine  worship.  '  Thus,  in 
no  way  had  the  original  portico  been  dispensed  with,  but  by  its 
completeness  of  development  it  became  a  constituent  part  of  the 
structural  w-^ole.  The  threefold  Avestern  entrance  into  the  l)asilica 
was  thus  transformed  into  those  enchanting  portals  which,  by 
Further  trans-  their  deep  oblique  recesses  and  glorious  crowning  of 
fonniition.  gables,  SO  greatly  contributed  io  the  majesty  of  the 
mediaeval  cathedral.  The  supporting  and  enclosing  walls  no  longer 
constituted  the  essential  mass  of  the  structure,  as  in  the  original 
basilica.  The  wall  is  no  longer  continuous;  the  parts  are  bound 
together  by  opposing  buttresses;  while  all  is  spiritualized  and 
transfigured  by  the  lofty  painted  windows  in  the  main  and  side 
naves.'  The  columns,  as  Avell  as  the  intervening  pilasters,  have 
now  a  deeper  significance.  The  germinal  form  was  circular. 
These,  however,  by  the  necessities  of  connecting  the  main  and 
bide  naves,  and  of  supporting  the  vaulted  roof,  were  developed 
'Messmer:   Op.  rii.,  p.  85. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  191 

into  polygonal   or   clustered   forms   (Fig.   S5).     On   these    rest  the 
slender  ribs  that  coiineet  the  ceiling  witii  the  wall.     With  this  final 
connection  of  all  parts  of  the  ceiling  structure  by  means  of  the  ribs 
with  i)ointed  arch,  was  completed  the  inte- 
rior uniiication,  just  as  in  tlie  ancient  gable- 
roof  of  the  basilica  was  found  the  external 
completion  of   that   building    (y.    Fig.    86). 
(VVhat  at   the  beginning   was  only  an  archi- 
tectural germ  was  thus  developed  into  a  rich, 
beautiful,  and  unitied  style.     In  this  respect, 
therefore,  is  the  basilica  entitled  to  be  called  i  , 

a  Christian  form,  emphatically  t/ie  Christian  '^-'-vi^.Tjci.' 

1  .  -,1  1  "     -•   1  1     1    1  F'K-  85.— A  clustered  column. 

temple,    since    it   has    been    unlolded  by   a 

living    Christian  principle    to  meet  the  wants  of  the   How  far  was 

Church  in  the  celebration  of  its  perfected  worshii).     Just   ^^^    ("iri-iUan 

.  ,        ^   ^  ^  basilica  a  crea- 

hereiu  lies  the  triumph  of  Christianity.     By  interpene-  uon? 
trating  indilTereiit  foreign  forms  with  its  own  spirit  it  developed  a 
style  of  such  perfect  artistic  harmonies  that  further  imi)rovenient  )*- 
may  well  be  despaired  of.    In  this  respect  can  Christian  architecture 
be  justly  called  original.) 

^       §  4.  Some  of  the  Earliest  Clirldiaii  Churches. 

Unfortunately,  not  a  single  early  Christian  l)asilica  has  been  pre-  ^ 
served  in  its  integrity.  Numerous  additions  and  transformations, 
which  the  misdirected  zeal  of  princes  and  popes  effected,  have,  in 
many  instances,  entirely  destroyed  the  original  features  p^^  remains 
of  these  churches.  Their  reconstruction  from  the  few  of  pre-Co.istan- 
remaining  portions,  fi'om  the  meagre  notices  of  early  '"^e  c  lurcies. 
Christian  writers,  and  from  comparative  studies,  is  a  work  of  extreme 
difficulty.  Even  the  remains  of  these  early  basilicas  are  few  an<l 
questionable.  Some  fell  into  decay,  others  were  destroyed  by  the 
enemies  of  Christianity,'  while  still  others  were  superseded  by  more 
imposing  edifices  during  the  reigns  of  Constantine  and  his  suc- 
cessors. 

Ciampini*  has  given  a  very  full  description  of  the  Basilica  Sicin- 
iaiia  as  it  remained  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Tliis  was  probalily 
the  most  perfect  example  of  a  heathen  basilica  transformed  into  a 
Christian  church  '  Avhose  description  has  been  preserve<l.  From 
Ciampini's  drawings''  a  good  knowledge  of  the  original  form  and 
decorations  can  be  gained.     The  plans  show  an  oblong,  rectangular 

'  Especially  diirinj?  iho  Deeiau  and  Diocletian  persecutions. 

«  Vetera  Monimeutu,  Tars  i,  pp.  9,  10. 

»  Probably  San  Andrea  in  Barbara.  ■•  Tab.  xxi-xxv. 


rj3  ARCILEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

structm-e  with  a  portico  and  broad  apse,  without  interior  cokimnar 
division;  hence  a  single-naved  basilica.'  Its  walls  were  adorned 
with  mosaics  and  paintings  which  commemorated,  as  many  believe, 
the  triumph  of  Anthony.  These  mural  decorations  preclude  the 
supposition  that  it  was  oriorinally  used  for  Christian  purposes;  but 


Fiff.  Sf.—  .  Gothic  Interior.    To  siin.v  ttii^  u.iitlc;rio;i  of  ilie  suppnning  and  supported  members. 


tliey  plainly  point  to  a  Roman  monument.  It  is  believed  to  have 
been  built  by  Junius  Bassus,  A.  D.  317.'  The  mosaics  of  the  apse 
were  introduced  after  its  dedication  as  a  Christian  church.  A.  D. 
47(1. 

'  (le  Vogue:  Syrie  Cenfrale,  i)lato  G7.  gives  ihc  groundplati  of  a  similar  church 
ill  Bahoiida.     It  is  from  the  fiftii  century. 
*  Dehio :  Die  kirchliche  Baukunsi  des  Abendlandes,  p.  82. 


EARLY  CIIIIISTIAN    ARCIHTECTURE. 


193 


Another  original   private   basilica   was   San  C'lenionte,  at  Rome.. 

In  the  ninth  cen- 
San  Clemen  te.  -^  ^    , 

tury  -rope  John 

VIII.  introduced  the  marble 
balustrades  of  the  presbj^- 
terium,  together  with  the 
chancels,  high  altar,  and 
seats.  Excavations  *  show 
that  the  present  church  is 
a  reduction  of  a  larger  one, 
which,  in  turn,  stood  partly 
upon  a  very  ancient  wall 
of  binding  masonry  of  tufa 
(possibly  from  the  time 
of  the  kings),  and  partly 
upon  a  brick  wall  that  prob- 
ably belonged  to  the  dwell- 
ing-house of  Clement  him- 
self (v.  Figs.  82,  83,  and  87). 
This  foundation  furnishes  a 
good  example  of  the  form  of 
the  private  Roman  basilica.* 
A  third  example  is  the 
church  of  Santa  Croce  in 
Gerusalemme,  in  Rome 


Fis.  87. 


-San  riPiiicnte,  Roitip.    (irniinilphin,  show- 
ing variety  of  structures. 


Fig. 


.  —  Cross-sectinn  of  P.asilif^a  Sessoriana,  or 
Santa  Croce  in  (Jenisalemmo,  Rome. 


At  the  request  of  Helena,  mother  of  Con- 
stantine,  the  pagan  Basilica 
Sessoriana  was  changed,  as 
tradition  says,  into  a  deposi- 
tory for  a  piece  of  the  true 
cross.  This  building  (Figs. 
88  and  B9)  is  three-naved,  and 
preserves  more  nearly  than 
others  the  peculiar  features  of 
the  Roman  law  basilica.  The 
galleries,  from  which  a  view  of 
the  lower  floor  could  be  had 
through  the  spaces  between 
the  columns,  arc  conformable 
to  the  original  type,  and  the 


'  V.  de  Rossi:  Bulhttino  Arch,  crid.,  April,  ISG.H. 

■  Tlie  sinsj^le-lined  parts  of  ¥\ff.  8G  pive  the  form  of  the  oripjinal  eluircli ;  the  double- 
lined  represent  the  old  tnPa  wall  from  tlietimeof  the  kings;  the  black  portions  sliow 
the  remains  of  the  Clementine  palace,  while  llie  blank  outline  is  the  modern  ciiurcb. 
13 


104 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


equal  hciijht  of  the  ceiling  of  the  main  and  side  naves  also  suggests 
its  pagan  origin.  According  to  the  restorations,  as  given  by 
Iliibscii  (Fig.  89),  the  vestibule  was  decorated  with  six  columns; 
the  apse  was  of  unusual  breadth,  reaching  almost  to  the  outer 
enclosing  Avails,  leaving  only  a  narrow  passage-way  to  rooms  at 
the  extremity  of  the  church;  the  outer  boundary  walls  were  rec- 
tangular, thus  giving  no  suggestion 
of  the  spacious  semicircular  apse 
within. 

Among  the  verj^  earliest  and  most 
noteworthy  monuments  santa  Pudenzi- 
of  Christian  architec-  ^d^,. 
ture,  Hiibi-ch  '  ranks  the  Church  of 
Santa  Pudenziana,  at  Rome.  Its  tra- 
ditions reach  back  to  the  apostolic 
times.  It  is  said  that  the  senator 
Pudens  lodged  the  apostle  Peter  in 
his  palace  on  this  very  site,  that  his 
sons  built  baths  therein,  and  that 
at  the  earnest  request  of  St.  Prex- 
edes,  Pope  Pius  I.,  about  A.  D.  145, 
in  honour  of  St.  Pudentiana,  con- 
verted this  palace  and  the  baths  into 
a  Christian  church,  under  the  title 
of  SS.  Pastor  and  Pudens.'  With- 
out being  able  to  account  for  all  the 
motives,  it  is  plain  that  the  transfor- 
mation of  a  secular  building  into  a 
place  of  Christian  worship  lay  at  the 
foundation  of  this  tradition.^  The 
opinion  expressed  by  Hiibsch  that 
this  refers  only  to  the  small  chapel 
of  the  church,  Santa  Pudenziana,  in 
which,  at  present,  the  altar  of  St. 
Peter  is  pointed  out,  is  entitled  to 
respectful  attention."  This  church  (Fig.  90) '  is  an  oblong  parallel- 
'  Altchristliche  Kirchen,  Carlsnihe,  1862,  fol.,  s.  6,  taf.  vii,  viii.  cie  Rossi  has  ex- 
amined this  church  with  much  care,  and  lias  also  traced  the  argument  for  its  great 
age.     V.  Bullettino cri6L,  1864,  1867.  1869,  1875. 

» I'.  J.  H.  Parker:   The  II<mse  of  Pudens  in   Rome,m   Archonological  Journal,   vol. 
xxviii,  1871,  pp.  42,  43. 

*  Stockbaiior:   Der  christlidie  Kirchenhau,  s.  48.  4  Qj,^  cit,  s.  7. 

*  Tlip  (lark  lines  niaik  tlio  lioundary  of  the  church;  the  other  lines  are  the  outline 
of  vaulted  rooms  tuijacent,  and  very  ancient. 


Fig.  89.-  Groundplan  of  Fig 


EARLY    CFIRrSTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


195 


ogram,  of  about  tlie  same  size  as  tlio  ButiUini  Sifiniann,  (San 
Andrea  in  Barbara).  It  has  been  made  ugly  througli  recent 
restorations.  The  interior  is  three  naved  with  a  portico.  The 
vaulted  space  behind  the  apse  is 
very  ancient,  also  the  before-mentioned 
chapel,  whose  apse  appears  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  wall  of  an  ancient 
foundation  which  belongs  to  the  best 
period  of  Roman  architecture.  With 
little  doubt  it  may  be  regarded  as 
a  portion  of  the  ancient  senatorial  pal- 
ace.' The  side  naves  were  one-storied, 
whose  roof  was  a  lean-to,  but  which,  by 
the  unusual  elevation  of  the  enclosing 
wall,  became  nearly  equal  in  height  to 
that  of  the  middle  nave.  In  front  of 
the  present  entrance  is  found  a  very  an- 
cient portal  with  twisted  columns.  The 
shafts  of  the  columns  bounding  the  mid- 
dle nave,  of  dark  gray  marble,  have  been 
taken  from  some  ancient  monument, 
while  the  capitals  and  bases  seem  to 
have  been  wrought  out  expressly  for 
their  present  use.*  For  the  study  of 
the  original  derivation  and  structure  of 
the  Christian  basilica  this  church  is  of 
first  importance.  Its  arrangement  en- 
ables the  archaeologist  to  distinguish  the  changes  which  ])agan 
l)uildings  underwent  to  adapt  them  to  the  purposes  of  Christian 
worship.  The  resemblance  of  the  apse  of  this  church  to  thai 
of  Santa  Croce  in  Gerusalemme  is  most  striking  and  sugjifestive 
('».  Fig.  89). 

Perhaps  the  most  perfectly  preserved  monument  of  a  pre-Con- 
stantine  Christian  basilica  is  the  crypt  of  Santa  ^laria  in  saniu  Mariu  in 
Cosmedin.  It  seems  to  have  been  built  within  the  en-  Cosmedin. 
closure  of  an  ancient  heathen  temple.  It  is  certain  that  the  present 
church,  founded  by  Hadrian  I.  in  the  eighth  century,  and  enlarged 
and  beautified  by  Calixtus  II.  in  the  twelfth,  contains  several  parts 
of  the  original  building.  Noteworthy  are  eight  fluted  columns, 
Avhich  are  clearly  of  antique  origin.  The  pre-Constantine  jtortion 
is  subterranean,  having  a  length  of  thirty-four  palms  (Uoiniin)  and 
a  breadth  of  seventeen  palms.  The  smooth,  vaulted  ceiling  of  large 
'  Stock bauer:    Op.  at,  s.  49.  *  Stockbaiier:    Op.  at.,  ss.  48,  49. 


^  ^! 

i            1 

i              i 
i              1 

FiR.  90.— Grouii(ii)lan  of  Santa  I'li- 
deoziana,  Rome. 


196  AKCH/EOLOGY   OF    CHRISTIAN    ART. 

blocks  of  travertine  '  rests  imine<liately  upon  capitals  whose  rude- 
ness proves  them  to  be  of  different  origin  from  the  shafts  them- 
selves. The  si.v  columns  of  marble  and  granite,  standing  in  the 
nave  and  aisles,  were  evidently  taken  from  the  temple  on  whose  site 
the  basilica  was  built.  In  the  wall  are  seen  small  niches,  resem- 
bling a  columbarium,^  which  were  used,  as  the  learned  Crescimbeni 
pre-constan-  conjectures,  as  places  of  prayer  and  meditation.  This 
tine.  church  was  built,  it  is  believed,  as  early  as  the  third 

(piarter  of  the  third  century  by  Dionysius,  Bishop  of  Rome.  Its 
severe  simplicity  of  style  and  arrangement,  as  well  as  its  high 
antiquity,  give  to  it  the  greatest  importance  among  Christian  art 
antiquities.'  The  suggestions  it  furnishes  with  respect  to  the  activ- 
ity of  the  Church  and  the  toleration  of  the  Roman  government 
|)rior  to  the  Christian  emperors  are  most  valuable. 

§  5.  Basilicas  of  Roman  Origin  in  the  Time  of  Condantine. 

Amid  the  conflicting  opinions  respecting  the  character  of  Con- 
Rtantine,  and  the  motives  which  influenced  him  to  make  Christianity 
the  religion  of  the  Roman  state,  there  is  more  substantial  agree- 
ment respecting  the  wonderful  influence  of  his  conversion  on  the 
Constantine's  fortunes  of  the  Christian  Church,  on  its  doctrine, 
influence.  polity,  and  life.     In  many  important  respects  his  reign 

was  epoch-making:  the  more  profoundly  it  is  studied  the  more 
clearly  do  the  high,  statesmanlike  qualities  of  this  great  ruler 
appear.  lie  may  justly  take  rank  among  a  score  of  noted  men 
whose  influence  has  been  indelibly  impressed  upon  human  history, 
since  his  clearly  conceived  policy  affected  the  fortunes  of  the  Christ- 
ian Church  for  a  thousand  years. 

To  what  extent  remorse  for  the  fearful  crimes  of  which  he  was 
guilty,  in  causing  the  death  of  Crispus,  of  young  Licinius,  and  of 
liis  own  wife,  P'austa,  may  have  influenced  Constantine  to  favor  the 
Church  and  to  encourage  the  building  of  basilicas,  may  not  be 
known.  The  donation  of  the  Lateran  palace  to  the  Roman  bishops, 
the  building  of  St.  Peter's,  and  the  pilgrimage  of  Helena,  the 
stricken,  suffering  mother,  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  erection  of  the  ba- 
sihcas  at  Bethlehem,  Jerusalem,  and  on  Olivet, where  tradition  had 
located  the  three  most  important  events  in  the  life  of  Christ,  appear 
to  have  l)een  lu^arly  coincident  with  these  crimes  which  were  per- 
petrated during  his  last  visit  to  Rome.  Our  subject  is  more  directly 
conceriu'd  with  the  fact  that  from  this  time  Christian  art  received 
remarkable  encouragement  from  the  emperor. 

'  Forater :  Mittel  u.  Unter  Tialien,  s.  264.  ^  Porster :  Id.  I.  c. 

3  llcmans:  Anciunt  Chriatianily  and  Sacred  Art.  pp.  8,  9. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN   ARCIIITECTUHE.  I'.t? 

From  the  Churcii  of  the  catacombs  to  be  the  Church  of  ilic  eiiii.irc 
was  an  unparalleled  transition.  Yet  even  such  a  change  could  but 
slowly  and  gradually  transform  the  prevalent  fashions  and  tastes. 
It  is  generally  true  that  '*  institutions  lat;  behind  the  cir- 

1         /.         •   1  .        ,.        *     .  ,  ,    The     transf(.r- 

curastances  that  furnish  opportunity  tor  their  growth  and  mation  Rrau- 
development."  The  social,  moral,  and  political  inertia  "'''• 
of  an  age  prevents  it  from  immediately  leaijing  to  the  embrace  of  all 
its  possibilities.  Hence  history  furnishes  few  violent  catastroj)hes. 
Even  barbarian  invasions  can  bring  but  partial  ruin,  and  the  resist- 
ance to  change  which  is  inherent  in  the  race  causes  an  ebb  and  How 
in  human  affairs  rather  than  a  destructive  cataclysm.  Architecture 
likewise  obeyed  this  general  law.  Here,  too,  transitions  weie 
gradual.  The  opportunities  and  demands  for  more  impressive  forms 
of  religious  service,  and  the  greater  numbers  that  from  various 
motives  now  crowded  the  places  of  worship,  created  a  need  for 
further  changes  in  the  interior  of  the  buildings  already  dedicated 
to  Christian  uses,  and  furnished  the  occasion  for  the  new  and  im- 
posing structures  erected  during  the  Constantinian  and  post- 
Constantinian  period.  Here,  too,  the  needs  of  worship,  i  m  pos  i  n  g 
and  not  the  demands  of  art,  begat  the  fundamental  fhurcbes. 
form.'  Its  origin  is,  therefore,  due  to  the  religious  feeling  and  to 
the  spirit  of  worship,  rather  than  to  the  aesthetic  feeling."  In  the 
readjustment  of  the  existing  churches,  as  well  as  in  those  newly 
erected,  the  Christian  artists  of  the  fourth  century  were  uncon- 
sciously planning  a  building  that  would,  through  the  efforts  of 
succeeding  centuries,  be  developed  into  the  glory  and  perfection  of 
ecclesiastical  architecture. 

At  first  the  oblong  rectangular  basilica  was  extended  throughout  ^ 
the  whole  empire.  Not  until  the  fifth  century  did  the  central  sys- 
tem give  rise  to  any  imposing  churches,  while  the  dis-  j  j„|^  ^^^^^ 
tinctively  Byzantine  did  not  reach  its  full  development  ((.nstaniine-s 
till  the  sixth.  The  west,  however,  adhered  closely  to  "me  survives. 
the  basilica  type  for  a  thousand  years.  Rome  furnishes  the  best 
examples;  unfortunately,  however,  of  the  many  churches  built  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Constantine  little  has  been  ])reserved. 

The  most  trustAvorthy  accounts  lead  us  to  believe  that  during  tin- 
first  five  centuries  more  than  a  hundred  churches  were  built  in  Ronn- 
and  its  immediate  vicinity.  The  originality  of  these  i,„,.k  of  oHk- 
structures  was  at  first  very  slender.  TIu"  a}.propriation  i""'">- 
of  pagan  structures  to  Christian  worship,  and  the  use  of  columns  and 
ready  prepared  materials  for  building  new  churches,  was  not  favor- 

'  Sclmaase:    Op.  cit,  2te,  Ausgrabe.  T?<1.  iii,  a.  53. 

»  Roseiigarten :   Handbook  of  Architectural  Styles,  p.  170. 


l'J8 


AKCHJiOLOGY    OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


^- 


ablo  to  original  production.  At  first  the  new  spiritual  life  only 
Decay  of  the  sanctified  what  was  at  hand.  The  four  hundred  temples 
heathen  tem-  ^^^^^  ]y^^  g^  iy„g  j^een  a  stunibling-block  to  the  purity 
ship. ""  ^°''  of  the  Church,  and  whose  rites  must  have  caused  deep 
regret  to  the  followers  of  Christ,  became  nearly  empty  and  forsaken. 
Upon  their  ruins  were  to  arise  "  the  houses  of  the  Lord."  "  During 
one  portion  of  her  liistory  Rome  was  as  a  defiling,  putrefying  corpse; 
durin"-  an  equal  period  she  renewed  her  youth.  Thus  she  had  a 
double  being  in  the  history  of  humanity,  whose  capital  she  was 
twice  called  to  be."  ' 

Fiom  historic  notices  we  must  believe  that,  of  all  these  churches, 
sui  I'ktio  in  '^^'1  Pietro  in  Vaticano,  built  upon  the. site  of  the  circus 
vaticano.  of  Nero,  was  the  most  imposing  (Figs.  91,  92).     It  was 

five-naved,  with  a  straight  entablature.     The  naves  were  of  unequal 

height,  the  ceiling  was 
finished  with  open 
rafter-work;  the  roof 
of  the  side  naves 
abutted  against  the 
wall  of  the  main  nave 
so  that  it  was  continu- 
ous above  both  the 
side  naves.  The  height 
of  the  ceiling  of  the 
side  naves  was  deter- 
,  mined  by  the  slant  of 

^'  •"'«'^tlie  roof.    This  church 
Fip.  91  .—San  Pietro  in  Vaticano,  Rome.    Front  elevation.  , ,  ,  , 

was  thoroughly  reno- 
vated and  greatly  enlarged  in  the  ninth  century,  and  continued  to 
be  the  most  conspicuous  example  of  an  early  Christian  basilica 
until  it  was  sui)])lanted  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
by  the  present  im])osiiig  church  of  St.  Peter's.  It  was  also  cruciform, 
being  about  351  feet  long,  and  about  190  feet  broad,  the 
middle  nave  being  over  70  feet  wide.  The  twenty-three 
columns  on  each  side  of  the  middle  nave  were  26  feet  7  inches  high.^ 
In  many  parts  of  the  structure  were  unmistakable  proofs  of 
HfHthen  eie-  the  practice  of  incorporating  heathen  handicraft  into 
ineiits.  Christian  temples.     The  particoloi-ed  fragments  placed 

in   the  walls   showed  the  lack  of  competent  artists  to  guide  the 

'  Gregoroviiis :   Geschirhte  der  Stadt  Earns  im  MitMaUer,  Bd.  i,  ss.  5,  6. 

'  Platner  u.  Urliclis :  Die  Basiliken  d.  christlichen  Boms,  TT.  i-iii.  Platner  u.  Bun- 
son:  Ikuchreibimgder  SladtRoms,'&(3iyii,s.^(i,seq.  Kugler:  Geschichte  der  Baukunst, 
Bil.  i,  s.  384. 


Dimensions 


200 


ARCHEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN    ART. 


taste  of  Christians  in  the  ornamentation  of  their  public  buildings. 
Figure  92  also  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  triumphal  arch 
and  of  the  sanctuarium,  together  with  the  method  of  ornamenta- 
tion with  mosaics,  etc.  From  the  notices  that  have  been  preserved 
it  is  believed  that  in  front  of  the  church  proper  was  a  vestibule, 
or  atrium,  Avhich  was  enclosed  by  a  peristyle.     In  the  center  of  this 

enclosed  space  was  the  fountain, 
around  Avhich  were  seats  for  the 
use  of  those  who  kept  the  burial 
feasts  when  funeral  rites  were 
celebrated.  A  description  of 
such  feasts  in  his  time  has  been 
given  by  Paulinus  of  Nola.  The 
arrangement  very  closely  corre- 
sponds to  that  found  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  Catacomb  of  Dom- 
itilla,  before  referred  to  [v.  pp. 
175, 175),  and  has  an  almost  exact 
counterpart  in  the  pagan  schola. 
Fig.  93  is  the  representation  of 
Fig.93.-AtriumofSyivanus.ViaAppia,Rome.     ^   j^^hola    from    the    republican 

period.  It  is  known  as  the  Atrium  of  Sylvanus,  discovered  on  the 
Appian  Way.  It  has  the  portico,  the  fountain  in  the  center  of  the 
enclosed  square,  and  the  stone  benches  running  around  the  walls, 
which  could  be  used  by  those  who  celebrated  the  burial  feasts.^ 

Another  interesting  church  of  its  day  was  San  Giovanni  in  Late- 
san  Giovanni  I'ano,  Otherwise  known  as  the  Basilica  Constantiniana  or 
lu  Laterano.  Salvatoris.  It  is  doubtf  ul  whether  any  portion  of  the 
original  survives  in  the  modern  gorgeous  building.  Some  have 
claimed  that  the  octagonal  baptistery,  with  its  eight  antique  por- 
phyry columns,  belongs  to  the  age  of  Constantine;  but  more  prob- 
ably this  was  erected  by  Sixtus  III.  about  the  year  A.  D.  432.  From 
every  account  of  the  historians  this  Lateran  palace,  which  had  be- 
longed to  Fausta,  was  the  gift  of  the  great  emperor  to  the  Bishop 
of  Rome.  The  palace  and  church  of  the  Lateran,  rather  than  St. 
Peter's  and  the  Vatican,  became  the  center  of  Christian  and  papal 
The  cathedmi  Kome.  This,  and  not  St.  Peter's,  was  the  cathedral 
ihurch.  church  where  all  the  Roman  councils  have  been  held.* 

It  was  the  eai-ly  residence  of  the  Roman  pontiffs,  and  is  still  the 
jjlace  where  they  are  enthroned  and  crowned.^ 

'  Canina:    Via  Appia,  t.  42,  p.  lU. 

*  Tlie  V^aticau  Council  assembled  b}-  Pius  IX.  is  an  exception. 

'  V.  Stanley :  History  of  the  Eastern  Church,  Lecture  vi. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   AKCllITECTURE.  201 

On  the  Ostiau  Way  just  outside  the  city  walls,  over  the  spot, 
where  tradition  says  the  pious  matron  Lucina  had  pre-  san  Paolo  fuori 
pared  in  the  subterranean  passai^es  on  her  estate  a  i^rave  ^*'  ■''  ^^''•^■ 
for  St.  Paul,  Constantine  had  built  a  small  basilica.'  It  was  soon 
after  (probably  near  the  close  of  the  fourth  century)  displaced  by 
the  magnificent  basilica  of  St.  Paul — the  San  Paolo  fuori  de  la 
rauraof  a  later  day — which,  notwithstanding  luimerous  restoration^, 
retained  many  of  its  original  features  till  its  destruction  by  tire  i.i 
1823.  Fortunately  full  descriptions  and  plans  of  this  noble  monu- 
ment have  been  preserved,  from  which  an  adequate  notion  of  it 
may  be  gained.  It  was  five-naved  with  a  transept,  three  hundred 
and  ninety-two  feet  long  and  two  hundred  and  two  feet  wide.  The 
middle  nave  was  seventy-eight  feet  wide.  Round  arches 
connected  the  rows  of  twenty  columns  separating  the 
naves.  The  columns  bounding  the  main  nave  well  illustrate  the 
methods  of  church  construction  after  Christianity  had  become  the 
religion  of  the  state  :  they  were  thirty-two  feet  high.  Twenty- 
four  of  the  most  beautiful,  of  Corinthian  order,  were  taken  from 
some  building  belonging  to  the  best  period  of  Roman  architecture. 
The  others  were  of  very  inferior  workmanship.'*  Those  in  the  si<U' 
naves,  seemingly  prepared  expressly  for  this  church,  mark  the  sad 
decadence  of  art  in  the  time  of  Constantine  and  of  his  immediate 
successors.  Prudentius  informs  us  that  the  ceiling  was  decorated 
with  gilt  rafter-work. 3 

Reference  has  already  been  made  (p.  197)  to  the  motives  of 
Constantine  in  building  votive  churches  on  the  sacred  sites  in 
Palestine.  lie  aimed  to  conciliate  the  East,  which  he  had  con- 
quered from  his  rival  Licinius.  Special  privileges  and  aid  for 
church  building  were  granted  to  the  bishops  of  the  most  influential 
dioceses  in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  Notices  of  many  of  these  have 
been  preserved  by  Christian  writers,  especially  by  Eusebius  and 
Prudentius,  and  the  ruins  of  a  few  still  remain  to  attest  their  mag- 
nificence. Of  the  beautiful  basilica  built  by  Paulinus  at  Troy, 
and  described  bj'-  Eusebius,''  nothing  survives.  So,  also,  with  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  Cluuv-h  of  the 
Ascension  on  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Fortunately,  the  churcii  at 
Bethlehem,  built  over  the  cave  where  tradition  locates  xue  church  ..f 
tlie  birthplace  of  the  Saviour,  has  partially  survived,  the  Nativity. 
It  seems  fairly  established  that   most  of  the  present  structure  is 

'  Forstor:  Mittel  u.  Unter  Italien.  s.  275. 

2  II.  Gully  Knigiit,  vol.  i,  plate  iv.  ^  Periilephannn,  Hymn  xii. 

■•  Ili.'iL  Eccles.,  lib.  x,  cap.  iv.     v.  Quasi:  Die  all-chrMichen  Baumcrlc  von  Havenna, 

ss.  29,  30. 


202  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF   CHRISIIAN    ART. 

orio-iiial.  It  is  iivo-naved,  with  Corinthian  cohimns  supporting  a 
straight  entablature  on  which  rests  the  wall.  On  it  outlines  of 
earlier  paintings  can  still  be  traced.'  At  the  end  of  the  naves  are  a 
spacious  transei)t,  choir,  and  apses,  well  lighted  by  a  series  of  win- 
dows in  the  upper  part  of  the  church.  One  is  immediately  carried 
back  to  such  a  Konian  basilica  as  was  built  by  Constantine  for 
A  ond  exam-  ^'l"'istian  worship,  but  which  by  being  developed  and 
pie  of  tho  ba-  transformed  became  the  point  of  departure  for  the 
siiira.  ivligious    architecture    of    the    subsequent    centuries.* 

Few  visitors  to  this  venerable  building  are  not  deeply  impressed 
by  its  noble  art  and  massive  grandeur.  It  stands  as  a  mute  yet 
eloquent  witness  to  the  power  of  the  religion  whose  spirit  yet 
finds  exi>ression  in  this  monument  which  has  survived  the  rude 
shocks  of  fifteen  centuries. 

§  0,  Some  Badlicas  of  the  Post-  Constantine  Period. 

The  establishment  of  two  independent  empires,  each  having  its 
Contrasts  of  '>^^'i^  ca[)ital,  gave  opportunity  for  the  development 
East  aud  West,  of  each  in  harmony  with  its  own  peculiar  genius. 
While  originally  receiving  its  inspiration  from  the  East,  the  Latin 
soon  became  more  purely  and  intensely  Latin;  the  East,  the  mother 
of  all,  became  more  and  more  Oriental.  These  contrasts  reveal 
themselves  alike  in  State  and  Cliurch.  The  Byzantine  empire 
<legeneratcd  into  an  Oriental  absolutism;  the  West  steadily  devcl- 
oi)cd  a  practical  and  efficient  constitutionalism.  The  Greek  Church 
was  content  with  immobility  in  doctrinal  and  political  forms;  the 
West  was  ever  agitated  by  earnest  struggles  resj^ecting  life,  doc- 
trine, and  polit}'.  The  practical  mind  of  the  West  aimed  to  keep 
institutions  abreast  with  the  growing  spirit  of  freedom  among  the 
people;  the  speculative  spirit  of  the  East  was  often  content  to  ex- 
haust itself  in  controversies  whose  effect  was  scarcely  felt  beyond 
the  local  church  or  the  cloister. 

A  like  contrast  is  noted  in  the  art  of  the  two  empires.  Each 
))ursued  its  own  chosen  course  of  development,  and  each  alike  was 
infliuMiced  by  the  different  conditions  of  social,  political,  and  re- 
ligious life.  The  West  soon  felt  the  modifying  power  of  the  in- 
vading tril)cs,  while  the  East  produced  its  peculiar  art  forms  almost 
uninriiicnced  by  its  neighbours.  Ravenna  formed  a  middle  ground 
wluTc,  through  the  patronage  of  remarkable  rulers,  the  Teutonic  spir- 
it, modifying  both  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  thought,  produced 
sonu'  most  interesting  and  instructive  architectural  monuments. 
'  Liiizow  iiiid  Liibke:  Denkmaler  der  Kunst,  Stuttgart,  1879.  Text,  s.  116. 
*  De  Vogue:  Les  Eglises  de  la  Terra  Sainte,  Paris,  1860,  ch 


11.  11. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  203 

Excepting  tlie  temporary  interference  by  Julian,  Christianity 
in  the  West  enjoyed  the  patronage  and  protection  of 
government.  Although  it  was  a  period  of  serious  ^'^^  ^^^^' 
art  decadence,  the  churches  increased  in  number  and  splendour. 
The  decline  of  the  old  faith  and  the  increasing  spread  of  the 
new  contributed  to  these  results.  The  pagan  temples  were  trans- 
formed into  Christian  basilic.is,  while  new  churches  rose 
upon  sites  made  sacred  by  the  ashes  of  saints  and  mar-  ^^  "'  ^  ^^' 
tyrs.  The  untrammeled  spirit  of  Christianity  now  further  moditied 
the  basilica,  and  fasliioned  it  into  fornis  fit  for  the  expression  of  the 
sublimest  truths.  Herein  is  the  significance  of  Christianity  in  the 
art  history  of  this  period.  Although  on  the  one  hand  a  decaying 
and  on  the  other  an  embryo  art  contributed  to  their  construction, 
these  Christian  basilicas  produced,  in  the  main,  a  sublime  and  in- 
spiring effect,  which  is  chiefly  attributable  to  the  beautiful  simplic- 
ity of  their  essential  features.' 

The  reign  of  Constantine  was  characterized  by  an  abounding 
splendour  and  luxury  in  court-dress  and  equipage.     Its  gpiendour    of 
magnificence  also  appears  in  the  buildings  of  his  reign  Constantine's 
and  those  of  his  successors.     But  this  spirit  did  not  at   '*^"' 
first  so  much  effect  a  change  in  tlie  form  of  the  basilicas  as  in  the 
extent  and  magnificence  of  their  decorations  and  furniture. 

Of  the  churches   of   the  fourth  century  still  preserved   in   Rome,  '^ 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  is  among  the  richest  and  most  in-   gama     Maria 
structive."     It  was  originally  built  in  A,  D.  352,  and   MaRgiore. 
renewed  in  A.  D.  432.     It  is  believed  to  be  the  first  church  dedi- 
cated  to  the  Virgin.     It  is  two  hundred  and   sixty-two  feet  long 
and  ninety-nine  broad.     Notwithstanding   many   attempts   to   mod- 
ernize it,  it  still  retains  parts  of  the  original  structure.     Its  imposing 
ranks   of  columns,  well-preserved  ancient   mosaics,  and  horizontal 
entablature  make  it  most  notable  among  the  churches  of  Rome.     Its 
ceiling  follows  the  classical  rather  than  the  early  Christ-   classical   ceii- 
ian  style — being  divided  into  squares  and  ornamented   1"k- 
with  rosettes  rather  than  finished  in  rafter  and  timber  work. 

Santa  Maria  in  Trastavere  disputes  with  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  the 
honor  of  being  the  first  church  dedicated  to  the  Virgin,    santa  Maria  in 
If  we  are  to  accept  the  tradition,  very  early  and  resting  Trastavere. 
upon  some  foundation,  it  was  first  founded  in  A.  D.  340,  while  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore  was  built  twelve  years  later.     Among  the  most  ni- 

'  Rosengarteii :  Architectural  Forms,  p.  170. 

"Bmiseii:  Busiliken  d.  ch.  Roms,  tt.  ix,  x.  Forster:  Miltel  u.  Unt'-r  /(alien,  .«s. 
264,  265.  KiiKler:  Geschichte  d  Baukunst,  Bd.  i,  s  .386.  11.  Gaily  Kiiighl:  The 
Eccksiastical  Buildings  of  Italy.     Vuleutiiii:  La  Patriacak  Basilica  Liberiana. 


204 


ARCH.EOLOGY   OF    CHRISTIAN    ART, 


terc'sting  features  of  the  interior  are  the  twenty-two  granite  columns 
which  divide  the  church  into  three  naves.  They  are  of  different 
lu'ights  and  thickness,  and  surmounted  with  cai)itals  of  different 
Heathen  eie-  i^tyles,  on  which  are  wrought  out  figures  of  Jupiter, 
luents.  Juno,  and  other  gods  of  the  Grreeks.     This  arangement 

illustrates  the  entire  freedom  with  which  the  Church  of  the  fourth 
(H'Mtury  incorporated  into  its  houses  of  worship  materials  already  at 
hand. 

Portions  of  several  basilicas  of  the  fifth  century  remain,  whose 
peculiarities  are  interesting  and  important  in  the  history  of  ecclesi- 
astical architecture.  Among  the  most  noteworthy  in  the  West  is 
Santa  Sabina,  believed  to  have  been  founded  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  century.  It  is  the  best  examjale  of  the 
original  basilica  that  has  survived.  It,  too,  has  twenty-two  antique 
cohunns  of  pagan  origin.  They  are  of  remarkable  beauty,  having 
Classic  col-  Attic  bases,  Corinthian  capitals,  and  somewhat  slender 
umns.  shafts,  fluted  through  one  third  of  their  length.    A  very 

considerable  portion  of  the  pavement  belonging  to  the  original 
structure  is  still  preserved.' 

A 


Santa  Sabina. 


Fig.  94.— San  Lorenzo  fiiori  le  imiia.    Showing  arrangement  of  vestibule  a:id  looC. 

Of  considerable  architectural  importance  is  the  church  San  Lo- 
San  Lorenzo  I'enzo  fuori  le  mura  (v.  Fig.  94).  It  was  begun  in  tlie 
fuori  le  mura.  fourth  century,  but  underwent  many  changes  in  the 
sixth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  It  is  a  good  representative  of  the 
class  of  Christian  churches  which  preserved  the  side  galleries  in  the 
second  story,  in  imitation  of  the  peculiar  feature  of  the  pagan  law 
basilica  (v.  Fig.  95).  This  was  not,  as  we  have  already  seen,  intro- 
duced into  the  earliest  churches,  since,  instead  of  a  gallery,  the  walls 

'  Rtinsen:  Basiliken  <kr  citristlichen  Rouis,  t.  viii,  B.  Forster:  Miitel  u.  Unter 
Italien,  S8.  284,  285. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


205 


bounding  the  middle  nave  were  continuous  to  the  roof,  tlius  afford- 
ing greater  space  for  interior  decoration.'  To  the  same  class  be- 
longs Santa  Agneso  fuori  le  mura  (Fig.  95),  built,  ac- 
cording to  the  tradition,  by  Constantine  above  the  cata-  ^''""^  Agnese. 
combs  where  the  remains  of  St.  Agnes  were  found.  The  side  galleries 
in  the  second  story  are  well  preserved  in  this  church  also. 


> 


^  L 


ris  Q")  — fednta  Agncse  fuori  le  mm  a      niti-rior  view. 

Another  extra  mural  church  of  the  fourth  century  is  Santa  Sinfo- 
rosa,  nine  miles  from  the  cit}^  gates.  It  is  of  special  santa  sinfn. 
interest,  as  illustrating  the  growth  of  important  churches  """si. 
of  the  basilica  fonn  from  cellae, beneath  wliidi  tlie  boiu-s  of  martyrs 
were  supposed  to  rest.  It  has  been  elsewhere  stated  tliat  the  burial 
feasts  were  celebrated  in  or  near  these  cclhv,or  in  e.xedra',  and  that 
where  sites  were  of  especial  sacredness  niultitiides  were  accustomed 
to  leave  the  city  to  engage  in  these  festivals.     To  accojnmodate  the 

'  Dehio   mid   Bezold:   Die  kircliKrhe  Banlmnsl  (Its  Ahend/andts,  text.  ss.  107,  108; 
taf.  16,  4.     Hunscii:    Op.  cil.,  tt.  xii,  xiii,  xiv.     Forsler:    Oj>.  cil.,  ss.  257,  'J53. 


206 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


incrcasincf  minilHTS  the  simple  cella  in  time  expanded  to  the  impos- 
ing eliuR'h,  and  the  services  assumed  a  character  of  dignity  and 
impressive  grandeur.  The  exploration  of  Santa  Sinfo-  From  a  burial 
rosa  revealed  the  existence  of  a  cella,  of  the  usual  from,  chapel. 
lying  directly  back  of  the  apse  of  the  basilica,  and  connected  with 
it  by  a  passage-way  (v.  Fig.  95).  It  is  be- 
lieved that  this  basilica  originated  in  the 
manner  above  indicated,  and  that  it  was  es- 
pecially hallowed  by  its  immediate  proximity 
to  the  resting-place  of  St.  Sinforosa  and  her 
seven  sons.' 

Like  the  churches  of  San   Lorenzo,  Santa 

Agnese,  and  Santa  Sinforosa,  so,  also,  are  the 

two  most  important  basilicas  of  Rome  —  San 

Pietro  in  Vaticano,  and   San   Paoli   fuori  le 

mura — believed  to  have  originated  in  sacred 

shrines  outside  the  city  walls.      Of  the  fifth 

I  HI   century  is  also  San  Pietro  in  vin-   gan  pietro  in 

J  I   coli,  a  three-naved  basilica,  with   vincoii. 

'  fl        ■   flat  ceiling  of  wood,  and  with  tAventy  antique 

columns  of  finest  Parian  marble,  whose  severe 

Doric  style  gives  to  the    interior  an  air  of 

impressive  simplicity. 

Outside  of  Rome  are  fonnd  remains  of  sev- 
eral churches  of  the  basilica  type  of  archi- 
tecture from  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  cen- 
turies. Ravenna  is  among  the  most  rich  and 
instructive  centers.  It  is  a  favorable  circum- 
stance that  their  complete  history  is  found 
in  the  J^ior/7'(fphies  of  the  J3is/iops  Good  historic 
of  Ravenna,  by  Agnellus.'     These  churches  have  more  a^d  monu- 

'•'''  mentalevi- 

lully  preserved  their  original  form  than  those  of  Rome  dence. 
or  Constantinople,  where  the  unwise  zeal  of  succeeding  popes, 
l)atriarchs,  or  emperors  has  in  many  instances  modified  nearly 
every  feature  of  the  original  structure.  It  is,  therefore,  highly 
important  to  understand  the  nature  and  teachings  of  these  archi- 
tectural monuments. 

Com])ared  with  those  of  Rome,  the  oblong  basilica  simple  m  out- 
'•hurches  of  Ravenna  had  usually  a  very  simple  ground   ""*^' 
l»l:in.     They  were  mostly  three-naved,  without  transept  or  galleries. 

'  Bnllettmo  cristiano,  1878.  p.  75.     0-.  Baldwin  Brown:   From  SrMola  to   Cathedral, 
pp.  G4,  05.     Deliio  nnd  Bezold:    Op.  cit.,  text,  .«.  104;  laf.  17,  2. 
V.  Quasi:  Bee  alt-chrixtlichen  Bauwerke  von  Bavemia. 


FiK.  96.  —  Gromi'iplan   of 
Santa  Siufuinsu. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  207 

In  contrast  with  most  of  the  ancient  clmrclie's  of  lionie,  tlioy  seem 
to  have  been  huiit  of  materials  specially  pi-epared  for  them.  In- 
stead of  the  curious  conglomeration  of  styles  in  the  columns,  witli 
respect  to  order,  diameter,  and  height,  and  of  the  materials  of  the 
buildings,  in  Ravenna  a  general  harmony  and  consist-  Generally  iiar- 
ency  are  noticed.  ^  The  style  is,  therefore,  more  distinct,  monious. 
and  the  stage  of  architectural  development  more  clearly  marked. 
The  interior  arrangement  is  likewise  simple  and  harmonious.  The 
architrave  is  entirely  wanting,  the  entablature  l>eing  uniformly  su|)- 
ported  by  the  round  arch.  The  capitals  do  not  inuuediately  sup{)ort 
the  arches,  but  are  crowned  with  an  abacus  {v.  Fig.  99).  The  tri- 
bune is  generally  well  defined  and  carefully  decorated.  In  marked 
contrast  with  modern  churches,  the  exterior  was  simple  and  una- 
dorned, the  material  being  usually  brick. 

Quast"  divides  the  Christian  architectural  monuments  of  Ravenna 
into  four  periods.     The  fii'st  extends  from  the  introduc-   p^rjofj,,  ^f  ^r- 
tion  of  Christianity  to  the  downfall  of   the  Western   chitecture    in 
Empire  in  A.  D.  476;  the  second  from  the  Roman  down- 
fall to  the  death  of  Theodoric,  A.  D.  476-520;  the  third  from  the 
death  of  Theodoric  to  the  death  of  the  Archbishop  Agnellus,  A.  I). 
526-566;    the   fourth   period  from  the    death  of   Agnellus  to.  the 
termination    of    art    activity   in    Ravenna — A.   D.   566    to    about 
A.   D.   900.     Kugler'  divides  into   thi-ee   periods,  cor- 
responding   to    the    three    chief    ])eriods   of    the    his- 
tory   of    the    city.       To  the    first    period    belongs    the    cathedral 
church  of  the  town,  the  Ecclesia   Ursiana,  which  was   Ecciesia   ursi- 
built  near  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century.     I'nfor-   ana. 
tunately,  on  its  reconstruction  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  original  structure  was  totally  destroyed.  Yet,  from  trust- 
worthy notices  that  have  been  preserved,  we  learn  that  it  was  a  Hve- 
naved  basilica,  Avhich  preeminence  it  enjoj^ed  with  only  three  ot 
the  most  noted  chuix-hes  of  Rome.     Certain  expressions  of  Agnellus 
lead  us  to  believe  that  the  entire  church  area  was  covered  with  a 
vaulted  ceiling.    It  was  originally  dedicated  to  the  resur- 

^  n  J  J  1    Its  (Icoorntlons. 

rection  of  Christ.    Its  pavements  and  walls  were  adorned 
with  costly  marbles  and   rich   mosaics.     The   arrangement  of   the 
choir  resembled  that  of  San  Clemente  at  Rome.*     The  surviving 
baptisterium  is  elsewhere  described. 

'  V.  Quast:    Op.  rit.,  s.  44.     Kivjer:    Op.  rif.,  Bil.  i.  s.  394. 
2  Die  aU-chrisllichen  Banwerken  von  Ravenna,  ss.  2,  17,  27,  40 
^  Geschichte  d'tr  Baukiimf,  Bd.  i,  s.  .S95. 

*  Quast:  Die  aU-christlkhen  Bauwcrke  von   Ravenna,  Berlin.  1842,  s.  2.    Dcliio  imd 
Bczold:    Op.  cit,  Taf.  17,  Fig.  4.     D'Agiucourl:  PI.  Ixx,  Fig.  21. 


208 


ARCHAEOLOGY    OF   CHRISTIAN    ART. 


Santa  Apata. 


Second  period. 


To  the  same  period  belongs  Santa  Agata,  a  three-naved  church 
closely  conforming  to  the  typical  oblong  basilica,  yet 
possessing  little  of  special  interest. 

The  period  of  civil  commotion  following  the  death  of  Valentinian 
III.  was  unfavorable  to  the  patronage  of  ecelesiastical 
art.  The  fearful  inroads  of  Attila  and  Odoacer  had 
brought  destruction  in  their  pathway  until  the  trium2)h  of  the  Ostro- 
gothic  king,  Theodoric,  in  A.  D.  495.  This  remarkable  x^e  policy  of 
ruler  restored  to  Italy  a  measure  of  the  prosperity  Theodoric. 
enjoyed  before  her  desperate  struggles  with  the  barbarians.  Though 
unlettered,  he  was  a  patron  of  learning,  and  greatly  beautified 
Ravenna  and  other  cities  of  his  realm  by  the  erection  of  many 
new  churches.  His  task  was  one  of  extreme  difficulty.  An  Ostro- 
gothic  king,  he  must  not  only  rec^  two  fiercely  contend- 

ing peoples,  but   also   pacify  the      .  and  Arian  parties  in 

the  Church.     The  Gothic  tribes  had  -largeiN    embraced  the   Arian 
doctrine,   and  Theodoric  was  hiii'^'  if  its    defender.     His  nobility 
of  character  is  shown  in  his  care"i'.'\       ■^'•; 
of  opponents,  and  by  granting  to    '  . 

]irivilege  of  building  and  ownin 

an( 

fail:.      -       :... 

ter;  .  :•    : 
n( oted  very 

oi    ih"  A;-i- 


jining  from  persecution 

'    X  party  the    His      tolerant 

n  churches,   spirit. 

their  own  confession  of 

s  of  worship.  The  archi- 
est  of  his  reign  is  con- 
argely  with  the  churches 

party,  some   The   Arian 

0  re   built    out-    churches. 

s  s  of  the  city,  and  some  at 

1  'lasse.     Several  within  the 
'en  preserved  to  our  time, 

•  •  • : :  •  I .  -ite  an  interesting  group  of 
ecclesiastical  monuments.  Among  the 
most  noted  is  San  Apollinare  Nuovo, 
formerly  called  Basilica  san  Apoiiin- 
San  Martini  in  coelo  aureo,  are  Nuova. 
so  named  from  its  great  splendour.  It 
was  connected  directly  Avith  the  royal 

Fi;^.  97.-san  Apollinare  Nuoyo,  Ra-    P'^'=^^"^'    ^"^^    ^^f^^'^   *«    ^^''^''^    ^^"'    '■^- 
venna,  showing  interior  structure  and     garded   as  speciall}^  the  COtll't  church,' 

''^'"''''"°°-  The  exterior  of  the  upper  part  of  the 

middle  nave  has  been  preserved  entire.     The  same  style  of  round 
arch,  built  of  brick,  which  we  have  before  met  in    the  churches  of 

'Qiiast:  Oi?.  cif.,  s.  19,  Taf.  vii,  Fig.  1,  2,  3,  4.     Deliio  undBezold:  Taf.  16,  Fig.  5, 
D'Agiucourt :  Plate  xvii,  17-22. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


209 


Third  period. 


tlie  first  period  (as  in  Santa  Agata),  i.s  here  repeated.  The  cohinius 
of  the  interior  (y.  Fig.  97)  have  Corinthian  caj)itals  with  a  ,s<piare 
abacus  quite  in  the  Byzantine  style.' 

The  splendid  churches  built  by  the  Catholic  party  belong  properly 
to  the  third  period.  The  most  noted  had  been  com- 
menced during  the  Gothic  supremacy,  but  were  tinislied 
and  decorated  at  a  later  date.  For  the  most  part  they  were  no 
longer  constructed  under  the  direction  of  kings  and  rulers,  but  of 
the  ecclesiastics  who  held  allegiance  to  Constantinople.  From  this 
time,  therefore,  the  Byzantine  influence  is  much  more  pronounced 
in  the  buildings  of  Ravenna. 

The  Christian  archfcologist,  in  search  of  new  illustrations  of  the 
life  and  vigor  of  the  earh'^  Church,  meets  few  more  im-  gan  Apoiunare 
pressive  monuments  than  the  Basilica  of  San  Ai>ollinare  inciasse. 
in   Classe  (Fig.   98).      During  the  three-mile  walk  from  Ravenna. 


q  ir^~'1  iiij|p!ji||h 


Fig  98.— San  Apolllnare  in  Classe. 

to  C'lasse  amid  scenes  so  full  of  historic  and  literary  interest,  the 
memories  of  events  decisive  in  the  world's  history  troop  before  the 
visitor  like  specters  from  the  entombed  generations.  This  cliurch 
stands  out  in  its  solitariness,  the  sole  survivor  of  all  the  tiio  .solitary 
edifices  that  crowded  the  busy  port  of  Classe,  where  monument. 
Augustus  moored  his  conquering  fleets.  Its  tower  still  stands  to 
point  the  faith  of  men  to  the  Author  of  a  religion  that  .'^hall  never 
know^  decay,  while  beneath  it  sleeps  the  dust  of  forty  generations. 

'  For  description  of  mosaics  see  pp.  125,  127.     Fis?.  97  pivcs  a  good  idea  of  llie  con- 
struction of  the  columns,  the  form  of  arches,  the  rich  mosaic  decorations  of  the 
entablature,  etc. 
14 


310 


ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


The  interior. 


Even  to  the  portico,  the  buikling  remains  in  all  its  original  integrity. 
Only  a  portion  of  the  marble  which  lined  the  interior 
walls  has  been  removed  (v.  Fig.  99).  It  is  a  tliree- 
naved  basilica  with  elevated  choir,  to  which  lead  stairs  ot"  the  entire 
breadth  of  the  middle  nave.  It  is  one  hundred  and  eighty-six  feet 
long  and  one  hundred  feet  broad,  having  on  either  side  twelve  tajjer- 
ing  colunms  of  Grecian  marble  with  Corinthian  capitals.' 

The  furniture,  altar,  etc.,  are  still  preserved.  The  original  mosaics 
The  mosaics,  i'l  the  tribune  (v.  Fig.  99)  and  on  the  side  walls  remain 
et*^-  in  all  their  freshness  to  tell  the  story  of  the  religious 

thought  of  the  sixth  century.     On  the  beautiful  frieze  above  the 


Fig.  99.— San  Apollinare  In  Classe.    Interior  vi"-. 

columns  bounding  the  middle  nave  is  a  series  of  -j.osaic  nu  lallions 
(v.  Fig.  99)  of  the  bishops  of  this  churcli  from  the  time  of  St.  Apol- 
linarius.  They  are  most  noteworthy.  The  capitals  of  the  columns, 
as  of  the  pilasters,  have  much  value  and  interest  in  the  history  of 
architectural  development,  since  they  are  the  first  examples  of  an 
ornamentation  which  was  subsequently  widel}^  diffused.^ 
Exterior  con-  The  exterior  of  the  church  is  of  brick,  whose  joints 
struction.  of  mortar  are  nearly  as  thick  as  the  bricks  themselves. 

The  vestibule,  api>ai-ently  contemporary  with   the  main  structure,  is 

'Forster:  Mitfel  u.  Untn-  Ifalien,  ss.  389.  390.     Qiiast:    Op.  eft,  s.«.  34-37,  Taf.  ix. 
D'Affincoiirt:  Plates  Ixviii  and  Ixix.     Dehio  mid  Bezold:    O^j.  cit.,  Taf.  16,  Fig.  8. 
*  Quast:    Op.  cit.,  s.  35,  taf.  ix,  Figs.  3,  i. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  211 

of  great  interest  from  contaiiiinir  tlie  remains  of  many  successive 
bishops  of  this  chureli.     In   San   Apollinare   in  C'lasse,  in  common 
with  several   other   churclies  of   Ravenna,   a  growing  External  beau- 
attention   to  exterior  beauty  and  harmony  is  noticed,   ty. 
Previously  the  basilicas  had  very  broad  and  open  windows;  a  con- 
struction unfavourable  to  the  support  of  the  heavy  weight  resting  on 
the  architraves;  but  when  the  round  arch  was  generally  introduced 
this  difficulty  no  longer  existed.     The  Avindows  were 
made  narrower,  the  light  admitted  became  less  and  less, 
until  the  passion  for  "  a  dim  religious  light "  led  to  the  entire  ab- 
sence of  windows  in  the  upper  part  of  the  middle  nave. 

Of  much  interest  are  the  cathedral  church  of  Novara,  from  the 
sixth  century,  and  the  cathedral  of  Parengo,  in  Istria,   catht-drais    of 
from  the  seventh.     They  are  distinguished  by  having  a  Novara anuPa- 
f  orecourt  and  a  baptistery  very  closely  incorporated  into  ''^°*^"- 
their  architectural   structure.     This  feature  is  believed  by  Iliilisch 
to  have  been  first  introduced  during  the  sixth  century.     The  lattci- 
church  has  been  well  preserved,  is  rich  in  mosaics  and 
paintings,  and  retains  the  original  marble  pavement  in 
the  middle  nave.     While  the  mosaics  of  the  fa9ade  are  weather- 
beaten  and  much  faded,  from  their  outlines  a  fair  idea  of  their  sul»- 
jects  and  style  of  treatment  can  be  gained. 

In  the  non-European  lands  are  still  preserved  many  examples  of 
the  oblong  rectangular  basilica,  whose  original  may  be 

T     r  1^1  -1  -r.  •  St.  Reparatus. 

traced    from    the    lourth    century    down.       Prominent 

among  these  is  the  Basilica  Reparatus,  discovered  on  the  site  of 

the   ancient  Castellum  Tingitanum   (the  modern   Orleansville),   in 

Algiers.'     It  was  a  five-naved  church  with  semicircular  apse  whieh 

projected  toward  the  middle  of  the  church,  thus   forming  rooms 

on  either  side,  while  the  exterior  boundaries  of  the  chun-li    were 

straight  lines.'' 

Ruins  of  like  churches  are  also  found  at  Tafaced  (Colonia  Tip:i>- 

sa),  at  Annuna,  etc.     Farther  toward  the   East,  at  the  old  ])ort  of 

ApoUonia,  three  ruined  basilicas  have  been  found,  whose  art  remains 

are  interesting  for  showing  the  commingling  of  Christian  and  E-^ yp- 

tian  symbolism.'     Also  in  manv  parts  of  Eo:vpt  ruins  of 

•^  '    '  ,       .,/  ^  In  Esrvpt.  alMj. 

these  early  Christian  churches  ot  the  basilu-a  torm  are 

still  met.      They  are   not   confined  to  the  cities  nor  to  the   Nile 

'  For  the  chronolocry  of  tliis  church  see  p.  33,  note  2. 

'  The  form  of  this  apse  is  very  similar  to  tiiat  of  San  Croce  in  Gcrusalemme, 
Fig.  81. 

'  Kugler:  Geschichte  der  Bmilmnst,  Bd.  i,  ss.  373,  374.  These  liave  been  well  de- 
scribed by  H.  Barth,  in  his  Journeys  through  the  Coasllands  of  the  Mediterranean. 


212 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  ART. 


Kxtcnsively 

iiittuseu  in  the  and  instructive  features 


valley,  but  are  found  on  oases  in  the  Lybian  desert,  as  at  El-Hayz, 
p]l-Gabuat,  and  El-Zabu. 

In  the  Nile   valley,  extending   far  south,  churches   of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  still  preserve  many  very  interesting 

Their  number  and  size,  their 
Nile  valley.  ^.^^j^  ^^t  remains,  their  connection  in  some  instances 
with  extended  convents  and  religious  communities,  are  confirmatory 
evidence  of  the  widespread  influence  of  Christianity  among  the 
Egyptian  peoples,  while  their  peculiar  architectural  features  seem 
to  furnisli  some  foundation  for  the  theory  that  Egypt  was  tlie  na- 
tive home  of  the  basilica,  being  approjiriated  by  the  Greeks,  and 
then,  in  modified  form,  becoming  a  ruling  type  in  the  West-Roman 
Empire. 

Also,  the  church  of  St.  Demetrius  (Fig.  lOO),  at  Thessalonica 
(modern  Salonika),  belongs  to  the  fifth  centur3^     It  is  a  five-naved 

structure  with  a  tran- 
sept. It  departs,  in 
some  respects,  quite 
widely  from  the  usual 
basilica  form.  The 
spaces  between  the 
columns  are  spanned 
by  semieirculai"  arches 
surmounted  by  an  en- 
tablature covered  with 
paintings.  Above  this 
is  a  second  row  of  col- 
umns with  a  like  entablature,  and  above  this  a  third,  in  which  are 
the  windows  for  lighting  the  interior.  Like  many  of  the  conspicu- 
ous {•hurehes  of  the  Orient,  it  is  now  a  Mohammedan  mosque.' 

Contemporary  with  St.  Demetrius  is  another  church  of  Salonika, 
now  called  the  mosque  Eski-Djouma.  It  is  three-naved  with  a  tran- 
sept, and  its  general  features  are  similar  to  those  of  St.  Demetrius. 

Of  still  greater  interest  are  the  churches  of  central  Syria.  These 
,       ,  ^    .       have  been  made  better  known  through  the  diligent  re- 

Central  Syria.  i  /.     ,        .- 

searches  ot  the  Count  de  Yogile."  It  is  evident  from 
his  discoveries  that  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  while  the 
West  was  in  a  condition  of  disruption  and  fearful  decadence,  Christ- 
ian art  in  Syria  was  in  a  state  of  unwonted  activity.     The  number 

'  Texier  ami  Pnlbui :  L' Architecture  Byzantine,  p.  134,  pi.  xvii-xxvi.  Kugler: 
Geschichte  d.  Baukunst,  Bd.  i,  s.  433.     Stockbauer :  Der  christliche  Kirchenhau,  s.  47. 

^  Syrie  Gentrale:  Architecture  Civile  et  Religieuse  du  1"  au  1"  Siecle.  Paris,  1865- 
1877.     2  vols.,  fol. 


liessalonica.    Cross  section. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  213 

of  chuK-hes,  the  chaste  simplicity  of  tlieir  stj'le,  and  their  close  ad- 
herence to  the  oblong  basilica  tyi>e,  argue  a  period  of  peace  and  of 
remarkable    prosperity  of  the    Church.      Prior  to  the   ^^   ^.      ^  , 

'         '  ''       .  The  Church  in 

fourth  century  little  survives,  but  from  the  fourth  to  the  astateof  pms- 
seventh  the  Christian  architectural  monuments  are  al-  '^'""y- 
most  innumerable,'  being  built  in  great  measure  of  materials  already 
at  hand.  "  We  are  trans})orted,"  says  de  VogUe,  "  into  the  midst 
of  a  Christian  society.  We  are  surprised  at  its  life:  not  the  covert, 
hidden  life  of  the  catacombs,  not  an  existence  humble,  timid,  suffer- 
ing, is  here  generally  represented,  but  a  life  generous,  rich,  artistic; 
spacious  houses  built  of  brown  stone,  conveniently  arranged,  with 
galleries  and  covered  balconies;  beautiful  gardens  planted  with  the 
vine,  presses  for  making  wine,  and  stone  vats  and  casks  for  its  safe 
storage;  immense  subterranean  kitchens,  and  stables  for  the  horses; 
beautiful  squares,  surrounded  with  porticos  and  elegant  baths;  mag- 
nificent churches,  adorned  with  columns,  flanked  with  towers  and 
encircled  with  elegant  tombs."' 

In  nearly  all  the  basilicas  of  Africa  and  Syria  there  is  a  departure 
from  the  style  of  the  West  with  respect  to  the  ceiling  The  vaiiitvu 
finish  and  decoration.  Instead  of  the  open  beam-and-  celling, 
rafter  work  so  usual  Avith  Roman  basilicas,  we  find  the  semicylin- 
drical  vaulted  ceiling.  It  is  believed  that  this  peculiar  con- 
struction was  determined  by  the  character  of  the  materials  at 
hand — the  Egyptian  and  Syrian  lands  being  destitute  of  timber 
suitable  for  the  ceiling  decorations,  Avhile  at  the  same  time  both 
stone  and  brick  were  al)undant  and  cheap.  A  like  ceiling  vaulting 
is  sometimes  met  in  southern  France.  While  hewn  stone  was  sel- 
dom used  in  Italy  (brick  being  the  material  in  general  nse  for  the 
l)urposes  of  ceiling  vaulting),  it  was  quite  common  in  Syria  and  the 
East.' 

Among  the  numerous  monuments  scattered  thus  over  Syria,  those 
of  Kherbet-Hass,  El-Barah,  and  Tourmanin  are  very  conspicuous. 
Each  comprises  a  group  of  buildings  for  religious  observances, 
including  one  or  more  churches,  chapels,  and  houses  for  meditation, 
or  convents  for  Christian  orders. 

The   group  at  Kherbet-Hass  consists  of  a  larger  and  a  smaller 
church,  both  three-naved,  Avith  distinct  internal  semicir- 
cular  apse,  and  opening  upon  spacious  courts.     Hesides 
these  are  found  rooms  for  the  school,  for  the   library,  for  lodging 
the  various  Church  officials,  and  a  place  of  burial  for  the  chief  eccle- 
siastics.* 

'  Op.  cit,  t.  i,  p.  7.  "Op.  cit.  t.  i,  p.  0.         »  D^iiio  u.  Bezokl :    Op.  cil..  s.  130. 

*  De  Vogiie:   Op.  cit.,  t.  i,  p.  96;  t.  ii,  plates  59,  61. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


215 


At  El-Bamli   are  tliree   clmrches  in   close   juxtaposition.      Fig. 
101    represents    this    collection    of    religious    edifices. 
The   principal    cliurch,  with    its   adjacent   cliapel,   has  '-Biirah. 

on  the  front  and  sides  spacious  courts  with  irregular  colonnades. 
Near  to  this  church  are  the  school,  the  rooms  for  the  vai-ious 
servants,  for  the  ecclesiastics,  and  for  the  library'.  The  entire 
group  of  buildings  shown  in  Fig.  101  is  connected  with  this 
imposing  ecclesiastical  establishment,  and  well  illustrates  the 
flourishing  state  of  the  Syrian  churches  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries. 

The  curious  assemblage  of  buildings  at  Tourmanin  comprised  a 
church,  and  an  immense  structure   which  seems  to  have  been  an 


Fiff.  103.— View  of  tbe  cliurcli  at  Tourmanin,  Central  Syria.    Restored  from  the  ruins. 

ecclesiastical  hosteliy  for  lodging  i)ilgrims.  The  cliiuvh,  ivstort'd 
from  a  careful  study  of  the  surviving  portions  (Fig.  102),  follows 
the  general  plan  and  arrangement  of  most  Syrian  churches  of 
the  sixth  century.  The  facade  has  an  imposing  character,'  while 
the  disposition  of  the  lines  gives  to  it  a  pictures(pie  effect.  The 
careful  balancing  of  parts  resulted  in  a  building  of  great  solid- 
ity, whose  permanence  was  almost  entirely  independent  of  cement. 
The  interior  is  the  usual  oblong  basilica  of  three  naves.  The 
apse  has  the  form  of  a  regular  half-dodecagon.  'Hie  internal 
arrangements  and  decorations  show  that  architecture  at  this 
>  V.  De  Vogue:    Op.  cit.,  t.  i,  pp.  138-140;  plates  c.\xx-c.\.\.\vi. 


216  AKCH.EOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

period  had  attained  a  very  high  order  of  excellence,  and  indicate 
a  very  prosperous  condition  of  the  Syrian  Church  during  the  sixth 

century. 

All  the  churches  both  at  Kherbet-Hass,  El  LJarah,  and  Tourmanin 
The  pure  ba-  are  of  the  pure  oblong  basilica  type  which  so  generally 
silica  form.  prevailed  in  Syria  and  Egypt.  As  before  said,  they 
lack  the  wood  rafter  work  in  the  ceilings,  instead  of  which  they 
employ  cut  stone  for  the  vaulting.  These  churches  varied  very 
But  vaulted  little  in  their  general  outline  and  plan,  the  architects 
ceilings.  being  content  to  introduce  variet}^  into  the  decorations 

and  subordinate  members.  In  the  disposition  of  the  interiors 
thei-e  is  great  uniformity.  The  columns  are  generally  monoliths, 
with  bases  which  remind  us  of  the  classic  style,  while  the  imposed 
mass  is  directly  supported  b}-  the  capitals  without  the  intervention 
of  the  abacus.' 

The  grandest  monument  of  Central  Syria  are  the  church  and  con- 
^K       V.       ^   vent  of  St.  Simon  the  Sty  lite.     It  is  now  called  Kalat- 

Cnurch  and  »'    _ 

monastery    of   Seni'an — the  Chateau  of  Simon.     It  is  situated  in  the 

St.  Simon.  north-east  corner  of  central  Syria,  a  short  distance  north 

of    Djebel   Cheikh   Bereket.     It  was  built  in  honor  of  that  most 

singular  character,  Simon  the  Sty  lite,  who  died  A,  D.  459.     The 

date  of  the  cliurch  is  somewhat  uncertain.      From  considerations 

drawn  from  the  style   of  the  decorations,   de  Vogiie  is  disposed 

to  place  its  erection  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  century.'-*     It  was 

a  cruciform,  three-naved  basilica,  whose  three  arms  are  of  equal 

length;  the  fourth,  containing  the  apse,  being  thirty-six  feet  longer 

than  the  others.     The  arms  of  the  cross  at  their  inter- 
Description.  .         „  ,  1         1      T    r  • 
section  form  an  octagonal   court  one  hundred  leet  in 

diameter,  which  was  open  to  the  sk}^  The  longest  arm  terminated 
in  a  semicircular  apse  not  only  for  the  main  but  also  for  the  side 
naves.  The  length  of  the  church  from  east  to  west  was  336  feet, 
from  north  to  south  300  feet.  «  The  width  of  the  main  nave  was  36 
feet,  that  of  the  side  naves  18  feet.  The  principal  entrance  was 
fi'om  the  south  through  a  porch  of  imposing  magnificence.  This 
church,  with  its  attendant  chapels,  oratories,  and  sarcophagi,  is  a 
reminder  of  the  best  classical  period.  Although  in  treatment 
it  is  somewhat  bald  and  meagre,  the  style  of  the  capitals  is  de- 
styie  of  cap-  cidedly  original.  The  oblique  direction  given  to  the 
"*'^-  return  of  the  leaves  is  quite  common  to  the   Byzan- 

tine architecture.  In  this  and  other  respects  the  capitals  resem- 
ble  those   of   San   Apollinare    in    Classe,    in    Ravenna,    and   those 

'  De  Vogiie:  Op.  cit.,  t.  i,  p.  97  ;  t.  ii,  pi.  60. 

"^  Syrie  Centrale :  t.  i,  pp.  141-15-4;  t.  ii;  plates  145-151. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  217 

employed  in  tlie  priucipa]  entrance  of  tlie  Cluircli  of  the  Ildy 
Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.'  The  interior  decoration  of  this  an.l 
other  Syrian  churches  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  cannot  ]n- 
ascertained  with  certainty.  From  a  few  specimens  of  painted  coi- 
nice  found  on  the  spot,  de  Vo«jue  has,  however,  inferred 
that  the  color  was  applied  directly  to  the  stone,  and  ^  coiorinjr. 
that  much  of  the  brilliancy  of  the  classical  buildings  might  have 
belonged  to  these  Syrian  ecclesiastical  structures.*  lie  does  not 
believe  that  these  churches  were  ornamented  to  any  considerable 
extent  wdth  mosaics  of  gilt  and  glass.  The  smooth,  polished  faces 
of  the  stone  in  the  choir,  which  was  the  only  place  Destiiutu'  of 
where  mosaics  could  be  used,  forl)id  the  supposition  of  mosaic, 
their  employment  for  ornamentation.  Yet  the  mass  of  i)ieces  of 
colored  marbles,  found  in  connection  with  the  ruins  of  this  church, 
suggests  the  probability  that  the  pavement  may  have  been  wrought 
out  in  beautiful  mosaic  patterns. 

SECTION   II. 

THE  CENTRAL  OR  DOMED  STYLE. 

Contemporaiy  with  the  oblong,  naved,  rectangular  basilica  was  an-  ^ 
other  stjde  of  Christian  architecture,  the  so-called  central  or  domed 
structure.  This  was  not  unfrequent  in  the  West,  but  in  few  if  any 
instances  does  it  seem  to  have  been  used  in  buildings  originally  de- 
signed for  Christian  churches.  It  was  rather  limited  to  those  struc- 
tures of  ])agan  origin  which  were  appropriated  to  Christian  uses,  or 
to  buildings  subordinate  to  the  main  church  edifice,  as  N„t  powerful 
burial  or  memorial  chapels,  baptisteries,'  etc.  Hence  m  the  west, 
in  the  Occident  it  seemed  to  be  wanting  in  power  of  growth 
and  development;  it  had  at  best  a  feeble,  sickly  life,  and  the  me- 
diseval  architecture  received  from  it  but  a  scant}^  inheritance.  In 
the  Orient  it  was  far  otherwise.  Here  the  church  adopted  ami 
fashioned  it  to  satisfy  its  own  ])eculiar  wants.  One  type  j^^  p,...,iiiar 
appeared  in  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Se])ulchre  at  home  in  ih.- 
Jerusalem,  and  another,  after  a  rapid  and  brilliant  de-   ""■"'"'•  . 

velopment,  attained  its  goal  and  highest  perfection  in  St.  Sophia  of 
Constantinople."  From  the  so-called  Byzantine  architecture  w.h 
probably  derived   the  constructive  ])rinciple  which  enabled  the  me- 

'  Do  Vogiie:    Op.  at.,  t.  i.  pp.  150,  151. 

••Td.,  t.  i,  p.  152.  plate  151. 

■'Schnaase:    GeTh.  d.  hihleiid.  Kiinfi'e,  iii,  48:   Dcliio  n.  Bozold.  i.  20.  21. 

■•  Dehio  iirid  Bczold :  Die  kirclilicht  Baukunat  den  Abemllandes,  Slungart,  1884,  lt« 

Lief.,  P.  21. 


218  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

d\x\a\  architects  to  transform  the  flat  ceiling  of  the  basilica  into 
the  vaulted,  and  ultimately  into  the  beautiful,  soaring,  pointed 
style  of  the  Gothic  cathedral,' 

§  1.    Origin  of  the  Domed  Structure. 

The  origin  of  the  domed  principle  in  architecture  is  even  more 
Its  origin  Ob-  obscure  than  that  of  the  oblong  rectangular  basilica, 
scure.  While  the  Etruscans  were  familiar  with  the  vaulted  roof, 

as  this  was  applied  to  the  cloacae  and  aqueducts,  they  have  left  no 
Avorks  of  marked  architectural  character  which  lead  us  to  believe  that 
they  are  the  originators  of  the  dome  structure  as  it  was  found  in  the 
West  just  prior  to  the  Advent.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  the  most 
beautiful  and  complete  dome  of  the  world  is  the  Pantheon  of  Rome, 
a  sort  of  architectural  Melchizedek,  without  father  or  mother,  and 
also  wanting,  so  far  as  can  be  determined,  the  long  antecedent 
process  of  development  which  such  perfection  presupposes.  It 
is  likewise  curious  that  the  oblong  basilica  is  the  most  persistent 
form  for  the  Christian  church  in  many  parts  of  the  Orient,  which  has 
usually  been  accounted  the  native  land  of  the  so  called  Bj^zantine 
architecture. 

Of  the  churches  of  central  Syria,  described  b}^  de  Vogiie,  only  two 
of  importance  are  of  the  domical  form,  and  these  from  the  sixth 
century.*  It  is  claimed  that  they  were  constructed  on  an  entirely 
different  principle  from  that  governing  in  St.  Sophia, 
from  St.  So-  They  were  compact  anA  unified;  their  parts  were  mem- 
^^^^'  bers  of  a  living  organism.     Each  was  firmly  bound  to 

the  other,  each  was  the  natural  and  necessarj'-  complement  of  all.  St. 
Sophia,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a  vast  concretion  of  brick  and  mor- 
tar, and  of  rough  blocks  of  stone,  distributed  into  arches,  vaulted 
surfaces,  cupolas,  and  hemicupolas,  Avhose  expansions,  resting  upon 
fixed  points,  and  balancing  one  part  against  the  other,  were  brought 
Resembled  th  ^"^^  ^  Condition  of  perfect  equilibrium.  The  principle 
Roman  baptis-  of  Construction  was  not  different  from  that  in  the  Ro- 
^^^'  man   baptisterj^,  developed,  enlarged,   and  made  more 

light  and  soaring  through  the  boldness  of  two  men  of  eminent  genius, 

'  We  believe,  therefore,  that  the  concluduig  paragraph  of  the  statement  nf 
Professor G.  Baldwin  Brown,  Frojn  Schola  to  Cathedral,  1886,  p.  143,  needs  importaiii 
qualification:  "Rome  possessed  a  world-famed  cupola  several  centuries  before  the 
first  Byzantine  dome,  and  duriiig  those  centuries  dome  construction  had  advanced 
on  parallel  lines  in  the  West  and  in  the  East,  so  that  the  Middle  Ages  inherited  in  the 
West  as  genuine  a  tradition  in  regard  to  the  cupola  as  any  which  flourished  in  the 
East." 

*Dc  Vogue:  Syrie  Centrale  Architecture  civile  et religieuse,  plates  21,  23. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


219 


both  of  whom  were  Greeks.  Their  work,  too,  was  Greek  in  tlie 
sense  that  it  was  the  result  of  llie  ai)i)lication  of  the  logical  spirit  of 
the  Greek  school  to  a  new  and  foreign  principle,  which  became 
most  fruitful  of  results.  These  two  artists  originated  a  style 
which  completely  supplanted  the  preceding  in  all  the  countries 
which  were  afterward  submissive  to  Byzantine  rule.  Yet  essentially 
The  opportunity  it  furnished  for  tlie  employment  Greek, 
of  mediocre  workmen,  and  for  utilizing  the  cruder  materials,  as 
brick  and  lime,  as  well  as  the  gradual  introduction  of  Oriental 
tastes,  assured  its  success.  It  characterized  the  Byzantine  period, 
properly  so  called,  and  was  the  last  evolution  of  Greek  art,  destined 
in  turn  to  be  absorbed  in  the  Saracenic' 

Whether  the  central  architecture  of  the  AVest  was  an  indigenous  / 
product,  or  was  the  result  of  Greek  influence  whose  monumental  ex- 
pression has  perished,  or  whether  both  the  Roman  and  the  so-called 
Byzantine  were  alike  the  revival  of  an  old  eastern  type  which 
had  fallen  into  partial  decay,"  it  may  not  be  possible  to  aftirm. 
The  subject  is  beset  with  pe- 
culiar difticulties,  and  awaits 
more  thorough  investigation. 
It  is,  however,  evident  that 
the  Christian  ba])tisteries  and 
burial  chapels  have  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  contempo- 
rary pagan  baths  and  mortu- 
ary monuments.^  An  interest- 
ing example  of  this  is  found  in 
a  portion  of  the  batlis  of  Dio- 
cletian (Fig.  103).  This  was 
converted, in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, into  the  church  San  Bar- 
nardino  de'  Termini.  The 
semicircular  niches  were  per- 
petuated in  the  Christian 
structure.  The  more  promi- 
nent features  of  this  l)uilding  recur  from  time  to  time  in  the 
Central  style. 

The  description  of  circular  temples  by  Vitrnviiis  would  imply 
their  prevalence  in  his  day.  In  a  few  Christian  mosaics  botli  in 
Rome  and  Ravenna,  the  domical  form  appears  in  i-(»niiectioii  with 

'  Pc  Vocjiie :   Op.  cit.,  vol.  i,  pp.  IT,  18. 
^  The  Sassanid  domes  of  Poisiaii  palaces. 
*  Roseugarten  :  Architeduml  Styles,  p.  172. 


103.— Baths  of  Diocletian,  Sun   Hainaiilino. 
Gi'ounclplau. 


220  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CIIKISTIAX   ART. 

nioiv  imposing  structuvcs  M-hich  are  believed  to  represent  tlie  build- 
ings for  Christian  assembl}^,  while  in  Christian  literature  are  found 
quite  detailed  accounts  of  noted  churches  that  have  entirely  disap- 
centrai  build-  peared.  Of  these  the  circular  domed  building  erected 
ings  in  Con-  by  Constantine  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century 
time.  over  the  traditional  site  of  the  holy  sepulchre  at  Jerusa- 

lem,' and  the  magniticent  church  at  Antioch  which  Eusebius  has 
described  at  length,  Avere  among  the  most  notable  and  influential. 
He  says:  "At  Antioch,  the  capital  of  the  Orient,  he  (Constantine) 
built  a  thoroughly  characteristic  church.  He  enclosed  the  whole  by 
a  peribolos,  within  which  he  built  an  oratory  of  unprecedented 
height.  It  was  of  octagonal  form.  To  the  exterior  round  about  he 
added  many  chapels  and  exedra,  as  well  as  crypts  and  galleries.  The 
entire  work  was  completed  by  ornamentation  in  gold  as  well  as  in 
ivory  and  other  costly  materials."^  The  relation  of  this  and  similar 
structures  to  the  development  of  church  architecture  at  Ravenna 
and  other  centers  is  most  intimate.  It  becomes  of  great  value  in 
interpreting  the  forms  met  in  the  churches  of  San  Vitale  in  Ravenna, 
San  Marco  in  Venice,  SS.  Sergius  et  Bacchus  in  Constantinople,  etc. ^ 
The  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  served  as  a  model  for  burial 

.  chapels,  while  that  of  Antioch  was  a  model   for  build- 
importance  of    _       1       ' 

the  cinucii  of  ings  for  congregational  assembly.  The  great  import- 
Aatioch.  ^j^gg  q£  ^i^g  latter  in  Christian  architecture  arises  from 

the  circumstance  that  its  chief  features  Avere  copied  into  other 
structures,  both  East  and  West,  and  gave  an  impetus  to  (if  it  was 
not  the  genesis  of)  the  style  afterward  characterized  by  the  name 
Byzantine. 

§  2.    Chissijlcation. 

Different  principles  of  classification  of  these  buildings  have  been 
Principles  of  proposed  by  writers  on  the  history  of  avchitectui'e. 
ciassiflcation.  The  adoption  of  the  simple  rotunda  as  the  normal  form, 
and  the  development  of  the  central  construction  from  this  norm,  has 
much  to  recommend  it."  According  to  this  view,  the  first  step  in 
the  development  was  the  addition  of  members  in  the  form  of  niches 
Addition  of  ill  the  enclosing  walls.  Both  artistically  as  well  as  con- 
mcbes.  structivel}''  this  was  of  importance.     The  bounding  of  a 

space  within  narrowest  possible  limits,  as  M^ell  as  the  securing  of 
better  architectural  effects,  would  thus  result.  For  the  most  part 
the  number  of  these  niches  does  not  exceed  eight,  being  all  of  the 

'Eusebius:  De  Vita  Const.,  iii,  31. 

'  Vita  Const,  lib.  ii',  cap.  50. 

'Quast:  Die  Altrhristlichen  Bauwerke  ma  Eavenna,  ss.  30,  31. 

*  V.  Deliio  uud  Bezold :  Die  kircJdiche  Baukunst  des  Ahendlandes,  i,  ss.  19,/. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  221 

same  form  or  havin<r  alternating  rectangular  and  semicircular  niches.' 
Sometimes  these  simple  rotunda  interiors  were  further  enriched  by 
columns  placed  in  the  niches,  which  also  served  a  useful  construc- 
tive purpose  (v.  Fig.  112).  A  further  development  is  noticed  in  ^ 
the  attempts  at  enlargement  of  these  circular  buildings,  by  breaking 
through  the  walls  of  the  niches,  thus  securing  a  series  of  attached 
rooms  by  means  of  an  outward  enclosing  wall.  This  occurs  in 
Figs.  116  and  120.  It  is  believed  that  this  change  was  first  intro- 
duced into  the  churches  from  liturgical  rather  than  artistic  consider- 
ations— especially  to  secure  more  privacy  for  the  higli  altar — but 
by  continuous  modifications  it  became  the  occasion  of  developing 
some  of  the  most  beautiful  and  imposing  architectural  effects. 

A  fourth  type  of  the  circular  church  architecture  is  that  in  wliirli 
the  domical  portion,  suppoi'ted  l)y  columns,  is  surrounded  tiio addition i.f 
by  a  corridor  of  lesser  height  than  the  central  structure,  at-orridor. 
This  has  sometimes,  without  sufficient  reason,  been  characterized  as 
an  application  of  the  basilica  principle  to  the  central  style — hence 
called  tlie  circular  basilica — and  has  been  claimed  to  be  the  most 
distinctive  and  original  product  of  the  early  Christian  Church. 
The  claim  seems,  however,  to  lack  firm  support,  since  some  of  its 
features  manifestly  find  many  suggestions  in  pagan  architecture, 
while  it  is  difficult  on  this  theory  to  account  for  its  sonu'what  lim- 
ited dissemination,  and  for  the  fact  that  the  oldest  examples  of  this 
type  of  buildings  are  the  most  striking,  thus  indicating  a  retrogra- 
dation  rather  than  a  real  development." 

Under  the  class  of  the  central  or  domical  architecture  some  writ- 
ers reckon  the  cruciform  buildings,  whether  with  equal  cruciform 
arms,  or,  by  the  lengthening  of  the  main  axis,  in  the  structures, 
form  of  the  Latin  cross.  While  this  form  was  more  usually  found 
in  burial  cliapels,  it  was  also  incorporated  into  other  and  more  im- 
posing buildings.' 

§  3.   The  Simple  Rotunda. 

Of  the  simple  rotunda  form  but  few  exanii)les  survive.  These  are 
chiefly  of  baptisteries  attached  to  cluirches.  A  i)lain  hcxa-  Examples  of 
gonal"  building  of  this  kind  is  the  baptistery  of  the  ba-  simple  rotunda, 
silica  in  the  Colli  di  Sto  Stefano  in  Tivoli;  another  is  the  octag- 
onal baptistery  of  ihe  cathedral  of  Parenzo.*  A  few  chapels  in 
the  catacombs  approach  this  simple  outline.^ 

'  For  examples  of  uniform  semioirciil.ir  nielies.  see  Ficr.  103;  for  uniformly  rccl.nn- 
gular  niches,  see  Fig.  105:  and  for  ropiangiilar  alieruatiiijr  witii  llie  circular  niche, 
see  Fig.  104.  «  Deliio  und  Be/.old  :    Op.  cil..  ss.  31,  32.  »  Idem,  os.  43,  44. 

*  Dehio  und  Bezold:    Op.  nt.  lie  Lief.,  s.  24,  t.  1,  Fig.  10.  and  t.  H3,  Fig.  2. 

*  Hubsch:    Op.  cit.,  t.  i,  Fig.  6.     Perot:  Lvs  Cutacombes  de  Home,  pp.  3G,  39. 


222 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


§  4.    With  Niches  and  Columns. 

Most  of  the  circular  domical  forms  add,  however,  the  niches  and 
columns,  and  thus  pass  to  the  second  stage  of  development.  To 
this  general  class  may  be  referred  some  of  the  most  interesting 
Christian  architectural  monuments  of  the  first  six  centuries.  The 
prominent  features  of  the  class  are  likewise  met  in  the   .,    ,    .... 

i  _  .     .  No  slavish  imi- 

pagan  monuments ;  but  to  claim  that  the  Christian  tation  of  hea- 
Avere  only  a  copy  or  slavish  imitation  of  the  heathen  then  buildings, 
structures  were  unhistorical  and  misleading.  While  it  is  evident 
that  the  Christian  baptisteries  and  burial  monuments  found  sugges- 
tions in  the  baths  and  sepulchral  monuments  of  the  classical  Avorld, 
with  respect  to  this  as  to  other  branches  of  art  the  spirit  of  the 
new  religion  often  modified,  transformed,  and  adjusted  them  to  the 
needs  of  the  Church. 

Fig.  104  is  the  groundplan  of  the  so  called  Temple  of  Romulus, 

son  of  Maxentius,  found  on 
the  Via  A|)pia,'  Rome. 
Here  are  found  the  cir- 
cular enclosing  wall,  the 
niches  alternately  rectan- 
gular and  semicircular,  the 
portico  enclosing  the  area 
in  front,  etc.,  most  of  which 
elements  were  continued 
in  buildings  of  Christian 
origin. 

Prominent     among     the 
Christian  mon-   san    Gi-.vanni 
nments  of  this  in  Fonie. 
class    is  the   baptistery  of 
the  Ecclesia  Ursiana,  in  Ra- 
venna,  now   known    nnder 
the  name  of  San  Giovanni 
in  Fonte.      It  is  an  octago- 
nal   building,    having    two 
entrances  and   four  niches 
or  tribunes.     The  whole  is 
covered  b}^  a  somewhat  flat- 
tened  dome.     The  interior  construction  and  decoration  are  note- 
Avorthy.      The  harmonious   arrangement  of  the  columns,  and  the 
spanning  of  larger  by  smaller  arches,  as  appears  in  the  second  story 
'  Caniiia:    Via  Appia,  tav.  x,  pp.  77,  78. 


IP- 

##       ## 
##       mm 
mmmmmm 

Fig.  104.— Temple  if  noniii'iis.  Via  Appia,  Uome. 
Gruiuiilpliiii. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  223 

of  the  exterior,  and  in  the  arranp^ement  for  the  support  of  the  dome 
in  the  second  story  of  the  interior,  seem  like  a  jjrophi'cy  of  the 
Gothic  arcliitecture;  while  the  form  of  the  capitals  and  many  minor 
details  clearly  point  backward  to  an  earlier  age  of  Greek  art.'  It 
has  two  stories.  The  lower  part  is  formed  by  eight  pilasters  in  tlic 
angles,  which  are  connected  by  semicircular  arches.  The  walls  art- 
lined  with  slabs  of  porphyry  and  different  colored  marbles. 

Another  notable  monument  of  this  type  is  Santa  Maria  Rotonda,' 
in  Ravenna,  called  also  the  mausoleum  of  Theodoric.  ganta  Maria 
It  differs  from  other  churches  of  Ravenna  in  being  built  Rot^ntia- 
of  hewn  stone  instead  of  brick.  The  dome  is  thirty-three  feet  in 
diameter,  consisting  of  a  single  stone  of  more  than  forty-five  hun- 
dred tons  weight.^  It  must  have  been  brought  from  a  great  dis- 
tance by  water."  It  is  a  Avork  of  high  art,  and  the  elevation  to  its 
place  is  a  good  proof  of  the  excellent  engineering  of  that  age.*  The 
church  is  a  decagon  of  two  stories.  One  half  of  the  lower  part  is 
now  under  water.     Each  side  of  the  exterior  is  relieved 

_  .    _  T  1  ,  1,1  ,       .  The  interior. 

by  a  niche  produced  l)y  a  round  arch  that  spans  the  in- 
termediate space.  The  arches  are  built  of  dentated  stone,  wliicli 
is  first  met  in  the  later  Roman  architecture,  but  afterward  became 
a  prominent  feature  of  the  B3'zantine  and  Arabian  art.  This  church 
has  given  rise  to  much  speculation  upon  the  infiu-  Exceptional  nr- 
ences  under  which  it  was  built.  In  its  chief  members  chitecturai  eie- 
there  is  not  a  trace  of  the  Byzantine  style;  in  its  de- 
tails this  sometimes  appears;  while  in  some  features  it  reveals  a 
decidedly  Gothic  impress.  As  a  whole,  it  seems  to  stand  as  a 
prophecy  and  suggestion  of  the  style  which  rose  in  such  glory  and 
grandeur  five  hundred  years  later." 

In  this  class  must  also  be  reckoned  the  Church  of  St.  George  of 
Thessalonica,'  the  modern  Salonika.     The  date  of  its  gt.  Goor-.'e  of 
erection  has  been  elsewhere  discussed  (v.  p.  116).     It  is  Thcssaicnica. 
a  brick  structure  of  more  than  seventy  feet  in  diameter,  having 

'  Quasi:  Op.  cit,  ss.  4,  5;  taf.  i.  Dchio  u.  Bezold:  Die  k'lrchliche  Baukunst  des 
Abemlkmdts,  Ite  Lief.,  s.  25;  t.  3,  Fig.  9,  10;  taf.  37. 

2  Quast:  Op.  cit.,  s.  5:  t,  i,  Figs.  2,  3,  4.  Kngler:  Geschichte  der  Baukunst,  Bd.  i, 
s.  396.     Dehio  und  Bezold:    Op.  cit.,  Ito  Lief.,  s.  25;  t.  3,  Figs.  7,  8;  t.  37. 

»  Quast:  Op.  cit.,  ss.  24-2G;  t.  vii,  Figs.  17-28.  D'Agincourt:  Architt^cture,  pp. 
xviiiand  x.x.vii.  Dehio  u.  Bezold:  Op.  cit.,  s.  25;  I.  3,  Figs.  9,  10.  Raliu  :  Ravenna, 
ss.  38.  sq. 

*  Qiiast:    Op.  cit,  s.  24,  claims  that  it  was  brought  from  Istria. 

^  Kugler:    Op.  cit.,  BJ.  i,  s.  308.     H.  Gaily  Kuiglil:    Op.  cit.,  t.  viii. 

«  Quast :   Op.  cit.,  s.  25. 

'  Kugler:  Geschichte  der  Baukunst,  Bd.  i,  s.  432.  Texier  and  Pullan:  BjUses  By- 
zantines, plates  xxxi-.\.\.\iv.     Uuger:  Li  Ersch  u.  Gruhers  Encyclop<tdia,  taf.  Ixxxiv. 


234 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF    CHRISTIAN  ART. 


eight  rectangular,  eliapel-like    niches  in  the  wall. 

wall   is 


The  enclosing 
nearly  twent}^ 
feet  thick,  but  in  the 
niches  it  is  reduced  by 
the  extent  of  their 
depth.  One  of  the  niches 
opens  into  the  extended 
tribune,  while  another 
is  used  for  entrance  to 
the  church  (see  Fig.  105). 
About  the  middle  of  the 
perpendicular  height  the 
wall  is  set  back,  giv- 
ing the  impression  to 
the  visitor  that  a  cor- 
ridor is  thus  secured  on 
the  interior  {v.  Fig.  106). 
In  outline  it  has  a  very 
striking  resemblance  to 
the  Roman  Pantheon. 
Its  rich  and  instructive 
mosaics  are  elsewhere 
described  {v.  pp.  116, 
117).  Like  most  sur- 
viving churches  of  the 


Fig.  105.— Groimclplau  of  St.  George,  Thessalonica. 
East,  it  has  been  converted  into  a  Mohammedan  mosque. 


Fig.  lOG.— St.  George,  Thessalonica.    Exterior  view. 

In  passing  fi'om  the  simple   rotunda,  with   rectangular  and  semi- 
circular  niches,   to  that    further  e.vpansion  of  the   central  st3de   in 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCIIITFXTURE.  2'2r, 

which  by  a  more  widely  extended  cnelosiiig  wall  an  added  sjtace 
was  secured,  and  a  more  complex  construction  and  artistic  Thim  sui<,'e  uf 
arrangement  resulted,  we  are  brought  to  the  exaniina-  tieveiopmeat. 
tion  of  some  of  the  most  impressive  and  significant  churches  of  the 
first  seven  centuries.  Among  these  San  Vitale  of  Ravenna,  and  8S. 
Sergius  et  Bacclius  and  St.  Sophia  (Hagia  Sofia)  of  C'onstantinoi)le, 
are  unrivalled.  They  are  nearly  contemporaneous,  belonging  to 
the  reign  of  Justinian,  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  centurv. 


San  Vitale  was  begun  in  A.  D.  526,  and  dedicated  in  A.  D.  r)47. 
It  is  an  octagonal  building  about  one  hundred  and  two      ^^^  ^.^^^^^^ 
feet  in  diameter,  with  a  tribune  trilateral  on  the  exte- 
rior, but  semicircular  on  the  interior.     The  secoml  story  forms  an 
arcade  supported  by  pillars  and  pilasters  below  (r.  Fig.  107);  alx.ve 
the  pilasters  and  the  arches  resting  upon  them  the  dome  rose  to  the 
height   of  nearly  eighty  feet.     Some  writers  have  held   that  San 
Vitale,  and  San  ^farco  at  Venice  as  well,  are  merely  di-   v„t  a  copy  of 
minuti've  imitations  of  St.  Sophia  at  (\)nstantinoi)le;  but   »""  >'«'^«- 
the  resemblances  between  San  Vitale  and  San  3Iarco  aiv  not  such 
15 


226 


ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


as  to  justify  their  reference  to  a  common  model.  In  groundplan,  in- 
terior arrangement,  and  roof  construction  they  differ  very  widely. 
San  Vitale  is  octagonal  and  two-storied;  San  Marco  is  in  the  form  of 
the  Greek  cross  and  without  galleries.  San  Vitale  groups  the  cen- 
tral spaces  into  one  which  is  covered  by  a  central  dome,  rising  high 
above  the  other  parts  of  the  structure;  San  Marco,  on  the  contrary, 
has  five  depressed  domes,  above  each  arm  of  the  cross,  and  over 
the  central  space  where  the  two  arms  intersect. 

On  careful  study  the  diversities  between  St.  Sophia  and  San  Vitale 
will  also  appear  so  great   as  to  set  aside   the   theory   Nor  of  St.  so- 
that  the  one  was  the  model  or  the  copy  of  the  other.   P^^'a- 
Their   relation   is   onl}^   that  of   the   three   most   noted   surviving 
examples  of  the  architecture  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  centur3^' 

The  long-extended  vestibule,  C, 
(Narthex  or  Ardica),  of  San  Vi- 
tale is  peculiar  to  irregularity  of 
this      church      (Fig.    groundplan. 

108).  It  is  not  placed  opposite 
or  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of 
the  tribune,  as  is  usual  in  other 
churches,  but  makes  a  wide  de- 
parture from  the  regularity  of 
groundplan  which  might  be  ex- 
pected. Many  conjectures  as 
to  the  reason  of  this  have  been 
made,  but  the  real  cause  is  un- 
known. The  exterior  of  the 
church  is  like  many  other  build- 
ings of  Ravenna,  of  brick  with 
thick  layers  of  mortar.  Most 
of  the  mosaics,  which  formerly 
made  it  one  of  the  most  brilliant  in  Christendom,  have 
unfortunately  disappeared;  yet  the  descriptions  given 
by  the  historians  are  so  full  that  their  artistic  and  dogmatic  signifi- 
cance can  be  easily  determined. 

The  form  of  the  arches  supporting  the  dome,  as  well  as  the  col- 
umnar arrangement  of  the  second  story,  may  be  seen  from  the 
section  given  in  Fig.  109.  Likewise  the  style  of  the  capitals,  and 
the  rich  statuary,  arabesque,  and  mosaic  effects,  in  pavement  and 
ceiling,  making  the  interior  of  this  church  exceptionally  impressive, 

'  Quast:  Op.  cit,  s.  29.  Compare  Fip;.  108,  rrronndplan  of  San  Vitale,  with  Fig. 
116,  groundplan  of  St.  Sophia;  the  section  of  San  Vitale,  Fig.  109,  with  that  of  St 
Sophia,  Fig.  117. 


Fig.  108.— San  Vitale.    Groundplan. 


Mosaics  lost. 


228 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


are  well  shown  in  Figs.  107,  109.  The  contrast  between  this  church 
^    .     ,      .,u   and  the  Roman  basilica,  with  its  cohimns  of  varied  styles, 

Contrast    with  '  i      n  t  i      j: 

Roinau  basil-  lengths,  and  diameters,  is  very  marked.  "Instead  or 
^^^-  simple,  long-extended  right  lines,  here  is  found  an  artis- 

tic combination  of  numerous  curves,  which,  while  departing,  from 
different  centers,  nevertheless  complement  each  other  and  find  in 
the  dome  the  completest  centralization.  ...  In  all  this  labyrinthian 
arrangement  a  most  magnificent  effect  from  this  development  of 
forms  cannot  be  denied."  '  The  church  was  begun  under  the  East 
Not  strictly  Grothic  supremacy,  and  finished  under  Byzantine;  it  is, 
Byzantine.  therefore,  generally  classified  under  the  head  of  Byzan- 
tine architecture.  The  propriety  of  such  classification  may,  how- 
ever, be  reasonably  questioned,  since  neither  in  groundplan  nor 
elevation,  but  only  in  decorative  features,  does  it  seem  to  be 
accordant  with  the  Byzantine  stjde.^      The  beauty  of   the  deco- 


Fig.  110.— Capital  from  San 
Vitale,  Ravenna. 


Fig.  111. -Capital  from  St.  Sophia, 
Constantinople. 


ration  of  the  churches  as  well  as  their  likeness  in  details  may  be 
seen  by  comparing  the  capitals  of  columns  fi-om  each  [v.  Figs.  110 
and  111). 

Nearly  contemporary  with  San  Vitale  is  SS.  Sergius  et  Bacchus 
ss.  Sergius  et  (Hagios  Sergios)  of  Constantinoi)le.^  Here,  too,  the 
Bacchus.  dome  rests  upon  eight  immense  buttresses  connected 

together  in  the  lower  story  b}'  a  richly  sculptured  entablature,  and 
in  the  second  by  arches.  At  the  four  corners  are  semicircular 
niches   (in   which  are  supporting   columns)    that   lead   into  rooms 

'  Schuaase:    Geschichte  der  Biidemle  Kilmte,  Ite  autl.,  Bd.  iii,  ss.  131,  132. 

^  Stock bauer:  Dei-  cliristliche  Kirchenhau.  s.  89. 

8  Dehio  u.  Bezold:  Op.  cit,  Ite  Lief.,  ss.  28,  29,  taf.  4,  Figs.  5.  6.  Stockbauer: 
Op.  cit.,  s.  90.  Kuftler:  Op.  cit.,  Bd.  i,  ss.  420-422.  Salzenberg:  AU-christliche 
Baudenkmale  v.  Constantinople. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


229 


bounded  by  the  exterior  wall  (y.  Fif^,  112),  wliieh  is  quadraniriilar 
instead  of  octagonal,  as  in  San  Vitale.  Upon  the  interior  face 
of  the  entablature,  extending 
around  the  entire  nave,  is 
a  fulsome  inscription  to  Jus- 
tinian, and  to  the  niartyi's  Ser-. 
gius  and  Bacchus,  who  were 
in  high  repute  among  the  Dar- 
danians  and  Illyrians.  In  the 
arrangement  of  the  ground- 
plan   and    of    the 

stronger    ten-    ^ 

denoy  to  the  vaulted  spaces, 
Byzantine.  ^^^^  characteristic 
development  of  the  Byzantine 
school  is  already  noticed;  but 
on  careful  stud}'-  of  details 
antique  elements  are  found 
to  predoniinate,  so  that  this 
church  must  be  regarded  as 
l)elonging  to  the  transition 
period  of  architecture  in  the  Greek  Empire.' 

This  form  of  the  Christian  church  does  not  differ  verj''  widely 
from  some  pagan  buildings.  Fig.  118  is 
the  representation  of  a  hall  in  an  ancient 
Roman  palace.  Here,  too,  the  alternntion 
in  the  interior  of  the  rectangular  with  the 
|J  LJ       semicircular   niche,  and   the  enclosure  of  the 

^\  /■       whole  by  a   strong  rectangular  wall,  are  so 

^ iH^Bi    nearly   like   the   arrangement  of   SS.  Sergius 

Fi<r.  113.— Hall  iu  anoient  t't    Bacchus  as  to  suggest  the  same  general 

Homan  palace.    To  compare    v^fyj^.  * 
with  SS.  Sergius  and  Baccli us.    '    - 


l-,;r.  liy.- 


-SS.  Sergius  and  ISacchus,  Constantinople, 
tiroundplan. 


§5.    Bjizdiitiiic  Ai'c/iifrcfiire. 

The  removal  of  the  capital  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  Byzantinm 

must  be  accounted  among  the  epoch-making  events  of  histdry.     All 

the   secret  motives   influencing   Constantine  to  this  decision  may 

not   be   known:    some    are,    however,    well    imderstood. 
Reasons  of  re-  ^,    .     .  ,       .  i-i       i      i    r       *    i  i 

niovalof  capi-   Heathen   and    Christian    jtrophecies   alike   lia<l   loretol.l 

^»'-  the  approaching  downfall  of  Rome;  the  Trojan  coasts 

were    the   fabled   native   home   of    the    Rotnan    jjcople;    only    by 

'  Salzciiberi;:   Text,  ss.  41-45.  Blalt  v.      Op.  rlL,  Te.vt,  ss.  43,  45. 
*  Stockbaucr:  Der  chriatUchen  Kirchenbau^  s.  90. 


230  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

residence  in  the  East  could  the  complete  overthrow  of  his  rival, 
Licinius,  be  effected.  The  beauty  of  the  situation  of  Byzantium 
was  proverbial,  and  its  military  and  strategical  importance  man- 
ifest. In  the  East  were  the  sacred  seats,  the  holiest  traditions,  the 
ablest  defenders,  and  the  richest  doctrinal  development  of  the  new  re- 
lio-ion  which  he  had  befriended.  The  Oriental  luxury  and  magnifi- 
cence Avere  to  him  most  agreeable,  and  the  absolutism  of  the  East, 
unchecked  even  by  the  feeble  apology  for  a  Roman  senate,  com- 
ported best  with  Constantine's  imperious  nature.  The  principle  of 
centralization  was  the  kernel  and  essence  of  his  empire.  He  would 
establish  a  new  court  in  a  place  free  from  hoary  traditions  and  un- 
polluted by  the  crimes  of  a  thousand  years  of  bitter 
syncre  sm.  struggle.  The  Strange  commingling  of  Christian  and 
heathen  elements  in  the  new  capital  was  only  the  visible  symbol  of 
the  religious  belief  and  character  of  its  great  founder.  Pagan  at 
heai't,  and  little  acquainted  with  the  central  truth  of  the  Christian 
system,  he  nevertheless  saw  in  it  the  promise  of  perpetuity.  In  the 
center  of  the  forum  was  set  up  the  noted  porphyry  column,  crowned 
with  the  statue  of  the  all-conquering  Phidian  Apollo,  and  around  it 
were  clustered  the  gods  of  paganism.  Here,  too,  was  seen  the  statue 
of  the  goddess  of  fortune,  on  whose  head  was  placed  the  cross 
of  Christ,  and  at  whose  dedication  the  people  sang  the  Kyrie  Elei- 
son.  Opposite  to  this,  the  double  statue  of  the  emjaeror  and  his 
mother  Helena  bore  a  cross  with  the  inscription,  "  One  is  holy,  one 
is  the  Lord  Christ,  to  the  glory  of  God  the  Father: "  but  in  the 
middle  of  the  cross,  amidst  forms  of  incantation,  was  again  affixed 
the  image  of  Fortune.  To  her,  to  Rhea,  mother  of  the  gods,  to 
Castor  and  Pollux,  temples  were  erected,  as  well  as  Christian 
churches  in  great  number  and  magnificence.  The  art  treasures  of 
the  world  were  collected  to  adorn  the  public  squares  and  buildings, 
thus  making  Constantinople  at  the  same  time  a  rich  museum  of 
ancient,  and  a  cradle  of  Christian,  art.' 

The  western  mind  was  mostly  occupied  with  the  consideration  of 
Contrast  of  pi'actical  questions  of  life.  The  customs  and  morals  of 
East  and  West,  the  people  were  considered;  the  forces  that  measured 
and  controlled  these  were  carefully  estimated.  The  Oriental  mind, 
on  the  contrary,  was  occupied  with  questions  of  dogma  and  abstract 
s[)eculation.  It  did  not  aim  so  much  to  elevate  the  masses  of  the 
people;  rather  by  mingling  the  mysteries  of  religion  with  the 
everyday  affairs  of  life  it  educated  the  populace  to  the  grossest 

'  Carriere :  Die  Kunst  im  Zwaammenhang  der  Culturentwickelung  und  die  Ideate  der 
J/e?i.sc/i/;ei7,  Bd.  iii,  88.  113,  114.  Gibbon:  Decline  and  Fall,  chB.^.  x\n.  Salzeuberg: 
Alt-christlkhe  Baudenkmale  von  Constantinople,  ss.  l-IO. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  231 

superstition.  The  strong  common  sense  Socratic  philosophy,  wliich 
had  recognized  the  dignity  and  the  responsibitity  of  the  indi- 
vidual, had  been  largely  supplanted  by  the  system  of  Neo-Plalon- 
ism,  in  which  the  unity  of  the  universe  more  than  the  freedom  and 
selfhood  of  the  individual  was  made  prominent.  A  little  later  the 
spirit  of  Orientalism,  which  had  more  or  less  affected  the  entire 
Roman  world,  became  dominant  in  the  Byzantine  Empire. 

With  the  absolutism  of  imperial  power  necessarily  result, '<l  (Ir. 
decline  of  individual  rights.  The  idea  of  personal  free- 
dom, and  the  worth  of  man  as  man,  which  was  a  ruling  ^^"  ''*^'""'*- 
element  among  the  Teutonic  peoples,  wellnigh  died  out.  Banish- 
ments, imprisonments,  tortures,  and  death  were  inflicted  at  the  mere 
caprice  of  the  sovereign.  Hence  all  tended  toward  stagnation  and 
death.  After  a  sleep  of  a  thousand  years  the  Orient  remained  cold 
and  lifeless,  while  the  West  had  been  heaving  with  the  throes  of  a 
new  and  progressive  life. 

This  dark  picture  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  is,  however,  relieved 
by  a  few  bright  lights.     Her  good  offices  to  the  world   „  ,    ,, 

•^  .  .  *  Valuable    ser- 

were  neither  few  nor  unimportant.  She  preserved  the  vices  to  civii- 
thought  of  unity  in  government,  which  exerted  a  strong  '^^"°°' 
and  salutary  influence  upon  the  susceptible  German  })eopIes,  and 
gave  to  them  the  true  idea  of  nationality.  Through  her  best 
ruler,  Justinian,  she  bequeathed  to  the  world  the  body  of  codifie<l 
laAV  which  has  powerfully  influenced  the  jurisprudence  of  Europe 
even  to  the  present  hour.  Through  all  the  centuries  of  her 
insensibility  and  sloth  Constantinople  was  the  museum  where 
were  collected  and  preserved  to  later  times  most  precious  treasures 
of  ancient  art  and  literature,  which  the  crusades  were  to  diffuse 
throughout  the  West  to  enkindle  a  wgw  life  and  stimulate  to  higher 
endeavor. 

But  the  decadence  of  morals  and  of  art  was  already  so  great 
that  the  attempts  of  Constantine  to  found  schools  for  the  educa- 
tion of  skilled  architects  proved  only  partially  successful.  Decay  of  art 
From  this  time  Christian  art  in  the  Orient  came  under  originality, 
the  control  and  guidance  of  an  im])erialism  in  state  and  Church,  and 
crystallized  into  a  fixedness  of  type  that  lias  been  perpetuated  to  the 
present  day.  A  pomp  and  stateliness,  a  splendor  and  even  gaudiness 
in  art,  were  only  the  reflex  of  a  like  character  in  the  imi)erial  state. 
Religion  was  no  longer  a  matter  of  conscience  and  of  the  inner  life 
of  the  individual,  but  of  state  authority  and  dictation.  The  sym- 
bols of  faith  were  largely  the  creatures  of  the  govmnu*  iit,  and  the 
bishops  were  servants  of  the  state.  Instead  of  the  former  apotheosis 
of  the  deceased  emperors,  a  divinity  was  made  to  attach  to  the  living 


233  ARCHEOLOGY   OF    CHRISTIAN   ART. 

ruler.  Into  his  presence  the  subject  must  approach  with  signs  of 
deepest  veneration.  The  stately  ceremonial  of  the  court  awed  the 
visitor.  Costliness  took  the  place  of  classic  forms  and  artistic  beauty. 
Freedom  had  died,  and  with  her  departed  the  soul  and  inspiration 
of  art. 

The  principle  of  centralization  found  its  best  expression  in  the 
strictly  Byzantine  architecture.  It  completed  what  the  Roman 
Byzantine  basilica  had  suggested  and  attempted.  Around  a  oen- 
arcbitecture an   ^    j  member  was  grouped  the  entire  structure  in  essen- 

etlect    of    the  . 

Oriental  spirit,  tial  unity. ^  Every  subordinate  part  pointed  toward  the 
dome,  which  crowns  the  middle  of  the  Greek  cross,  as  to  the  imperial 
governing  power  of  the  Avhole.  The  strengthening  Orientalism  caused 
the  architecture  more  and  more  to  depart  from  the  simplicity  and 
unity  of  the  early  Greek,  and  thus  was  developed  a  style  which  may 
be  truly  called  Byzantine, 

i-  The  history  of  Byzantine  architecture  is  usually  divided  into  two 
Two  historic  distinct  periods.  The  first  begins  with  the  reign  of 
periods.  Constantine  and  closes  with  the  rule  of  Justinian,  about 

the  middle  of  the  sixth  century.  The  second  extends  from  the  reign 
of  Justinian  to  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  or  to  the  first 
revival  of  art  through  the  influence  of  Cimabue.  During  the  latter 
Fixedness  of  P^^'^^d  art  forms  were  cast  in  an  unchanging  mould.  In 
art  forms  in  the  eastern  provinces  they  became  still  more  contami- 
second period.  ^^^^^^^  ^^^  Oriental  influences;  while  in  some  parts  of 
the  West  new  forces  effected  slight  modifications  of  the  original 
type.     It  has  already  been  noticed  (v.  p.  197)  that  in  the  first  period 

,  most  of  the  churches  of  the  Orient  preserved  the  Roman  style  of 
the  basilica,  excepting  the  open  rafter  work  and  ornamentation  of 
the  ceiling.  In  a  few  instances  the  intersection  of  the  main  nave  and 
transept  had  been  surmounted  by  a  small  cupola,  but  gradually  this 
was  developed  into  the  complete  and  imposing  dome  structure  cov- 
ering a  square  area:  this  is  the  distinctive  feature  of  the  later  Byz- 
antine architecture.  From  the  age  of  Justinian  this  was  the  pre- 
vailing style  in  the  Eastern  Empire,  while  in  the  West  the  tower 
was  developed  to  produce  a  like  effect  in  the  Romanesque  and 
Gothic  churches.'  We  have  already  met  this  form  and  growth  in  the 
churches  of  Ravenna.  The  perfection  of  Byzantine  architecture 
was,  however,  first  attained  in  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia.  It  fur- 
nished a  model  for  all  the  subsequent  churches  of  the  East.  The 
Reason  of  im-  histor}^  of  the  empire  furnishes  an  easy  solution  of  this 
mobility.  f,.^ct.     After  Justinian,  stagnation  and  decay  character- 

ized the  Eastern  civilization.  All  turned  backward  to  his  reign  as 
'  Salzenburg:    Op.  cit,  ss.  14,  15. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


233 


St.  Sophia. 


to  the  golden  age.  An  earlier  Church  of  St.  Sophia,  built  by 
Constantine,  had  been  consumed  by  fire  during  a  popu- 
lar uprising.  For  its  re-building  Justinian  drew  upon 
the  resources  of  the  entire  empire.  The  i)lanning  and  erection 
were  entrusted  to  the  two  most  noted  architects  of  the  age, 
Isodore  of  Miletus  and  Anthimius  of  Tralles.  It  is  claimed  by 
a  class  of  writers  on  the  history  of  architecture,  and  by  some 
archaeologists,'  that  these  wise  architects  had  clearly  in  mind  the 


ri;:.  r.4.— Sec'tioa  of  St.  So.il.l.i.    To  couipait!  vviUi  llie  Basilica  of  roiistauliiu-,  Iti.iiie. 


Cliurch  of  SS.  Sergius  et  I5;icchus,  and  tlie  so-called  Basilica  of  Con- 
stantine at  Rome,  as  models  for  their  great  work.  By  careful  com- 
parison of  Fig.  112  with  Fig.  116,  and  Fig.  114  with  Fig.  115,  the 
l)<)ints  of  rescmiblance  will  be  apparent.  The  general  division  of 
the  enclosed  space  into  nine  parts,  the  use  of  strong  buttresses  to 
support  the  domed  coverings  and  provide  against  the  lateral  thrust, 
'  V.  Stock bauer:  Op.  ciL  ss.  02,  03.  tnf.  v,  Figs.  2,  3,  4,  5.  Dehio  u.  Bezold:  Op. 
rjt,  SS.  29,  30,  tuf.  G,  V\i^.  1  :   Ud.  30,  Fife'.  14. 


234 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


the  unification  of  the  three  middle  compartments  into  one  grand  and 
most  imposing  room,  etc.,  are  some  elements  of  likeness  in  these 
buildings.  Doubtless,  however,  the  erection  of  one  imposing  dome, 
supported  by  four  massive  buttresses,  over  a  square  space,  is  a  new 
departure,  and  places  upon  St.  Sophia  the  stamp  of  originality. 

The  traditions  connected  with  the  building  of  this  most  noted 
Difficulty  of  the  church  are  numerous  and  interesting.  The  problems 
work.  to  be  solved  in  the  suspension  of  a  dome  one  hundred 

feet   in  diameter   a   hundred  feet  in  midair  were   most    difficult. 


Fifr.  115.— Section  of  the  Basilica  of  Constantine,  Rome.    To  compare  with  St.  Sophia,  Constan- 
tinople. 

The  enormous  weight  was  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  ai'chitects  of 
that  day.  The  reputed  revelations  in  dreams,  the  discovery  of 
bricks  in  the  island  of  Rhodes  of  one  fifth  of  the  ordinary  weight, 
etc.,  are  only  evidences  of  the  perplexities  felt  by  Justinian  and  his 
architects.  But  the  greatest  cause  of  wonder,  even  to  builders  of 
modern  times,  is  the  completion  of  this  church  in  the  incredibl}'- 
short  space  of  six  years.  It  was  a  wonder  to  every  beholder,  and  re- 
mains to  our  day  in  many  i-espects  the  most  remarkable  architectural 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  23.'5 

monument  of  Christendom.  Since  its  transforniiition  into  a  Turkish 
mosque,  on  the  downfall  of  Constantinople  in  145:j,  it  has  lost  nuiuh 
of  its  original  magnificence.  Mohammedan  zeal  against  images  in 
their  sacred  places  led  to  the  attempt  to  destroy  the  Dt-facoment  of 
splendid  mosaics  which  had  been  preserved  in  much  mosaics, 
of  their  original  integrity.  But  happily  these  have  been  carefully 
measured  and  copied,  so  that  we  have  the  means  of  comparing  this 
building  and  its  decorations  with  the  descriptions  found  in  the 
Byzantine  writers.' 

As  before  remarked  (p.  233),  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia,  built 
by  Constantine,  had  been  burned  in  A.  D.  532,  during  a  fearful 
conflagration  originating  in  a  popular  outbreak  between  rival 
factions.  Justinian  resolved  to  rebuild  it  on  a  scale  of  magnifi- 
cence worthy  the  first  temple  of  Christendom.  A  man  of  com- 
prehensive plans,  he  was  also  possessed  of  a  rare  practical  talent  to 
secure  the  means  of  their  accomplishment.  Tradition  says  that  the 
plans  were  ready  within  forty  days  after  the  destruction  vast  prepara- 
of  the  first  church.  To  the  governors  of  the  provinces  moq**- 
the  emperor  issued  edicts  to  procure  the  most  costly  materials  for 
this  work.  To  beautify  this  church  pagan  temples  in  Asia  Minor 
and  Greece  were  plundered  of  their  richest  art  treasures.*  The  his- 
torians tell  us  that  all  the  available  revenues  of  the  empire  were  laid 
under  contribution,  and  many  new  taxes  were  afterward  levied  for 
its  completion.  To  make  the  building  fireproof  was  one  of  the  first 
conditions  imposed  upon  the  architects.  An  immense  number  of 
workmen  were  employed.*  Justinian  himself,  by  daily  visitations, 
and  by  encouragements  or  rebukes,  pushed  on  the  work  with  such 
marvelous  rapidity  that  it  was  dedicated  in  December,  537  A.  D. 

The  dangers  from  fire  had  been  averted,  but  those  from  another 
source  had  not  been  foreseen.    Twenty-two  years  after  its  dedication 

'  One  of  tlie  best  authorities  on  tlio  Byzantine  architecture,  as  it  baa  been  pre- 
served to  our  time,  is  Salzeuberg,  W. :  AU-christliche  Baudenkmale  von  Constmitiiiople 
vom  Vbis  XllJahrhundcrt.  Berlin,  1854.  On  the  occasion  of  the  extensive  repairs 
of  the  Cliurch  of  St.  Sophia  in  1847-48,  the  Prussian  government  took  occasion  to 
deapatcli  Salzenberg  to  Constantinople  to  make  careful  drawings  and  take  accurate 
measurements  of  tliis  church.  Fortunately  the  celebrated  architect,  Fossati,  was 
superintending  these  repairs,  and  gave  to  Salzenberg  every  aid  to  complete  liis  work 
The  extensive  scaflbldings,  reaching  to  the  highest  point  of  tiie  dome,  gave  opportu- 
nity to  make  all  necessary  measurements,  and  the  removal  of  the  tliick  coats  of 
whitewash  revealed  the  mosaics  in  all  their  original  magnificence.  Thus  lias  been 
preserved  a  complete  description  of  the  forms  and  interior  decorations  of  this  mag- 
nificent church. 

«  Salzenberg:    Op.  cit.,  s.  46.     Gibbon:  Decline  and  Fall,  chap.  xl. 

*  The  Byzantine  chroniclers  claim  that  ten  thousand  were  thus  employed. 


236  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

l)ortions  of  tlie  dome  and  of  the  furniture  of  the  church  were  ruined 
Injury  by  ^Y  ^^^  earthquake.  Jufstinian  hastened  to  strengthen 
eartiKiuake.  the  supports,  elevated  the  dome  about  twenty-five  feet, 
renovated  the  interior,  and  within  five  years  the  church  was  rededi- 
cated.  For  thirteen  centuries  it  has  stood  uninjured  by  repeated 
shocks  of  earthquakes  whicli  have  toppled  many  other  structures  to 
ruins. 

The  visitor  to  St.  Sophia  first  enters  the  fore-court  of  the  church, 
which  is  bounded  on  three  sides  by  a  row  of  columns. 

Description.  .,  ,        „  ,,         ,       ,.,-,..       ,«/       tt 

and  on  the  fourth  by  the  building  itself  {v.  higa.  116, 

117).     Passing  by  the  fountain   in    the  middle  of    the   court,    he 

reaches  the  narthex,  the  place  for  the  penitents.     From  this  space 

five  marble  doors,  richly  decorated  with  bronze,  lead  into  a  second 

somewhat  more   extended  and  spacious  A^estibule    having  vaulted 

ceilings  richly  adorned  Avith  variegated  marbles  and  mosaics.     Here 

the  sexes  separated.     The  women  proceeded  to  the  doors  on  either 

side  of  the  vestibule  that  opened  to  the  staircase  leading  to  the 

second  story.     This  was  called  the  gynoeceum,  because  exclusively 

set  apart  for  the  use  of  the  women.     The  men  passed  through  nine 

folding-doors  to  the  groundfloor  of  the  main  nave.' 

The  groundplan    of  this  church  is  nearly  square  (v.  Fig.  116). 

The  inner  length,  exclusive  of  the  tribune,  is  234  feet. 
Dimensions.  i       i  i  i  %•        o      ^ 

the  breadth  217  feet.      Over  the  central  portion  rises 

the  cupola  to  the  40  windows  in  the  cornice  ;  and  thence  a 
dome  reaches  to  the  vertex,  about  180  feet  above  the  pavement 
below.  The  dome  is  supported  b}^  four  massive  arches  which 
spring  from  immense  buttresses.  Leading  east  and  west  from  the 
square  area  beneath  are  rooms  of  semicircular  outline,  to  each  of 
which  three  colossal  niches  are  connected.  These  immense  semicir- 
cular spaces  are  covered  by  semidomes,  which  partly  lean  upon  the 
main  arches  which  support  the  central  dome,  and  are  partly  sup- 
ported by  the  cylindrically  vaulted  ceiling  of  the  three  niches 
(v.  Fig.  117). 

The  two  side  niches,  called  exedra,  are  also  semicircular  and  cov- 
ered with  smaller  semidomes.^     The  two  center  niches 

Ceilings. 

nave,  however,  cylindrically  vaulted  ceilings.  The 
cast  one  terminates  in  a  semicircle,  covered  by  a  concha  which 
rises  from  the  enclosing  wall,  and  forms  the  apse  or  tribune.     All 

'  Sclinaase:   Ite  Aufl.,  Bd.  iii,  ss.  137,  138.  , 

^  Distinction  must  be  made  in  the  plan  between  the  church  proper  and  the  annexed 

portions.     Tlie  dome,  a  b,  covers  the  central  part  of  the  church  proper. 

3  Tlie  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  this  remarkable  >:'))hVng'  cfu  be  understood  hy 

frequent  reference  to  the  vertical  section  (Fig.  117). 


FIjr.  lie— St.  Poplila.    Groundplan. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  239 

of  these  spaces  taken  together  form  the  7iaos,  or  temple  proper. 
Between  this  and  the  enclosing  walls  on  the  north  and  south  sides 
extend  the  two-storied  side  halls,  each  of  which  is  divided  into  three 
parts.     Four  colossal  pillars  furnish  the  foundation  for 

,1  1  ^'         .IT  i-iii.il  Dome  support. 

the  arches  supportnig  the  dome,  while  behind  these  to- 
ward the  north  and  south,  in  the  enclosing  wall,  are  four  buttresses 
connected  with  these  pillars  by  arches.  By  a  series  of  buttresses 
and  connecting  arches  firm  supports  are  secured  for  the  conchas  and 
the  cylindrically  vaulted  ceilings.  Thus  the  entire  building,  while 
possessing  this  diversity  of  outline,  is  bound  together  into  a  beauti- 
ful and  harmonious  unity.  All  ceiling  spaces  are  cylindrical  or 
domed.  In  addition  to  the  enclosing  walls  and  the  system  of  but- 
tresses these  are  supported  in  the  lower  i)art  by  forty  columns  and 
eight  free  pilasters;  in  the  upper  part  by  sixty  columns.' 

The    lighting   of   the    interior   of   St.   Sophia   is  very   brilliant. 

Wherever  space  and  safety  permit  are  placed  windows 

1  1       -.  1      T     ,.  .  1  The  lighting, 

in  great  number  and  ot  marked  dimensions,  so  that  a 

flood  of  light  pours  through  them  into  the  house  of  God."     At  the 

base  of  the  central  dome  are  forty  windows,  and  each  of  the  half 

domes  has  five.     The  first  rays  of  the  morning  sun  stream  into  the 

nave  through  the  six  large  windows  in  the  tribune,  while  the  setting 

sun,  shining  through  the   immense  semicircular  window  over  the 

entrance  in  the  west,  bathes  the  whole  interior  in  go.den  effulgence. 

Twelve  windows  admit  the  flight  through  the  arches  on  the  north, 

and  an  equal  number  on  the   south  diffuse  an  abundance  of  light 

throughout  the  lateral  halls  above  and  below.     There  is  evidence 

that  some  of  the  window  spaces  existing  in  the  time  of  Procopius 

have  been  closed  by  masonry;  nevertheless,  the  present  mo.sque  is 

very  brilliantly  lighted.''     The  iniunction  of  Justinian 

*'  j&  J  c    11      111  Fireproof. 

to  build  a  fireproof  church  was  most  carefully  heeded, 
even  in  the  arrangement  of  the  windows.     By  an  ingenious  and  ex- 
pensive combination  of  brick  work  and  marble  plates  even  the  frame 
settings  of  the  windows  are  entirely  lacking  in  wood. 

The  impression  made  upon  the  visitor  on  his  first  entrance  to  this 
church  is  that  of  vastness,  grandeur,  and  magnificence.  i,„pr,.8s(on 
The  eye  wanders  over  the  immense  nave,  peers  into  the  upon  tin;  vis- 
adjacent  halls,  rests  upon  the  beautiful  gyneca?um,  then 
is  lifted  to  the  enormous  dome  that  seems  to  float  in  midair.  At 
every  step  new  beauties  are  revealed.  The  richness  of  the  materials, 
and  the  completed  unity  in  the  midst  of  almost  infinite  diversity, 
entrance  the  beholder.  In  Justinian's  time,  when  to  all  essentials 
of  the  structure  preserved  to  our  day  were  added  the  rich  a<lorn- 

'  Salzenberg :  ss.  53,  54,  55.         »  Salzcuberg :  s.  84.        »  Sal/cnbcr^r ;  Op.  rlt.,  id. 


240  ARCIIxEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

ments  of  the  high  altar,  the  beautiful  anihos,  the  sparkling  of  the 
vessels  of  gold  bedecked  with  gems,  the  gleaming  of  countless  can- 
delabra, the  splendour  of  the  garments  of  the  retinue  of  clergy 
and  helpers,  the  sonorous-voiced  priests  as  they  intoned  the  sublime 
ritual,  the  response  from  the  hundred-voiced  choir,  rolling  through 
the  corridors  and  arches  like  the  voice  of  many  waters — the  woi-- 
shiper  must  have  been  impressed  that  this  was  a  temple  worthy  of 
dedication  to  the  Eternal  Wisdom,  and  one  where  his  Spirit  would 
delight  to  dwell. 

Of  the  unparalleled  richness  of  the  decorations  we  cannot  speak 
The  decora-  i'^  detail.  The  pavement  was  wrought  out  into  very 
•■ious-  elaborate  and  beautiful  j^atterns  of  marble  mosaic.     The 

columns  were  of  the  richest  and  rarest  materials.  The  walls  were 
lined  with  slabs  of  marble  and  of  verde  antique  of  most  exquisite 
coloring.  The  walls  and  ceilings  in  the  great  dome  and  in  all  the 
adjacent  parts  were  enriched  with  mosaics  of  saints  of  colossal  size.' 

St.  Sophia  furnished  the  type  for  all  later  churches  of  the  Byz- 
A  type  for  antine  Empire.  It  brought  to  perfection  a  style  that 
churcheYof  can  strictly  be  Called  unique.  The  whole  spirit  of  the 
the  East.  exterior  was  harmonious  with  the  theory  of  inperialism 

prevalent  in  the  Eastern  Empire  and  Church.  Art  was  pressed  into 
the  service  of  dogma.  It  crystallized  into  stiff  and  unchanging  types 
which  continued  in  the  Russian-Greek  churches  till  the  time  of 
Peter  the  Great. 

The  transformation  of  St.  Sophia  into  a  Mohammedan  mosque  left 
almost  unchanged  the  narthex,  the  nave,  the  side  halls,  and  the 
The  losses  to  gynecseum;  but  the  other  portions,  especially  those  moi'e 
the  church.  immediately  used  in  the  Christian  cultus,  have  been  en- 
tirely lost.  The  marble  railing  separating  the  clergy  from  the 
laity,  the  seats  of  the  priests,  the  throne  of  the  paliiarch,  the  cibo- 
rium,  the  ambos,  and  all  the  utensils  of  the  church  have  perished. 
From  documents  still  extant  ^  we  learn  that  under  Justinian  not 
less  than  five  hundred  and  twenty-five  persons  were  employed  in 
the  direct  service  of  this  church,  while  in  the  reign  of  Heraclius 
the  number  had  increased  to  six  hundred.^  These  also  cared  for 
three  other  churches  of  the  capital. 

The  bema  probably  extended  to  the  boi'der  of  the  eastern  half 
dome,  while  the  solea,  for  the  inferior  clergy,  occupied  the  entire 

'  V.  the  representation  of  the  great  mosaic  of  Ciirist  and  the  emperor  that  was 
WTOuglit  out  over  the  grand  portal  (Fig.  44,  p.  129). 

"^v.  Dii  Cange:    Constantinopolis  Christiana,  lih.  iii,  p.  Tl. 

^Du  Cange:  iii,  71.  They  are  given  as  follows:  80  priests,  150  deacons,  40  dea- 
couesses,  70  subdeacons,  160  readers,  125  ciiaiiters,  75  doorkeepers. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


241 


space  covered  by  the  eastern  concha.'  The  anibos  must  have  stood 
still  farther  toward  the  west,  and  must  have  occupied  a  The  arranR.-- 
very  prominent  place,  from  the  fact  that  here  the  Scrip-  ment  of  parts, 
tares  were  read,  the  sermon  preached,  and  the  emperors  crowned. 
Near  by,  in  the  adjacent  spaces,  were  stationed  the  singers  under  tlie 
direction  of  leaders.  In  the  exedra,  toward  the  north  and  south,  were 
collected  the  deacons  who  were  to  assist  in  tlie  sacred  ministrations. 
The  sacred  table  of  gold,  inlaid  with  gems,  rested  on  golden  columns 
and  was  supplied  with  golden  furniture.'  Over  it  rose  the  beautiful 
ciboriura  on  four  silver  columns,  between  which  were  spread  the 
richly  ornamented  hangings.  The  lofty  octagonal  dome  above 
was  crowned  by  a  silver  globe  surmounted  by  the  cross.  From 
the  ceiling  of  the  ciboriura  hung  the  silver  dove,  representing  the 
Holy  Ghost,  which  contained  the  sacred  elemiMits  to  be  distributed 
among  the  sick.  From  the  description  of  Paulus  Silentiarius  we  in- 
fer that  the  accompaniments  of  candelabra,  lamps,  and  halos  for  the 
illumination  of  this  church  must  have  been  incomparably  rich  and 
imposing. 

§  6.    The  Circuhir  Strudnre. 

A  fourth  type  of  the  central  building  is  the  circular,  with  an 
inner   portico   which   surrounds   the    area   covered   by   the   dome. 


Few  churches  following  this  general  plan  were  erected   santa   con- 
in  the  west  during  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great. 
The  most  typical  example  of  this  circular  ardiitecture  from  th.o 
'  Paulus  Silentiarius:  i,  v.  240.  etc.     Evagrius:  HU<  Ercl.,  lib.  iv,  c.  xxxi. 

5  Paulus  Silentiarius:   ii,  v.  335. 
16 


242 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


fourth  century  is  Santa  Constanza,'  on  the  Via  Nomentana  in  Rome 
(Fig.  118).  Tradition  says  it  occupies  the  site  of  a  former  Bacchus 
temi)le.  Its  rotunda  is  sixty-seven  feet  in  diameter.  Twenty-four 
columns  in  double  rows  support  the  dome  and  the  vaultings  of  the 
outer  corridor.  Here  the  sarcophagus '  of  Constantia,  the  daughter 
of  Constantine,  was  formerly  preserved.  It  seems  probable  that 
the  entire  building  was  once  used  as  a  mausoleum  to  the  imperial 
Marks  a traubi-  family,  rather  than  as  a  temple  to  Bacchus.'  This  build- 
tion.  ing  marks  a  transition  from  the  classic  to  the  mediaeval 

spirit.  The  degeneracy  of  the  old  is  apparent,  while  at  the  same 
time  elements  are  here  introduced  which  play  a  most  important  part 
in  the  development  of  Christian  architecture.^ 


ll't     bintd  MatKi  M  i};{j:iciil,  ^l)(  LKi  df  ra„aui.  \titleal 


Magpiore 
Nocera. 


Of  somewhat  similar  arrangement  is  the  church  Santa  Maria 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  in  Nocera  de  Pagani,  near  Naples  (Fig.  119). 
n  This  also  seems  to  belong  to  the  fourth  century.  It  is 
a  baptistery  of  sixteen  sides.  The  central  domed  space 
is  thirty-five  feet  in  diameter,  while  that  of  the  entire  building  is 
seventy-three  feet.  While  its  exterior  is  wanting  in  attractiveness, 
the  interior  nevertheless  makes  upon  the  mind  of  the  visitor  "  an 
impression  of  the  fullness  of  mystery  in  which  the  church  of  that 

'  Ciampini :    Vetera  Monimenta,  Tom.  i.  Tab.  i,  etc.     Kugler :    GescMchted.  Baiokurust, 
Bd.  i,  ss.  .327,  328.     Deliio  ii.  Bezold :  Op.  ciL,  s.  34,  Taf.  8,  Fig.  1,  2. 
'Now  in  the  Yntican  Museum. 
^Forster:  Mittdu.  Unter  Italien,  s.  250. 
*  Kugler:    Op.  clL,  Bd.  i,  s.  328. 


EARLY    CIIKISTIAN    AKCIIITECTUIIE.  243 

(.eriod  must  vie  with  the  decaying  splendor  of  heathen  tem]>k'ft 
and  shrines."  '  While  grouped  in  the  same  class  as  Santa  Con- 
stanza,  this  building  differs  from  it  in  many  essential  features,  in 
some  respects  being  quiie  closely  allied  to  San  Vitale  of  Ravenna.^ 

A  third  example  of  this  architectural  type  is  the  baptistery  of  San 
Giovanni  in  I.aterano  in  Rome/  Tradition  attributes  the  founda- 
tion to  Constantinc  I.,  but  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  building  was 
erected  by  Sixtus  III.,  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century.  De  Fleury 
ai'gues  this  from  its  architectural  features.  Eight  columns  sujiport 
an  entablature  upon  which  rests  a  second  series  of  colunnis,  by 
which  the  dome  is  supported.  Between  the  central  space  and  the 
enclosing  wall  is  a  broad  passage-way  which  is  lighted  by  windows 
placed  in  the  lower  section  of  the  dome.  While  much  ])ertaining 
to  this  baptistery  is  conjectural,  it  is  nevertheless  fairly  well  estab- 
lished that  the  main  features  were  as  here  represented.  The  general 
custom  of  devoting  a  separate  building  to  the  celebration  of  this  in- 
itiative rite  of  the  Christian  Church  is  here  illustrated. 

The  diversity  of  opinion  relative  to  the  connection  and  reciprocal 
influence  of  eastern  and  western  architectural  })rincii)les  gan  stefano  r<>- 
is  very  manifest  in  the  case  of  San  Stefano  rotondo,^  of  ^ndo. 
Rome.  "  It  is  an  enigma  in  the  architectural  history  of  Rome  " 
(Dehio  u.  Bezold).  By  some  it  has  been  regarded  as  a  transforma- 
tion of  an  earlier  temple  of  Vesta;  by  others  (specially  by  some  of 
the  French  archaeologists)  as  an  apartment  of  the  grand  market  of 
Nero;  by  still  others  (Bunsen)  as  an  original  church,  while  others 
(Ilubsch)  regard  it  as  a  most  striking  i)roof  of  the  inventive  genius 
<»f  the  early  Christian  architects.  While  lacking  de-  uncemimv  of 
monstrative  evidence  the  opinion  is  nevertheless  fairly  onjrin. 
established  that  it  originated  in  the  fifth  century,  probably  in  the 
reign  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  just  prior  to  the  Roman  downfall. 
It  likewise  possesses  elements  allying  it  to  the  central  buildings  of 
the  Orient  which  originated  in  the  reign  of  Constantine  I.  Just 
to  what  extent  the  liturgical  needs  of  the  Church  influenced  its 
peculiar  construction  ma}^  not  be  fully  determined.  protxT ciajwin- 
Certainly  its  arrangement  of  concentric  circles  in  con-  "^a"""- 
nection  with  two  perpendicular  axes  justifies  its  classification  und«H- 
the  head  of  central  domical  buildings.* 

'  Biirckhardt :   Cicerone,  a.  89. 

2  Dehio  u.  Bezold:    Op.  cit,  Ite  Lief.,  ss.  M,  ."^5,  Taf.  8,  Fijr.  3,  4. 
SRohaull  (le    Fleury:  Le  Lateran.   pi.   7,   Fip.  3,  4.     Bimaen :   Dit  Ba.Mktn  dts 
chrMlichen  Roms,  Taf.  xxxvii.     Dehio  u.  Bezold :    Op.  cit.,  ss.  34.  3.'),  Taf.  8,  V\«.  3.  4. 

*  Fergusson :  History  of  Architecture.  Bnnsen :  Be-ichreihunf/  d.  Stadt  Horns,  lu. 
Die  Bcmliken  d.  Christ.  Boms,  Taf.  xix,  B.  C.     Hubsch  :  Die  oll-chHitliche  Kirc/ura. 

*  Dehio  u.  Bezold:    Op.  cit.,  s.  41,  Taf.  11,  Fig.  1,  2. 


544 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN    ART. 


Among  other  noted  churches  of  this  class  may  be  mentioned  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  Church  of  the 
Ascension,  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  both  from  the  Constantinian 
period.  Unfortunately,  they  are  known  only  through  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  historians.  An  example  of  the  purest  Byzantine 
style,  Avrought  out  by  Byzantine  artists,  yet  for  Mohammedan  uses, 
is  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  at  Jerusalem,  built  on  the  site  of  Solomon's 
temple.  It  belongs  to  the  seventh  century.  It  is  the  finest  example 
of  the  central  structure  that  has  been  preserved,  and  ranks  among 
the  most  impressive  sacred  buildings  of  the  world,  not  from  its  vast- 
ness,  but  from  the  purity  of  its  style  and  the  intense  interest  associ- 
ated with  its  site.' 

§  7.    Tlie  Craciform  Buildings. 

A  fifth  class  of  central  buildings  of  the  early  Christian  centuries 
is  the  cruciform.  They  wei'e  at  first 
mostly  with  equal  arms — the  Latin  form 
of  the  cross  being  later  introduced  into 
the  oblong  basilica  through  the  develop- 
ment of  the  transept.  Christian  struc- 
tures in  the  general  form  of  the  Greek 
cross  wei"e  commonly  used  for  burial 
chapels.  Like  forms  are  met  in  build- 
ings of  pagan  origin,  and  devoted  to  like 
purposes;  yet  it  is  most  probable  that  the 
Christian  Church  first  attached  to  the 
form  of  the  cross  a  deep  religious  signifi- 
cance, and  found  it  especially  adapted  to 
the  purposes  of  public  Avorship. 

The  Church  of  SS.  Nazareo  e  Celso,''  of 
Ravenna  (Figs.  120,  121),  is  a  good  exam- 
ple of  this  species  of  central  structure.  It 
M^as  the  burial  chapel  of  Galla  Placidia, 
and  is  still  among  the  most  instructive 
Fig.  120.  -  ss.  Nazareo  e  ceiso.    monuments  of   earlv   Christian  architec- 

Burial  Chapel  of   Galla   Placidia,  •,      n-,i        p  n      ^  •  i 

uavenna.  Groundpian.  t'lre.      1  he  fate   of  this   woman,  whose 


'  Tlie  controversies  respecting  the  origin,  location,  and  fate  of  the  buildings  erected 
on  this  sacred  site  have  been  protracted,  and  at  times  passionate.  The  most  calr... 
tliorongh,  and  generally  satisfiictory  e.xaminations  have  been  niJide  by  the  Count  do 
Vogiie  in  his  Le  Temple  de  Jerusalem  and  Les  Etjlises  de  la  terre  sainte. 

''  H.  Gaily  Knight:  Ojh  cit,  plate  vi.  Quast :  Op.  cif.,  ss.  10-15,  tt.  ii-vi.  Dehio  u. 
Bezold:   0]).  cit,  s.  45.  t.  12.  Fig.  4,  5. 

3  The  chnrcii  proper  is  the  Latin  cross,  the  npper  portion  of  the  fignre ;  llie  other 
parts  show  the  gronndplan  of  buildings  connected  with  the  church. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


345 


fortunes  were  so  str:iii<rt'ly  roinaiitic,  c-annut  l)e  ostablislicd  willi 
complete  liistoric  certainty,  nor  has  the  question  wlicthcr  sljo  died 
in  Rome  or  Ravenna  been  satisfactorily  determined.  'J'he  fact  of 
her  interment  in  this  building  is,  however,  generally  accepted. 
The  magnificent  interior,  which  is  in  the  spirit  of  the  truest  art, 
suggests  the  mausoleum  of  some  royal  personage,  and  indicates  a 
period  when  correct  art  principles  had  not  yet  been  supplanted  bv 
the  rudeness  of  a  later  barbarism.  The  groundplan  is  that  of  a 
Latin  cross  (v.  Fig.  120)  like  some  that  had  already  been  built  in 
Rome  and  in  the  Orient;  but  it  is  note-worthy  that  this  is  the 
oldest  existing  church  in  which  the  dome  covers  a  quadrangu- 
lar space  in  the  form  of  the  cross.'  The  exterior  is  of  brick, 
and  of  very  indifferent  appearance.      The   interior  form  and  ar- 


Fig.  121. — SS.  Nazareo  e  Celso,  Ravenna.    Longitudinal  section. 


rangement  are,  however,  quite  peculiar,  a]t))roacIiiiig  more  nearly  to 
the  classic  spirit  than  do  other  so-called  Hyzantiiu'  buildings  in  the 
Occident.  The  decorations  in  mosaics  and  marbles  are  rich  and 
harmonious  (v.  Fig.  121).  The  figures  are  well  executed,  the  details 
l»leasing,  and  all  contribute  to  the  perfection  of  the  whole.  In  it  an- 
five  sarcophagi.*  Their  history  is  somewhat  uncertain,  yet  by  com- 
bining the  traditions  and  all  the  known  facts  it  seems  probable  that 
the  building  was  designed  for  a  mausoleum  for  Galla  Placidia  and 
her  family.  Under  the  dome,  between  the  sarcoi)hagi,  stands  an 
altar  which  is  of  much  archanilogical  interest  in  connei-tioii  with  the 
appointments  of  the  Church  of  the  fifth  century.' 

1  Qnast:  s.  11,  t.  ii,  5. 

«  The  position  of  tliree  of  these  is  seen  in  Figs.  I'JO  and  121 . 

3  Qiiast :  s.  13,  t.  iii,  2. 


246 


ARCHEOLOGY    OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


Another  species  of  this  class  of  cruciform  structures  is  represented 
by  the    Cathedral   of  Trier,   from   the  fourth  century,   A.   D.   370 

(Fig.  1-22).  This  cannot  with  strict 
jjropriety  be  called  a  central  struc- 
ture; nevertheless  the  other  parts  are 
so  brought  into  architectural  unit}^  by 
the  middle  portion  that  its  likeness  to 
other  buildings  of  the  central  type  is 
striking.  The  intersection  of  four 
vaulted  ceilings  in  the  middle  of  the 
church,  over  which  rises  the  dome,  sug- 
gests a  rivalry  between  the  Byzantine 
style  and  that  of  the  oblong  basilica. 

Among  the  most  important  of  this 
species  of  churches  is  San  Lorenzo  of 
Milan,  probably  from  the  fifth  century. 
Whether  its  origin  was  pagan  or  Christ- 
ian has  been  warmly  debated,  nor  is  it 
certain  what  portions  of  the  present  structure  are  original.  Never- 
theless, the  attractiveness  of  its  style  and  arrangement,  as  well 
as  its  probable  antiquity,  have  justified  the  thorough  study  of  its 
details. 


122.  —  Cathedral 
Groundplau. 


of     Trier. 


EARLY    C1I1116T1A.N    EI'IUKAPIIV.  247 


CHAPTER  VII. 

EARLY     CHRISTIAN     K  FIG  R  A  PHY. 
§  1.  Definitions  and  Princljdes. 

Epigraphy  treats  of  the  content,  character,  chronology,  decipher- 
ing, and  interpretation  of  inscriptions. 

The  term  inscriptions  is  applied  to  "  all  non-literary  remains  of  a 
langnage  with  the  exception  of  coins,  letters  and  jour- 
nals." '  They  are  found  in  widely  separated  districts,  on  d^""'"""- 
various  materials,  and  executed  for  a  great  variety  of  puiposes. 
While  some  would  refer  these  chiefly  to  the  department  of  literary 
histoiy,''  it  is  evident  that  they  are  likewise  invaluable  in  the  study  of 
political  history,  of  private  life,  of  religion,  laws,  arts,  and  beliefs. 

When  Paul,  on  Mars  Hill,  said  to  the  Athenians,  "  I  perceive  that 
in  all  things  ye  are  very  religious.  For,  as  I  passed  Early  chruuau 
by,  and  beheld  your  devotions,  I  found  an  altar  with  "se. 
this  inscription,  To  an  UxKN()\yN^  God"  (Acts  xvii,  22,  2;3),  he 
recognized  the  importance  and  utility  of  epigraphical  teaching. 
The  apostolic  example  was  frequently  imitated  by  the  Christian 
fathers  in  their  apologetic  writings  against  their  heathen  opponents, 
and  afterward  in  the  defence  of  the  Catholic  doctrines  as  against 
the  heretical  teachers.  Not  infrequently  inscriptions  are  quote<l  in 
their  exegetical  works  and  in  their  sermons,  while  the  earl^-  Churcli 
historians,  Eusebius  and  Socrates,  depend  for  some  of  their  statr- 
ments  upon  the  evidence  furnished  by  inscriptions  whic-h  were  well 
known  in  their  times  but  afterwards  perished. 

Since  the  great  revival  of  the  sixteenth  century  this  dei)artmiiit 
of  archaeology  has  been  very  diligently  cultivated.  i„p,,.;Lsea  in- 
By  the  added  evidence  of  epigraphical  remains  the  terest  in  later 
history  of  Asiatic  dynasties  and  of  Egypt  has  lieen 
entirely  reconstructed,  and  the  character  of  these  far  off  civil- 
izations has  been  determined  with  a  good  degree  of  certainty.  The 
military  conquests,  the  social  status  of  the  jjcople,  the  ini))U'- 
ments  of  peaceful  industry  and  of  war,  the  provisions  for  education, 
the  condition  of  science,  literature,  and  art,  are  often  tnust  clearly 
attested  by  these  silent,  unconscious  witnesses.     The  results  of  epi- 

'  V.  Hiicbner:  article  "Inscriptions"  in  the  Encyclopedia  lin'laiwirn,  iHli  ediiion. 
'v.  Boeckli:   Corpus  Inscriptionum  Grceca7-um,  vol.  i,  Preface,  p.  vii. 


248  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN    ART. 

grapliical  studies  have  not  been  less  interesting  or  helpful  in  writing 
Value  of  ^^^^  history  of  the  Christian  Church.  They  have  fully  con- 
Christian  epig-  firmed  the  opinion  that  Christianit}'^  was  early  embraced 
^^^^-  by  members  of  the  better  families  at  Rome.    They  have 

more  clearly  illustrated  the  contrast  between  heathen  and  Christian 
morality,  life,  and  hopes.  They  have  greatly  strengthened  confi- 
dence in  the  integrity  and  accuracy  of  some  of  the  early  Church 
historians,  upon  whose  statements  unstinted  ridicule  had  hitherto 
been  cast.  They  have  proved  the  tenacity  of  heathen  faith  and 
practices,  and  their  vitality  long  after  the  time  to  which  it  had 
been  usual  to  refer  their  decadence  and  death.  They  have  con- 
firmed the  statements  relative  to  the  rapid  jirogress  of  monasticism 
in  the  West  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  and  have  sug- 
gested sufiicient  reasons  for  the  marvellous  success  of  this  institu- 
tion. They  have  shown  that  the  accounts  of  suffering,  and  of  the 
number  of  martyr  deaths  among  the  early  Christians,  were  not  ex- 
aggerated by  the  ancient  Church  histoi'ians  (Eusebius  and  others), 
and  that  the  attempts  (notably  by  Gibbon  and  his  school)  to  dimin- 
ish the  horrors  of  the  Neronian  and  other  persecutions  are  not 
justified  by  the  evidence.  They  have  unconsciously  testified  to  the 
orders  and  duties  of  the  clergy,  and  to  the  number,  modes  of  admin- 
istration, and  efticacy  of  the  Christian  sacraments.  They  have 
clearly  proved  the  acceptance  and  strong  sui)porting  power  of  the 
distinguishing  doctrines  of  Christianity  in  the  midst  of  the  most 
trying  circumstances.  The}^  have  been  the  means  of  correcting 
serious  errors  in  chronology,  and  of  determining  the  genuine  text  of 
the  early  Christian  writings.' 

The  number  of  Christian  inscriptions  of  the  first  six  centuries 
Number  of  ^^''^^^^y  described  is  very  great.  It  is  impossible  to 
Christian  in-  Speak  with  precision,  since  hundreds  are  yearly  added 
scriptions.  ^Q  ^1^^,  number.  Probably  more  than  twenty  thousand 
have  been  discovered,  and  accessions  are  made  almost  daily.^  Of 
these  by  far  the  larger  portion  (probably  more  than  three  fourths) 
have  been  found  in  Rome  and  its  immediate  vicinity.    Great  as  is  the 

'  '■  Inscriptions  are  discoveries  capitalized,  as  it  were,  and  the  income  of  them  is 
only  gradually  reahzed."—\V.  P.  P.  Longfellow  in  the  American  Journal  of  Arclat- 
obgy,  1885,  p.  203. 

*  In  1862  de  Rossi  affirmed  that  the  number  of  Christian  inscriptions  of  the 
first  six  centuries  then  known  was  about  fourteen  thousand,  of  which  eleven  thou- 
sand were  found  in  Rome  and  vicinity,  aud  three  thousand  in  all  the  rest  of  the 
world.  V.  Da  la  Determination  Chronolugique  des  Inscriptions  chreliennes  in  the  Revue 
Archeologique,  December,  1862.  The  archajological  world  has  long  awaited  the  pub- 
lication of  de  Rossi's  second  volume  of  the  Inscriptiones  Christiance.  Until  this  ap- 
pears many  things  are  left  to  mere  conjecture. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    EPIGRAPHY.  249 

number  already  known,  it  is  but  a  small  frartion  of  what  once  ex- 
isted. "  From  collections  made  in  tlie  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  it 
appears  that  there  were  once  at  least  one  hundred  and  seventy  ancient 
Christian  inscriptions  in  Rome  which  liad  an  historical  or  monu- 
mental character,  written  generally  in  metre,  and  to  be  seen  at  that 
time  in  the  places  they  were  intended  to  illustrate.  Of  these  only 
twenty-six  remain  in  whole  or  in  parts.  In  the  Roman  topofi^raphies 
of  the  seventh  century,  one  hundred  and  forty  sepulchres  of  famous 
martyrs  and  confessors  are  enumerated;  we  have  recovered  only 
twenty  inscribed  memorials  to  assist  us  in  the  identification  of  these. 
Only  nine  epitaphs  have  come  to  light  belonging  to  the  bishops  of 
Rome  during  these  same  six  centuries;  and  3^et,  during  that  period, 
there  were  certainly  buried  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city  upward  of 
sixty." '  De  Rossi  believes  that  more  than  one  hundred  thousand 
Christian  inscriptions  of  the  first  six  centuries  once  existed,  four 
fifths  of  which  have  been  lost. 

The  early  Christian  inscriptions  are  mostly  found  upon  stone 
(generally  marble),  bronze,  or  on  tables  of  baked  clay.  Materials  on 
A  few  examples  in  which  the  inscription  is  upon  lead   vviiu-n  insorip- 

1  ,  1,1  1  1  2      rrii      1    ..4.  tions  are  fouud. 

tablets  or  plates  have  been  preserved.^      1  he  letters  are 
usuall}'^  sunk  into  the  stone;  in  very  few  cases,  if  at  all,  are  they  in 
relief.     Sometimes,  especiall}^  in  tlie   catacombs  of  Rome,  Syracuse, 
and  Naples,'  the  inscription  is  painted,  usually  with  red  pigment; 
in  some  instances  the  sculptured  letters  are  gilded. 

The  writers  on  Latin  epigraphy  divide  the  inscriptions  into  two 
classes:  "(1)  those  which  were  written  upon  other  ob-  Kinds  of  in- 
jects of  various  kinds,  to  denote  their  peculiar  purjtose,  s'riptions. 
and  in  this  way  have  been  preserved  along  with  them;  and  (2)  those 
which  themselves  are  the  objects,  written,  to  be  durable,  as  a  rule, 
on  metal  or  stone.  The  first  class  is  that  of  inscriptions  in  the 
stricter  sense  of  the  word  (tituli);  the  second  is  that  of  instruments 
or  charters,  public  or  private  {ler/es,  instrumejita,  Uihulw).^ "  Some 
writers  on  Christian  epigraphy'  incline  to  a  threefold  division, 
namely:  (l)  Those  cut  in  stone  or  bronze  {marmora,  tituli,  hipi<les)\ 
(J)    those   painted   in   colors  or  sometimes  written  with  coal   (Ital. 

'  Nortlicote  and  Brownlow :  Roma  Softerranm.  vol.  ii,  part  iii.  p.  :i. 

2  In  this  respect  tlicy  correspond  to  tlic  lionthoii  inscriptions,  only  very  few  of  wliicii 
aie  found  on  thin  lead  j.lates,  which  wei-o  rolled  up.  placed  in  the  tombs,  and  thus 
pteserved.     v.  Franz:  Elem.  Epiyr.  Gr..,  p.  168. 

3v.  Schultze:  Katakombm  v.  S.  Gennaro  dd  Poveri  in  KmpeL,  pp.  37,  SO,  etc. 
Martigny:  DicUonn.,  etc.,  p.  361.  Bulkttino  Arch,  aiat.,  1880,  t.  i;  1881,  t.  vu 
and  viii. 

*  Huebner :    Op.  cU. 

'  De  Rossi,  and  his  conunentators  and  disciples. 


250  ARCILEOLOCJY    OF    CHRISTIAN   ART. 

diphiti);  and  (3)  those  wliich  have  been  scratched  on  stone,  mortar, 
or  cement  (Ital.  graffiti).  Under  the  second  are  usuall}^  classified 
the  painted  and  gikled  glasses  and  the  colored  mosaics,  which  are 
somewhat  iiumerous  and  important.' 

It  is  highly  probable  that  inscriptions  of  the  first  class  were  pre- 
By  whom  pre-  pared  in  the  shops  of  the  workers  in  marble  {marmo- 
pared.  rarii).     The  sign  of  such  an  artisan  has  been  found  in 

Pompeii.''  The  painted  inscriptions  and  some  of  the  graffiti,  on  the 
contrary,  seem  to  have  been  sometimes  prepared  by  the  friends  of 
the  deceased,  or  by  the  Fossores.  In  a  few  graffiti  are  indications 
that  they  Avere  prepared  to  ridicule  the  Christians  and  their  faith  ^ 
(y.  Figs.  25,  26). 

In  Christian  epigraphy,  as  in  manuscripts,  well  settled  paleo- 
Paieogrraphic  graphic  principles  must  be  9bserved  in  order  to  deter- 
principies.  mine  the  genuineness  and  age  of  inscriptions.  While 
these  principles  have  not  been  so  scientifically  determined  in  the 
case  of  Christian  inscriptions  as  in  those  of  classical  origin, 
much  aid  is,  nevertheless,  furnished  ^y  them  to  the  student  of 
Christian  antiquities  to  settle  doubtful  chronologies  and  to  detect 
spurious  monuments. 

Three  forms  of  writing  are  used  in  Christian  inscriptions ;  namely, 
capitals,  uncial  characters,  and  cursive  writing.^  The  capitals  are 
generally  used  in  the  earliest  inscriptions,  but  are  often  found  in 
connection  with  the  more  popular  and  convenient  cursive  writing. 
The  uncials  are  related  to  the  cursive  in  their  inclination  to  round 
the  character,  but  more  nearly  resemble  the  capital.  This  begins 
to  appear  during  the  fourth  century,  while  in  the  fifth  it  is  first 
fully  popularized. 

Usually,  as  in  English,  these  inscriptions  are  read  from  left  to 
right;  in   a  few  instances  they  are  read  from  right  to 

How  read.  i   "^  i  -i      •  ^  i  i  i     << 

lett,  while  m  some  others  they  must  be  read  from  top 
to  bottom  (y.  Plate  VI,  No.  3).  The  lines  are  usually  of  equal 
length,  of  considerable  regularity,  and  are  broken  up  without  respect 
to  the  division  of  single  words.  In  later  inscriptions,  especially,  the 
spaces  between  the  letters  are  very  evenly  divided. 

Punctuation  seems  to  have  been  governed  by  other 

PunctuaUon.  ....  .       -,     t  t     /-  •     t-        • 

principles  than  are  now  recognized.  Instead  or  indicating 
the  sense,  it  marked  lines,  words,  syllables,  and  even  letters.     Ko 

'  For  reasons  elsewhere  given  we  have  not  observed  this  classification. 

*  "Titulos  scribendos  vel  si  quid  operis  marmorar  (ii)  opus  fuerit,  hie  habes." 

*  V.  Garrucci :  II  Crocijisso  Graffito  in  casa  dei  Cesari.     Eecker :  Das  S2)oU-  Crucifix. 

*  V.  Zell :  Handbucli  der  rbm.  Ej)igrai:)liik.  Le  Blant :  Inscriptions  chret.  de  la  Gaul, 
etc.     Also  his  Manuel  d^Epiyruphie  chreiimne. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    EPIGRAPHY.  251 

regularity  is  observed,  oftentimes  punet nation  bcint,'  wliollr  wanting-. 
Tlie  marks  vary  from  a  point  to  a  lieart-sliaped  leaf  (Plate  VIII,  No. 
6),  a  cross '  (Plate  VIII,  No.  3),  a  star,  a  ^  (Plate  VIII,  No.  2),  or  a 
triangle,  while  the  end  of  an  inscription  is  seldom  marked  at  all. 
In  conimon  with  other  ancient  inscriptions,  those  of  (Mirisiian  origin 
are  often  greatly  abbreviated,''  either  by  the  union  of  letters  or  their 
omission.  The  abbreviations  by  joined  letters  {lilerce  lujatoi)  are 
presumably  of  later  origin. 

The  orthography  of  Christian  inscriptions  often  departs  widi-Iv 
from  accepted  standards,  and  not  seldom  from  that  in  oithoKmpiiyof 
current  use.  This  incorrect  spelling  rapidly  increased  ia«-iiptioas. 
during  the  fifth  century,  the  period  of  tlie  destructive  invasions  of 
the  northern  hordes.  It  consists  in  change  of  vowels,  in  the  inter- 
change of  the  Unguals  and  labials,  in  the  omission  of  letters,  etc. 
There  is  frequent  departure  from  the  current  syntax  in  the  use  of 
unusual  and  non-classical  forms  with  prepositions,  of  relative  pro- 
nouns, etc.  At  times  attempts  to  correct  these  errors  are  noticed. 
Occasionally  Latin  words  are  written  with  Greek  characters,  and 
conversely;  sometimes  both  Latin  and  Greek  characters  are  found 
in  the  same  inscription,  and  in  a  few  instances  the  inscription  stands 
in  both  Latin  and  Greek. 

For  historical   and   archaeological  purposes  the  determination  of 
the  date  of  inscriptions  is  of  prime  importance.     Only  chronoiopy  of 
thus  are   they  helpful  to  mark  the  changes  which  the  inscriptions. 
Church  underwent  in  successive  periods  of  its  history.     Since  but  a 
small   number  of   the  monuments   containing    inscriptions  bear  a 

'  Opinions  differ  as  lo  the  significance  of  the  heart-shaped  leaf  and  tlie  cross  in  the 
midst  of  Ciiristian  inscriptions.  The  first  lias  by  some  (de  Rossi:  Lusaiptiones,  etc., 
i,  pp.  70,  148)  been  interpreted  to  indicate  the  grief  of  surviving  friends.  Both  are 
found  in  connection  with  heathen  inscriptions,  ami  therefore  can  scarcely  be  regarded 
as  "having  in  themselves  a  religious  significance.  "  C'est  ini  usage  antique  adopte 
par  les  Chretiens,  parce  qn'il  n'  avait  aucun  caractero  essenticUiuent  religieux." — 
Martigny:  Did.,  p.  185. 

'  The  hermeneutical  principles  of  classical  epigraphy  are  equally  a])plieal)lo  to  in- 
scriptions of  Christian  origin.  It  is  to  bo  regretted  that  there  is  no  good  hand- 
book on  tliis  subject.  Many  valuable  suggestions  can,  however,  be  found  in  the 
various  collections  of  inscriptions.  Among  the  older  may  bo  mentioned  Morcolli: 
De  Stilo  Inscript.  kit;  among  the  later,  tlie  valuable  collections  of  Orelli,  Mommsen. 
de  Rossi,  Le  Blant,  Boeckh,  etc.  In  the  preface  of  the  Coi-ptis  fnscn'pl.  Gracanan, 
Boeckh  has  given  some  laws  that  have  not  been  superseded.  C.  T.  N'ewton  :  Essays 
on  Art  and  Archoenlo'jy,  has  made  instructive  suggestions.  Also,  McCaid;  Christian 
Epitaphs  of  the  First  Six  Centuries,  in  the  introductory  chapter,  furnishes  valiiabjo 
information  as  to  methods  of  interpretation,  etc.  This  great  want  of  a  treatise  (ele- 
mentary) upon  Greek  epigraphy  seems  now  to  be  supplied  in  the  late  work  of 
Reinach,  Salomon:   Traite  d' Epigraphie  Grecque.     Paris,  1885. 


253  AKCII.EOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN    ART. 

detinite  date,'  it  lias  been  necessary  to  agree  upon  principles  to 
govern  in  ascertaining  the  chronology  of  those  lacking  in  this 
particiilai-.  Upon  nionunieuts  of  the  West  ai-e  found  most  fre- 
quent indications  of  the  time  of  their  preparation.  In  this  the  hea- 
then and  Christian  monuments  alike  agree.  The  most  usual  means 
of  marking  the  date  is  by  the  consular  era,  the  year  being  some- 
times expressed  b}^  figures,  sometimes  by  letters.  The  usual  abbre- 
viations for  consul  and  coiisidar  occurring  on  the  pagan  monuments 
are  likewise  used  in  Christian  inscriptions:  COS,  CONS,  COSS, 
CONSS,  CC-SS-,  and  CS-  for  CONSVLE,  CONSVLIBVS.  This 
method  of  indicating  dates  continued  until  the  abolition  of  the  con- 
sular office.^  In  the  Orient,  however,  there  are  only  exceptional 
cases  of  the  use  of  the  consular  era.  In  the  fourth  century  first 
appears  the  title  CON.,  CONS  before  the  name,  and  the  added 
abbreviations  YC,  YVCC,  that  is,  vir(i)  ela7'issuu>(s(i);  likewise  the 
mode  of  reckoning  after  the  consulate:  PC,  POST  CON,  POS,  PCC, 
etc.,  begins  in  the  same  century. 

With  A.  D.  312'  the  Romans  began  to  reckon  by  the  cycle  of 
indictions,  that  is,  by  cycles  of  fifteen  years,  or  the  time 

Indictions.  i      <•      i  •   i  "        ,  -, 

at  tJie  end  oi  wJiich  a  new  census  was  taken  and  new 
taxes  were  levied.  Exaiiiples  of  this  method  of  reckoning  occur  at 
an  earlier  date  in  the  East  than  in  the  West,  no  instance  appearing 
in  Rome  earlier  than  A.  D.  423,  and  in  Gaul  in  A.  D.  491.'  The 
usual  abbreviation  is  IND;  but  besides  this  are  met  INDIC,  IN- 
DICT, INDE. 

In  various  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire  the  date  Avas  sometimes 
Provincial  indicated  b}^  the  provincial  era.  In  Spain  the  burial 
eras.  monuments  follow  the  Spanish  era  (B.  C.  38);  in  Koith 

Africa  the  cera  Mmtretanica  (A.  D,  40  ')  is  met  with,  etc.  The  Di- 
onysian  era  does  not  appear  until  much  later.  The  month,  da}^  of 
the  month,  and  week  are  frequently  indicated  in  accordance  with 
Roman  custom.     The  interpretation  of  dates,  when  recorded,  be- 

'  Le  Blant:  Op.  cit.,  says  that  of  720  Inscriptions  in  Gaul,  onl.v  147  bear  any  mark 
of  date ;  of  200  in  Treves,  only  one  contains  a  definite  date :  of  about  1 1.000  described 
by  de  Rossi  in  liis  first  vohmie  on  the  Cliristian  inscriptions  of  tlie  first  seven  cen- 
turies, only  1,347  contain  any  chronologic  indication  of  a  date,  and  of  this  number 
only  about  150  are  earlier  than  350  A.  D. 

^  Discontinued  under  Justinian,  and  legally  abolished  by  Leo  the  philosopher. 

^  Some  have  attributed  the  introduction  of  the  iudictiou  to  Constantiue,  others  to 
Bioeletinn. 

*  Lo  Blant:  Tnscrip.  chrel.  Gaulo,  No.  .388.  Some  epigraphists  insist  that  no  exam- 
ple of  Christian  inscriptions  reckoning  by  indictions  appears  at  Rome  earlier  than 
A.  D.  517. 

^  Some  writers  say  B.  C.  33.     v.  p.  33,  note. 


EARLY   CIIHlyTIAN    EI'IGRAPIIY.  253 

comes  therefore  a  matter  of  comparatively  little  diHit-ultv.     liiit  it 
is  far  more  difficult  to  fix  the  chronolog}-  of  inscriptiuiis 
that  bear  no  date.     Herein  appear  the  value  and  neces-    wuhoutuaiw. 
sity  of  epigraphical  science. 

By  patient  and  protracted  comparative  study  of  inscriptions 
whose  dates  are  well  ascertained,  the  e})i<;raphist  has  General priucu 
discovered  means  of  determining  with  considerable  ac-  p'*'"- 
curacy  the  chronology  of  others.  Well-established  criteria  li.nc 
thus  simplified  the  study  of  epigraphical  remains,  and  sound  scien- 
tific methods  have  been  developed  and  successfidly  applied.  For 
the  chronology  of  Christian  inscriptions  the  following  i)articulars 
have  been  found  especiall}^  important;  namely,  the  character  of  the 
writing,  [pcdeogruph;/),  the  formularies,  the  proper  names,  and  the 
presence  or  absence  of  syinl)olic  characters,  as  the  cross,  the  mono- 
gram of  Christ,  -^,  the  A  %  the  dove,  the  fish,  the  ))ea('ock,  etc. 
Also  the  peculiar  cycle  of  the  subjects  of  tlie  paintings  with  which 
the  inscriptions  may  be  found  associated.' 

Brief  and  simple  formulas,  without  statements  relative  to  the 
character  of  the  person,  or  the  place  and  time  of  burial,  special  indica- 
as  HIC  lACET,  HIC  REQUIESCIT,  etc.,  are  presuma-  ""ns- 
biy  of  highest  antiquity.  The  introduction  of  syiecial  circum- 
stances, such  as  HIO  lACET  IN  NOMINE  CHRIST],  IIIC  REQHI- 
ESCIT  IN  PACE,  etc.,  usually  indicate  a  later  date.=  Also  minute 
descriptions  of  the  age,  and  of  the  day  of  death  and  burial,  tlie 
enumeration  of  praiseworthy  qualities,  the  metrical  form,  and  the 
statel}^  eulogium  are  indications  of  a  later  origin.^ 

With  respect  to  the  date  of  the  introduction  of  the  various  sym- 
bols there  is  wider  difference  of  opinion.  More  thorough  Date  of  sym- 
study  of  these  interesting  Christian  remains  inclines  *^'''- 
the  historian  of  art,  as  well  as  the  epigraphist,  to  give  to  them  a 
greater  antiquity  than  was  formerly  allowed.  The  dove  was  for- 
merly believed  to  be  found   on   no   Christian  monument  of  an  ear- 

'  V.  De  Rossi:  Imcriptiones  CJinstiance  urbis  Roma,  etc.,  pp.  cviii  nml  cix.  "  Illiid 
restat  inquirendum,  q\iomo(io  inter  hos  ipsos  tcrminos  sii)siil;inim  iii^criplionuin 
ictas  pressius  possit  dofiiiiri.     Id  examinalis  litterariini  formis,"  etc. 

-  Of  the  close  of  the  fiftli  and  the  following  centuries,  v.  Le  Blant :  Manud  d'Fpi- 
rp-aphie  chreiienne,  etc.,  p.  ^5;  also  Hiibner:   Imcriptiones  Ilixpania  Chriftianff,  p.  ix. 

'  Compare  especially  de  Rossi:  Introduction  to  his  fnsrriptiones  Ciin'sHaiice;  his 
treatise— Z)e  la  determination  chronol.  des  Inscrip.  chret.  (Jievne  Archeol.,  1SG2).  Le 
Blant:  Inscrip.  chref.  Ganle,\x  v\.  el  al.;  J.  Ritter:  Deroniposilinne  titnl.  Christ.,  lirtvl. 
1877,  s.  12,  et  al.  De  Rossi  and  Le  Blant,  while  independent  workers,  iira  in  entire 
harmony  touching  the  principles  governinp:  the  interpretation  of  inscriptions.  Tliero 
is  also  a  remarkable  agreement  iu  tiieir  conclusions  respecting  the  most  important 
questions. 


234 


AllCHiEOLOGY    OF   CHKISTIAN    ART. 


licM-  date  than  A.  D.  268  in  Rome,  and  A.  D.  378  in  Gaul;'  but 
it  is  found  in  connection  with  inscriptions  now  believed  to  belong- 
to  the  first  half  of  the  second  century. 

§  2.    The  Subject  and  Content  of  Inscrijitiotis. 

As  has  already  been  shown  (v.  p.  60,  et  seq.),  Christian  monuments 
.  J,  of  the  first  three  centuries  wx^'e  closely  associated  with 
eiice  ill  Christ-  those  of  heathen  origin.  As  in  monuments  of  plastic 
lau  epigraphy.  ^^,^^  ^^  j^^  ^j^^  department  of  epigraphy,  the  intluence 
of  pagan  thought  is  manifest.  Christian  art  liberated  itself  only 
bv  degrees  from  its  first  teacher  and  guide,  and  developed  an 
independent  character.  This  holds  equally  true  of  Christian  in- 
scriptions. On  many  monuments  their  Christian  origin  cannot  at 
all  be  inferred  from  their  contents.  In  some  other  instances  the 
added  expressions  IN  PACE,  EN  EIPHNH,  or  the  wishes  VIV^AS 
IN  DEO,  VIVAS  IN  AETERNVM,  are  the  only  grounds  of  dis- 
tinction.^ The  agreement  of  pagan  and  Christian  in  regarding 
death  as  a  sleep  is  sometimes  plainly  seen.  The  added  thought  of  a 
continuance  of  life  after  death  is  peculiarly  Christian.'     Even  in  the 

'  Le  Blant:  Inscript.  chret  de  la  Gaule.     Paris,  1856. 

The  following  table  gives  liis  opinion  respecting  the  clironology  of  some  of  these 
symbols:  v.  p.  xiv. 


Symbol. 

ROME. 

Gaul. 

The  dove 

From 

u 

A.  D 

a 

.268-500,  524  ? 

From 

A.  D.  378-612. 

^       

298?  331-451  or  474 

.855  ?  363-509 

"     377-493. 

A  S2     

"     377-547. 

P       

355  to  between  542  and 
565 

about  A.  D.  400-525 

or  540, 

The  vase .... 

391-472  or  489    

about  A.  D.  450-563. 

The  cross   in 
body  of  the 
scription. . . . 

the 
in- 

375  ?  407-527 

450-589 

A.  D.  448  till  after  585. 

The   cross   at 
beginning  o 
Rcriptions.. . 

the 
in- 

'•     503  to  about  680. 

V.  also  his  Manuel  cV Epicjrapliie  chriiienne,  pp.  27,  28,  29. 

*Tiie  expressions  TX  PACE,  EN  EIPHNH,  are  also  found  upon  Jewish  btu-ial  mon- 
uments of  the  pre-Chri  tian  period,  v.  Le  Blant:  N.  621 :  C.  I.  Gr.,  NX.  9902,  9909, 
9921,  9923,  etc.  Snpi,  p.  177.  Victor  Schnltze:  Arch.  Stud.,  s.  260,  N.  6,  d  al,  is 
of  opinion  that  h  itpr/vri  is  proof  of  Christian  or  Jewish  origin. 

'  Raonl  Rochctto  {Dmxieme  Mem.  stir  les  ant.  chret.,  p.  27)  is  thoroughly  consistent 
with  himself  in  claiming  that  ;i;o</z(iCT<?at  ev  elpr/vri^  dormire  in  pace,  are  also  found  on 
pagan  burial  monuments.     But  this  opinion  seems  to  lack  firm  archaeological  support. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    EPKJHAPIIY.  255 

fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  after  Christianity  li:ul  achieved  :ni  essen- 
tial triumph  in  its  heroe  encounter  with  pai^anisni,  traces  of  heathen 
influence  are  present  in  Christian  epi<^ra|)liy  as  well  as  in  plastic  art. 
The  abbreviation  D-  M*,  D-  M*  IS"  {d/'s  luanlbas,  dis  niantlniH  sa- 
crum), occurs  on  monuments  of  the  third  and  fourth  century  (in 
Greek  9.  K.  deolg  Karaxdnvioig).  More  than  a  hundri'd  examples  of 
this  kind  have  already  been  found,  numy  of  the  monuments  <jf  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries  belonging  to  this  class.  The  original  relig- 
ious significance  of  these  abbreviations  seems  in  a  later  period  to 
have  been  lost  sight  of,  and  they  became  a  mere  traditional  heading 
for  inscriptions  on  burial  monuments.  In  some  instances  the  mono- 
gram of  Christ,  -^,    ,  P|,  stands  connected  with  the   D-  M*;  thus 

'M.  °'  ^' :M. ^'' I^'  M  ,-El,  S." 

A  careful  examination  of  this  subject  has  led  Becker  to  the  fol- 
lowing conclusions:  Becker's    ton- 

1.  The  signs   D-  M-,  D-  M*  S*  can   never  mean   any  elusions. 
thing  else  than  Dils  Mnnibus  or  Dlis  Manibus  Sacrum.     The  trans- 
lation Deo  Magno,  or  Deo  Muxiino,  finds  no  justification  in  any 
single  Christian  monument. 

2.  The  reason  for  placing  the  sign,  D-  M-,  on  Christian  burial 
monuments  is  found  in  its  very  commonness  of  use.  This  was  tlie 
customary  beginning  of  sepulchral  inscriptions,  and  thus  a  fashion 
was  established.'  At  length  this  formula  lost  its  original  signifi- 
cance, and  became  almost  meaningless.'' 

3.  The  opinion  that  the  Christians  purchased  in  the  shops  stoiu^s 
on  which  the  D-  M-  had  already  been  wrought  by  heathen  artists  is 
scarcely  tenable.     It  seems  to  lack  solid  foundation. 

4.  With  respect  to  their  chronology,  these  monuments  do  not  per- 
tain to  the  earliest  period  of  Christian  inscriptions.  The  majority 
belong  to  the  third  century,  and  to  the  age  of  Constantine.* 

'  V.  Spnnii:  Scnjyerte  Archeol,  p.  39.     F.  Becker:   Dieheidnisrhe  Weihtfnrmel  D.  M. 
nVe  must   trace   the  later  HIC  lACET,  and  tlie  Germ.   "IlIEli   RUHET  IN 
GOTT,"  and  the  English  "  HERE  LIES"  to  tlie  same  source. 

'  In  one  instance,  at  least,  there  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  protest  against  this  use  of 
tlie  D.  M.;  since  the  Christian  A  il  is  associated  with  it,  as  in  the  following  from 
Auno-ni,  quoted  by  V.  Scliultze:   Die  Katakomhen,  p.  250. 

nD  M(J 

VALERIA      RODE 
VALERIAE    ROPE 
NI   MATRI      G.VR. 
BRN 
MKRExXTI       FC 

± 

*  V.  Becker:    Op.  cit..  p.  65,  e(  seq. 


256  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF    CHRISTIAN    ART. 

The    expressions    occasionally    found    on    Christian    and    Jewish 
,  ^    ,,,   monuments  seem  to  indicate  a  want  of  universal  belief 

Views  of  death  .      .  i       <<   i 

and  of  the  fu-  in  the  reality  of  a  future  life.  Inscriptions  like  the  fol- 
^"•■*'-  lowing,  OAPCI  TATA  MHTHP  OTAEIC  AOANATOC,'  as 

well  as  the  designation  of  the  grave  as  damns  ceterua,  perpetua  sedes, 
olKog  alo)viog,  show  that  the  Christian  thought  is  yet  influenced  by  the 
heathen  doubt  respecting  the  future.  It  lingers  as  an  unpleasant  and 
entangling  inheritance,  and  proves  the  power  of  traditional  systems, 
or  argues  the  unconscious  use  of  a  language  whose  original  signifi- 
cance had  already  faded  out,  but  whose  form  remained.  The  desire 
that  the  body  should  be  interred,  in  order  to  secure  the  repose  of  the 
spirit,  was  quite  general  among  the  Greeks.  Many  precautions  Avere 
taken  that  the  tombs  might  remain  undisturbed.  The  jjenalties 
threatened  to  the  despoilers  and  plunderers  of  graves  are  often 
expressed  in  very  strong  terms.^  The  necessity  of  burial  as  a  con- 
dition of  future  Vest,  and  of  attaining  to  a  resurrection,  is  also  some- 
times expressed  in  these  burial  inscriptions.  The  longings,  laments, 
prayers,  and  execrations  found  upon  Christian  monuments  are  occa- 
sionally in  almost  exact  imitation  of  the  heathen  custom;'  although 
the  most  incredulous  must  be  persuaded  that  the  general  spirit  of 
these  mscriptions  is  that  of  patience,  forgiveness,  love,  cheerfulness, 
and  hope.  Occasionally  is  met  the  "eternal  memory,"  the  "eternal 
sleep,"  the  "  raging  Tartarus,"  the  "  EU'sian  grove,"  the  "  anger 
of  Styx,"  etc.  At  times  quotations  from  the  heathen  poets  are 
found,  and  the  terms  jyerire  and  vita  2))-ivatus  are  used  to  express 
dying.  Indeed,  in  the  Christian  inscrii)tions  that  syncretism  is  no- 
ticed Avhich  becomes  so  general  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries 

'  From  fean  Ciriaco  in  Ancona.  v.  Buonarroti,  Osservazioni  snpra  alcuni  frammeidi 
di  vasi  antichi  di  vetro,  etc.,  Firenze,  1716,  p.  169. 

^  Comp.  Wood,  J.  T:  Discoveries  at  Ephesus.  Inscriptions  from  tombs,  sarcoplino-j, 
etc.,  p.  7,  No.  6. 

Ei  7(f  rni'Tov,  etc. 

"  If  any  one  shall  either  destro}'  or  throw  down  this  altar  or  tomb,  or  shall  erase  a 
letter,  he  shall  pay  to  the  exchequer  2,500  denarii." 

^  Corpus  Inscrip.  Lot.,  ii,  N.  5,415.  is  an  inscription  from  the  basilica  of  St.  Julian 
at  Como  running,  ADIVRO  YVS  OMNKS  XPIANI  ET  TE  |  CYSTYDE  BEAT! 
lYLIANIf  DO  ETf  THE  |  MEXDA  DIE  lYDICII  YT  HYNC  SEPYLCRYM 
n  u  nqAM  YLLO  TEMPORE  VIOLETYR  |  sed  conservet  (ur)  usque  ad  finein  mundi 
I  ut  prosim  sine  impedimento  in  vita  |  redire  cum  veiierit  que  judicaturns  est  vivos 
et  mortuos.  .  .  .  See  also  Reinesius:  Syntagma  Insaip.,  xx,  435  ;  Corpus  Inscrip).  Gne., 
iv,  nn.  9,303,  9,802;  Ritter:  De  Composit.  tit.  Christ.,  i,  p.  36,  seq. ;  Bosio:  Foma 
Sotterranea,  p.  436,  where  the  imprecations  against  those  who  distiu'b  the  graves  of 
the  departed  seem  to  reach  the  climax  of  severity:  MALE  PEREAT  IXSEPYLTVS 
lACEAT  NON  RESYRGAT  CUM  lYDA  PARTKM  HABEAT  SIQIS  SEPYL- 
CRAM  HYNC  YIOLAYERIT. 


MSrrANNHiMxHN.Aii  p 


Pi.ATK  III.— Cliristiau  Inscriptions  assuciiUetl  with  C'ijristian  Syinlwls. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  EPIGRAPHY.  257 

in  every  department  of  thoiio-lit  and  lift-.  Great  care  is,  tliereforc, 
necessary  in  their  interpretation,  and  the  wide  diirVrence  between 
the  Christian  and  pagan  view  of  death  as  taught  hy  tliese  monu- 
ments, which  has  been  claimed  by  some  zeah)us  writers,  must  bi-  ac- 
cepted with  caution.     We  are  not,  liowever,  to  su))|)osc 

,  ,  1  „,..,.'  '  '  •  others   plainly 

that  the  clear  statement  ot  raith  in  the  resurrection  and  aiu  pwuiiaiiy 
in  immortal  life  is  wanting  in  Christian  inscriptions.  The  ^'"■'«'^''"- 
Christian  Church  was  much  slower  to  lil)erate  itself  from  the  influence 
of  antiquity  in  the  case  of  inscriptions  than  in  the  case  of  the  plastic- 
arts.  Only  very  seldom  is  this  freedom  attained  during  the  prc- 
Constantine  period.  While  we  cannot  doubt  as  to  the  origin  of 
these  inscriptions,  the  writers  of  the  early  Church  seem  content  to- 
indicate  the  Christian  sentiment  by  a  single  word  or  phrase,  rather 
than  by  the  entii'e  writing.  This  should  not  cause  surpi'ise,  since  t<i 
devise  an  entirely  new  terminology  or  method  of  expression  would 
require  much  time  and  study,  and  many  of  the  modes  of  thought 
then  extant  Avere  entirely  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  new  religion. 
Hence  we  find  the  ancient  acclamations  to  the  dead  freely  used  i:i 
Christian  inscriptions,  such  as  vale,  o.ve,  have,  salve,  XAIPE,  etc. 

The  expressions  in  pace,  EN  EIPHNH,  cum  pace,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  requiescat,  or  the  words,  sjjlritus  tims  in  pace,  jyix  tihi,  in 
pace  domini,  pax  tecum,  etc.,  seem  to  embody  more  perfectly  the 
Christian  spirit  and  belief.  It  is  when  the  condition  of  the  departed 
is  expressed  in  words  of  hope  or  congratulation  that  the  contrast 
between  pagan  and  Christian  thought  relative  to  a  future  life  ap- 
pears in  strongest  relief.  The  earnest  hopes  contained  in  the  sim- 
ple VIVAS,  VIVES,  VIVIS,  VIVIT,  IN  AETERNO,  IN  CHRISTO,  IN 
DEO,  IN  GLORIA  DEI,  IN  DOMINO  lESV,  etc.,  are  i>eciiliar  to 
the  Christian  inscrii)tions,  expressing  a  cycle  of  thought  entirely 
unknown  to  heathen  epigi-aphy.  The  belief  in  a  resurrection  and 
a  future  life  is  here  clouded  by  no  doubt  which  might  have  come 
from  association  with  the  pagan  world.  Through  a  wide  geographic 
and  chronologic  range  these  assurances  of  a  future  life  by  the 
power  of  Christ  are  met.  In  Rome,  Gaul,  Africa,  and  the  Orient, 
extending  through  centuries  of  time,  they  frequently  occur.' 

§  3.  Application  of  Principles  and  their  Illustration  by  Mmns  of  Specific 

Examples. 

Plate  III  is  a  reduced  reproduction  of  Plate  X  of  Roller's  Cata- 
combes  cle  Home,  which  was  engraved  from  a  photograph  of  a  por- 

'v.  Examples  in  de  Rossi,  Le  Bl.nit,  Boldetti,  Cnrivts  Inscript.  Gnvc,  Cmpm  In- 
script.  Latin.,  Rollrr,  Kraiis,  Sclmllzo,  etc.     The  inimber  is  large,  and  lliu-  criticisra 
and  commentary  upon  lliem  have  been  e.\hau3tive. 
17 


258  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

tion  of  the  Christian  Museum  of  St.  John  Lateran  at  Rome.'  It 
contains  fiftj^  epitaphs,  which  are  iUustrateJ  by  some  of  the  most 
prized  of  the  Christian  symbols. 

No.  1  is  a  monument  to  Severa,  whose  bust  adorns  the  shib.  The 
scene  here  represented  is  the  visitation  of  the  magi, 
The  iiiatri.  bearing  gifts  to  the  infant  Christ,  who  rests  upon  the 
lap  of  his  mother.  The  star  is  nearly  above  the  head  of  Mary,  while 
a  fiirure  behind,  whose  character  has  been  a  matter  of  controversv, 
extends  the  hand  in  blessing,  or  to  point  out  the  star  to  the  wise 
men.  The  inscription,  in  Deo  vivas,  is  found  very  frequently  in 
the  third  century,  but  does  not  pertain  to  it  exclusively.  The 
epigraphist  is  rather  inclined  to  })lace  this  in  either  the  third  or 
fourth  century.  It  was  found  in  a  cemeterj^  on  the  Via  Salaria 
Nova,  Rome. 

Nos.  2,  3,  and  4,  are  instances  of  the  Good  Shepherd  upon  the 
burial  monuments.  The  simple  inscription  on  Ko.  4,  Florentius  in 
pacae,  M^ould  lead  us  to  regard  it  as  of  very  early  origin.  Much  is 
said  about  the  symbolism  of  these  and  similar  scenes.  A  class  of 
archaeologists  would  say  that  the  trees  are  the  symbol  of 
paradise,  to  which  the  soul  has  departed  in  peace  under 
the  kindly  care  of  the  Good  Shepherd.  This  is  probably  an  unwar- 
ranted extension  of  the  princijjle  of  symbolism,  since  these  trees 
could  more  properly  be  regarded  as  oi-namental,  to  complete  the 
balancing  of  the  scene. 

The  Good  Shepherd  idea  is  likewise  prominent  in  Nos.  5,  6,  7,  9, 
Good  Shep-  12,  and  14,  We  believe  the  presence  of  the  tree  in  5,  6, 
'"^''d-  and  9  can  be  more  naturally  and  justly  considered  ar- 

tistic than  symbolic.  Nos.  5,  43,  44,  and  45  embody  another  class 
of  figures,  called  Orantes,  which  have  been   elsewhere  examined. 

While  these  figures  are  not  infrequently  met  in  the  f res- 
Orantes  ±  t/ 

COS,  their  occurrence  in  connection  with  inscriptions  is 

quite  rare.  No.  5  is  from  the  most  ancient  portion  of  San  Calisto, 
Rome,  reaching  back,  it  is  believed,  to  the  first  half  of  the  third 
century.  The  paleographic  suggestion  would  agree  with  the  other 
evidences  respecting  this  date.  The  Greek,  MOTCHC  Z£2N  EHOI- 
HCEN  ATii  KAI  TH  TTNEKT,  is  not  an  unusual  method  of  expres- 
sing the  dedication  of  a  monument  by  the  living  to  the  dead. 

'  The  plates  liere  used  in  illustration  of  Cliristian  epigraphy  are  for  the  most  part 
reduced  from  those  in  Roller's  mngnificent  work.  This  Museum  contains  the  rich- 
est collection  of  Christian  inscriptions  in  the  world.  Bj'  special  correspondence,  in 
whicli  M.  Roller's  desire  to  extend  a  knowledge  of  Christian  archajology  completely 
dominated  every  other  motive,  arrangements  were  made  to  use  these  and  other 
plates.     Grateful  acknowledgment  of  this  kindness  is  here  made. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    EPKJRAPIIY.  259 

Nos.  8  and  9  illustrate  the  conimin<^Iin<>^  of  Latin  and  Greek  iti 
the  same  inscription,  No.  8,  and  the  omission  of  letters,  commin(?iinK 
COIVGI  for  CONIVGI,  No.  9.  They  have  a  curious  of  symbols, 
combination  of  symbols.  No.  8  has  for  a  central  figure  the  Good 
Shepherd,  on  one  side  of  whom  is  a  lion,  on  the  other  some  devour- 
ing monster  whose  character  is  not  well  defined.  It  has  beeii 
suggested  that  these  may  represent  the  foes  that  threatened  the  life 
of  the  sheep,  which  the  Good  Shepherd  will  rescue.  The  anchor 
and  the  ^  plainly  point  to  the  ground  of  the  Christian's  hope. 
The  right  liand  figure  in  No.  9  is  a  rude  form  of  the  ark,  toward 
Avhich  the  dove  is  flying,  bearing  in  its  beak  the  olive  branch.  In 
No.  49  this  scene  is  repeated.     This  is  a  very  frequent 

'■  J  ~i  rpjjg  Church. 

symbol  of  the  nature  and  office  work  of  the  Church — 

the  ark  of  safety  bearing  its  precious  freight  over  the  dangerous 

sea  of  life.' 

The  frequent  recurrence  of  the  anchor  (8,  18,  19,  21,  23,  24,  26, 
27,  28)  is  very  noteworthy',  since  these  are  found  on  monuments  dis- 
covered in  and  near  Rome.  So  the  frequent  use  of  the  fish  on  these 
burial  monuments  (Nos.  11,  16,  20,  22)  has  been  discussed  elsewhere 
(y.  pp.  77-83).  No.  15  represents  a  scene  frequently  met  in  the  fres- 
cos, and  not  seldom  found  on  the  sculptured  monuments.  Raisingof  Laz- 
The  raising  of  Lazarus  by  Him  who  is  the  Life  was  a^us. 
symbolic  of  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  wliich  was  the  central 
truth  of  the  apostolic  preaching,  and  the  source  of  solace  to  a  de- 
spised and  oftentimes  suffering  Church.  No.  10  is  also  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  mummy-like  figure  in  a  tomb,  surmounted  by  the  ^, 
the  hope  of  the  deceased. 

The  ^  monuments  have  been  elsewhere  discussed,  and  the  aid 
which  they  furnish  in  determining  the  chronology  of  inscriptions 
with  which  they  are  associated  has  been  ])ointed  out.  Nos.  29, 
30,  31  are  noteworthy  as  containing  the  smistica  in  connection 
with  other  symbols;  with  the  simplest  form  of  the  cross  in  a  circle, 
as  emblem  of  eternity,  in  No.  31,  with  the  IV  M-  in  No.  29,  an<l 
with  the  -^  in  No.  3().  The  origin  of  this  symbol  has  been  else- 
where examined  {v.  pp.  84,  85).  No.  32  has,  in  connocti..n  with  the 
iiime  AGAPIS,  an  unusual  combination  of  symbols.  u„„,„„,  „,„. 
Tlie  Tan,  or  an  obscure  form  of  cross,  is  directly  asso-  bi nation  <.r 
ciated  with  the  A  fi  and  with  the  ■^.  It  may  well  '"""'^"'• 
suggest  the  question  wliether  the  sculptor  lia.l  in  mind  the  idea  of 
tliemicifixiou.     The  crucifix,  wherein   i^  a   din-.-t  and  literal  repre- 

'  Even  Hasonclever:  Der  alMrri.stlirhe  Grdhnsniurh;  BrmvM'c\\\yei):,  188«'.  f-  114, 
concedes  th;ii  this  figure  of  the  sliip  and  ark  are  nsed  ns  reli;fions  sy.nholH,  and  not 
simply  to  indicate  the  maritime  indiisirics  of  the  Cliristians  of  Alexandria. 


300  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

sentation  of  the  divine  Victim  upon  the  cross,  has  not  yet  found 
its  way  into  the  art  of  the  Church;  the  early  Christians  prefer  to 
sliadow  forth  this  supreme  event  under  the  garb  of  symbolism. 
Still,  it  may  be  difficult  to  interpret  this  symbolism  in  any  other  way 
tlian  by  the  suggestion  of  sacrifice  upon  the  cross.  Nos.  43,  44,  45 
have  associated  with  the  central  figure — an  orante — certain  marks 
and  characters  which  are  quite  infrequent  in  monumental  art.  The 
two  busts  in  43  and  44  have  an  uncertain  reference.  The  sugges- 
tion that  they  may  represent  the  chief  apostles  may  have  something 
in  its  favor,  yet  there  is  nothing  to  absolutely  confirm  it.  No.  44 
has  likewise  on  each  side  of  the  praying  figure  a  candelabrum  resting 
upon  a  tripod  of  dolphins.  The  style  of  these  candelabra  would 
point  to  a  Byzantine  influence,  and  would  suggest  a  date  as  late  as 
the  sixth  or  seventh  century.  That  evidence  is  here  found  that 
Tapers  in  the  lighted  tapers  were  used  in  the  forms  of  worship  may 
Church  service,  ^ot  be  accepted;  but  that  lights  had  already  been  intro- 
duced into  parts  of  the  service  is  generally  conceded.  Above  the 
orante,  in  No.  45,  is  seemingly  the  representation  of  the  choir  of  a 
basilica.  Here,  too,  the  tapers  are  introduced;  but  the  interpreta- 
tion is  obscure  and  unsatisfactory.  Probably  the  artist  had  in  view 
the  ornamentation  of  the  tomb,  and  was  guided  in  his  work  by  the 
necessity  of  a  proper  balancing  of  parts.  As  before  observed,  the 
introduction  of  some  of  these  figures  seems  plainly  for  decora- 
tive purposes;  this  view  is  more  reasonable  than  to  violate  the 
prijK-iples  of  symbolism  by  suggesting  some  unfounded  or  fanciful 
interpretation.' 

Plate  IV,  containing  a  representation  of  sixty-five  sepulchral  monu- 
ments, is  also  from  a  photograph  of  a  section  of  the  Lateran 
Museum,  Rome.^  It  is  designed  to  illustrate  the  symbolism  in 
prevalent  use  among  the  early  Christians.  Many  of  the  subjects 
contained  in  Plate  III  are  here  repeated.  The  orantes,  as  found  in 
Nos.  3,  4,  5,  6,  8,  9,  10,  11, 12,  13,  14,  preserve  the  general  character 
of  these  figures  as  they  are  met  in  the  frescos.  Tlie  presence  of  the 
■j^  in  most  of  these  vouches  for  their  Cliristian  character,  and  also 
enables  us  to  fix  their  chronology  as  not  earlier  than  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  century,  nor  later  than  the  lattei-  quarter  of  the  fiftli 
century,  if  the   monument  is  of   Roman   origin,  nor  later  than   the 

'  It  is  not  proposed  to  piiter  into  tlie  explanation  of  every  inscription  or  bnrial 
monument  represented  in  the  plates.  They  are  given  as  samples  of  tlie  stA'^le  of  in- 
scriptions wliich  illustrate  the  principles  before  enunciated.  To  leave  a  portion  of 
each  plate  to  be  deciphered  by  tlie  student  may  contribute  to  a  greater  facility  in 
reading  and  interpretation. 

'  After  Roller. 


jtg>     (^WNT£^^II0• 

W/    ^XVr^C10  BfN!^ 
•    C^  ^QVIVTXJTANNUS 

VIMX 
OCT 

I  -^  Eo  ?  w^M !  IfAfrl  tivAvixn 


Pi.ATK  IV.— Christian  Symbols  on  Burial  Monuments. 


EARLY    CHKISTIAN    EPIGRAPHY.  261 

close  of  the  fifth  century,  if  found  in  Gaul.'  The  simplicity  of  No. 
\\,  Altx  nidra  In  pace,  a,ii  waW  as  the  accompany ini^  figure  of  the 
dove,  miglit  suggest  a  monument  of  the  middle  of  the  third  century 
or  the  beginning  of  the  fourth. 

In  Nos.  15,  16,  17,  18  is  found  repeated  the  box-like  ark,  believed 
to  be  the  symbol  of  the  Church,  and  of  safety  to  all  who  enter  it. 

The   frequent   recurrence  of    the    dove    upon   burial    moiuiments 

has  given  occasion  for  much  writing  on  its  significance. 

The  dove. 
As  with  respect  to  other  figures,  so  here,  too,  is  wide 

difference  of  opinion.  Interpreters  who  would  reduce  Christian 
symbolism  to  its  minimum  of  meaning,  or  regard  it  as  only  imi- 
tative of  the  pagan  thought,  would  see  in  the  dove  little  more 
than  an  apjtropriate  and  pleasing  decoration  for  the  momiment, 
with  no  symbolic  significance;  Avhile  another  class,  who  are  finding 
in  each  object  connected  with  the  Christian  juonuments  a  hidden 
yet  important  lesson,  would  in  every  instance  attach  to  this  figure 
of  the  dove  the  idea  of  innocence,  of  j)urity,  etc.,  as  illustrative  of 
the  character  of  the  deceased,  or  as  symbolic  of  the  soul  itself,  which 
finds  its  rest  and  assurance  in  the  presence  of  Christ — the  ^.  In 
Nos.  24,  38,  it  is  very  ditticult  for  the  observer  to  be  convinced 
that  any  thing  more  than  a  pleasing  ornamentation  was  designed; 
yet  in  tlii'se,  and  in  monuments  like  27,  28,  29,  the  school  of  ex- 
treme symbolism  has  professed  to  find  a  reference  to  the  eucharist: 
the  grapes  suggesting  the  wine,  the  wine  suggesting  the 
words  of  Jesus,  "  I  will  not  drink  henceforth  of  this 
fruit  of  tJ.'  vine  until  that  day  when  I  drink  it  new  with  you  in  my 
FaLher\s  kingdom ''  (Matt,  xxvi,  29).  In  No.  50  is  found  a  very 
unusual  combination  for  a  Christian  monument.  The  inscription, 
^Elia  liictonna  posuit  Aurelke  Prohce,  "^lia  Victorina  set  this  up 
to  Aurelia  Proba,"  is  a  veiy  common  form.  The  peacock  was  like- 
wise used  as  a  symbol  of  immortality;  but  the  other  figure  is  obscure 
in  its  i-eferencc.     If  it  is  to  be  regarded   as  a  lion,  then  ^^^^^  ^.^^^ 

the  suggestion  that  it  may  refer  to  Christ  as  the  Lion  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah  may  not  be  unreasonable,  and  the  whole  monu- 
ment may  teach  that  the  immortality  of  the  departed  soul  was 
secured  through  this  One  who  had  been  victor  over  death,  whose 
power  and  worthiness  are  the  subject  of  the  inspiring  apocalyj)! it- 
vision  given  in  Kev.,  chap.  v. 

In  02,  03  is  the  recurrence  of  the  shi])  or  ark,   with  the  ad<lition 
of  the  tower  or  lighthouse.     It  may  not   violate  any  law  of  sym- 
bolism to  regard  this  tower   as  the  goal  of  th(>  earthly  voyaging, 
the   eternal   mansions   which   are   to  receivi'    the    lailliful   wanderer 
'  Le  Blant:  Manud  iVEpigraphie  clirelienne,  pp.  27-29. 


262  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN   ART. 

over  life's  perilous  sea.  "Firmia  Victora,  who  lived  sixty -five 
years,"  is  the  simple  inscription;  the  symbols  tell  a  more  significint 
story. 

The  palm-branch  is  of  very  frequent  occurrence  on  the  marbles,  r^s 
Tbe  palm  ^'^  ^^^^  frescos.  In  Nos.  54,  55,  and  56  this  appears  as 
branch.  the  prominent  symbol.     It   is  not  difficult  to  interpret 

this,  since  here  is  the  frequently  recurring  reference  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse to  the  victory  which  the  redeemed  shall  finally  achieve,  as  in 
60,  61  the  like  triumph  is  symbolized  by  the  chaplet  or  crown. 

Plate  V  represents  inscriptions  from  the  first  half  of  the  third 
century.  The  first  four  give  the  simplest  expressions  used  ujion 
the  burial  monuments  of  the  early  Christians.  Decessit,  often  abre- 
simpie  inscrip-  viated  to  dec,  dep.  depositus,  sep.  sepidtus,  are  the 
tions.  most  common  designations  of  Christian  interment.     The 

Greek  KATAeECIC  is  most  nearl}'  synonymous.  Rather  it  would 
be  more  strictly  correct  to  say  that  this  is  the  original  word,  since 
the  Greek  language  is  usually  the  earlier  in  Christian  inscriptions 
of  Rome,  and  dejwsitus  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  adequate  transla- 
tion of  the  Greek  KATA9ECIC.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  the 
primary  idea  of  these  words  is  here  preserved,  namely,  that  of  a 
temporary  deposit,  in  distinction  from  the  idea  of  a  per- 

Signiflcance.  '^lAi  i-iii         i  n 

raanent  and  final  act,  which  the  heathen  generally  ex- 
pressed by  the  w ordi  positns  and  composltus.  This  is  not  an  unim- 
portant fact  when  the  view  of  death  entertained  by  the  pre-Constan- 
tine  Church  is  considered. 

No.  5  has  few  distinguishing  marks  of  a  Christian  inscription. 
Its  fulsome  characterization  of  the  offices  and  relations  of  the  de- 
ceased is  not  in  harmony  with  the  usual  simplicity  of  the  second  or 
third  century.  The  fact  that  he  was  of  the  emperor's  household  as 
well  as  his  freedman  is  clearly  stated ;  but  that  a  Christian  should 
receive  appointment  to  these  important  offices  at  the  hand  of  a  very 
cruel  and  profligate  ruler  has  given  rise  to  doubt  as  to  the  Christian 
Christians  In  di^racter  of  the  inscription  itself.  It  is,  however,  sup- 
Kovernmentai  posed  that  here,  as  in  case  of  other  well  known  examples, 
this  libertinus  may  have,  quietly,  and  unknown  to  his 
patron,  maintained  his  associations  with  the  Christian  Church,  yet, 
from  his  superior  fidelity  to  the  duties  of  his  offices,  have  been  a 
favorite  with  the  emperor.  Some  aid  to  understand  No.  5  is  fur- 
nished by  the  very  mutilated  inscription  on  the  back  part  of  thi> 
sarcophagus,  in  which  this  name  of  Prosenes  again  occurs.  By  this 
means  the  Christian  character  of  the  monument  is  proved.  The  ex- 
pression receptusdd  Deiim.  is  not  found  in  pagan  ei)igraphy. 

No.  6  connects   with   its  inscription  two  well-accepted   Christian 


decessitI  [Dip]ra 


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EARLY    CHRISTIAN    EI'IGRAI'IIV.  263 

symbols,  thus  furnishing  evidence  of  its  character,  wliile  its  date, 
A.  D.  234,  is  well  ascertained  by  the  consular  indications.  No.  7 
also  has  its  consular  date  clearly  inscribed.  Without  such  positive 
information,  other  characteristics  of  the  inscription  would  suggt-st  a 
somewhat  earlier  origin.  The  expression  Dulcisainia  lias  generally 
been  regarded  as  of  a  very  early  date — usually  pertaining  to  the 
second  century,  yet  not  confined  to  it.  The  phrase  de  suvculo  recessit 
is  somewhat  peculiar,  but  finds  illustration  in  other  monuments, 
even  in  some  that  are  non-Christian,  It  probably  is  to  he  under- 
stood in  the  sense  of  this  condition,  state,  or  life,  in  contrast  with 
that  upon  which  the  departed  has  entered. 

In  the  fragment  No.  9  there  is  little  of  special  interest  except  the 
word  dormit.  It  is  hardly  ever  found  in  the  classical  ei)igiai)liy,  and 
then  in  a  sense  radically  different  from  that  which  the  Christians 
attached  to  it.  Much  has  been  said  about  the  doctrinal  import  of 
this  terra.  It  has  been  quoted  in  support  of  the  opinion  -j.^^  siirnia- 
that  the  common  teaching  of  the  Church  of  the  third  canee  of  dw- 
century  was  that  there  was  a  slumber  of  the  soul  between 
death  and  the  final  resurrection.  Such  use  of  a  term  in  epigraphic 
study  would  hardly  be  justifiable.  It  must  be  taken  in  connection 
with  other  and  equall}'^  important  expressions  which  would  \w\\\\. 
to  a  contrary  doctrine.  When  we  consider  the  terms  riiui.'i,  hioas, 
vives,  etc.,  and  the  accompanying  words,  in  Deo,  in  (J/iristo,  etc., 
we  should  hesitate  to  build  on  such  a  form  as  dormit  a  whole 
doctrinal  fabric  respecting  the  intermediate  state  of  the  dead.  It 
seems  more  probable  that  b}^  the  word  donnit  there  would  be  con- 
veyed something  of  the  same  significance  as  by  the  term  in  pace  ; 
a  condition  so  grateful  to  the  toiler,  watcher,  and  soldier  aftiT  the 
severe  labors  and  conflicts  of  life  are  over. 

Two  expressions  in  No.  10  arrest  attention:  O  AOTAOC  TOT 
GeoT,  and  nAPedwKfi  THN  ^'TX??v  T£2  GEfi.  The  whole  inscription 
is  worthy  of  stud}^  Nos.  13  and  14  are  good  examples  of  the  inele- 
gant and  careless  style  of  very  many  of  the  Christian  inscriptions. 
They  would  indicate  both  great  haste  in  the  execution  carelessness  m 
of  the  chiseling,  and  a  great  want  of  culture  and  taste   preparation  o* 

„     ,  ,  nil  e  A.^  II'        Inscriplious. 

on  the  part  of  the  sculptors.      1  lie  presence  ot  tlie  roll  in 
No.  13  may  have  reference  to  the  teaching  work  of  the  deci'ased.   Tin- 
reference  of  the  urn  is  obscure,  but  the  expression  ///.  Dto  pax  is  full 
of  rich  suggestion  as  pertaining  to  a  monument  belonging  jirobahly 
to  the  third  century. 

Plate  VI,  which  is  designed  to  be  a  collection  of  niouuinents 
whose  inscriptions  are  more  or  less  dogmatic  in  character,  is  als«. 
from  the  Christian  Museum  of  the  Lateran  palace,  Uomc.    It  lias  hccii 


264  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

claimed  that  the  20,000  Christian  inscriptions  preserved  at  Rome 
Fewness  of  in-    are  not  moi'e  than  one  seventh  part  of  those  which  sur- 

scriptions  of  a  yiy^.  j^^^^  Qf  ^{^[^  lar^e  number  very  few  are  of  doc- 
dogmatic  char-  '  '^  p   ,         . 
acter.               trinal  significance.    Generally  the  statement  of  doctrine 

is  not  direct,  but  the  belief  is  left  to  be  inferred. 

In  noticing  the  inscriptions  of  this  plate  we  are  impressed  with 
tlie  ardent  wish  that  the  departed  may  live  with  God,  or  in  Christ; 
Ardent longinff  clearly  pointing  to  a  faith  in  the  conscious  union  of  the 
for  future  life,  dead  with  the  Divine  in  the  future  world.  In  the  great 
variety  of  forms,  bives,  vibes,  ZH,  vibos,  bibas,  vive,  is  expressed 
the  longing  desire,  the  earnest  prayer.  The  companionship  of  the 
new  life  after  death,  in  Deo,  Deo,  EN  0Ei2,  in  Domino  Zesu,  in 
(J/iristo,  in  -5F,  is  real,  and  with  the  source  of  all  life  and  joy.  There 
seems  to  be  no  thought  of  Avaiting  for  a  full  fruition  to  be  realized 
in  some  far-off,  indefinite  future,  but  of  a  present,  immediate  bless- 
edness in  the  enjoyment  of  all  that  is  implied  in  being  absent  from 
the  body  and  present  with  the  Lord.' 

The  frequent  recurrence  of  the  in  pace  is  a  further  indication  of 
other  indica-  the  assurance  which  the  j^romises  of  Christ  have  in- 
iief°^iQ°^a*^con^  spired,  that  the  departed  one  is  in  a  condition  of  repose, 
tiuued  life.  Moreover,  the  use  of  refrigeret  implies  a  state  of  blessed 
activity  such  as  is  so  significantly  conveyed  by  the  thought  of  spirit- 
ual refreshing.  I'he  various  methods  of  indicating  the  immediate, 
active,  conscious  happiness  of  the  soul  after  death  leave  no  doubt 
with  respect  to  the  supporting  power  of  the  belief  of  the  early 
Christians  in  the  promise  of  Christ  to  his  disciples:  "I  go  to  prepare 
a  place  for  you,  .  .  .  that  where  I  am  ye  may  be  also "  (John  xiv, 
2,  3).   ^ 

Again,  the  expressions  in  eternum,  EI2  AIS2NA,  indicate  that  this 
.\Jso  life  in  per-  lif  t%  this  peace,  this  refreshment  with  God  and  with  Christ 
petuity.  tiie  Lord  are  to  be  in  perpetuity.     "And  they  shall 

reign  for  ever  and  ever  "  (Rev.  xxii,  5).  The  power  of  this  faith  in 
the  immediateness  and  perpetuity  of  the  promised  fruition  might 
well  keep  them  steadfast,  inmiovable,  loyal  to  their  divine  Master, 
and  ever  ready  to  attest  this  loyalty  by  a  martyr's  confession.- 

Damasus  occupied  the  pontifical  chair  from  A.  D.  366  to  A.  D.  385. 
The  Damasene  His  zeal  for  the  Church  was  well-nigh  consuming.  For 
inscriptions.  the  nmrtyred  heroes  who  had  witnessed  their  faith  by 
suffering  he  entei-tained  a  veneration  akin  to  worship.  The  graves 
of  these  faithful  ones  were  hallowed  spots.     His  earnestness  was  so 

'  These  monuments  .sliouUl  be  studied  in  connection  with  those  bearing  the  expres- 
sions "dormit,"  "dormuil,"  etc. 

*  The  quiditic^ition  of  these  statements  has  already  been  given,     v.  p.  254. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN   EPIGRAPHY.  265 

great  that  the  practice  of  burial  in  the  cemeteries,  whicli  had  been 
largely  discontinued,  once  more  became  almost  universal  at  Rome. 
He  was  careful  to  decorate  the  principal  cemeteries  with  Ix-autifully 
prepared  inscriptions,  in  which  were  found  high  eulogiuins  of  the 
martyred  saints,  and  his  restorations  of  the  tombs  of  the  worthies 
were  rich  and  characteristic.  These  inscriptions  have  a  character 
so  marked  that  they  are  readily  distinguished  by  the  Their  riiarac- 
skillful  epigraphist.  They  have  great  regularity,  are  terisUcs. 
most  beautifully  and  sharply  chiseled,  and  have  been  preservetl 
in  much  of  their  original  integrity.  Often  they  become  the  means 
of  positive  dogmatic  statements,  from  which  an  almost  complete 
credo  might  be  framed.  While  the  panegyric  is  often  extrava- 
gant, it  is  nevertheless  tempered  by  a  spirit  of  love  and  venera- 
tion that  disarms  criticism  and  awakens  lively  synn)athy.  Liv- 
ing at  a  time  when  the  purity  of  the  Christian  faith  had  been 
greatly  menaced,  and  when  the  severe  morality  of  the  pre-Constan- 
tine  period  had  yielded  to  the  current  worldliness,  it  is  not  won- 
derful that  this  zealous  leader  found  delight  in  calling  the  atten- 
tion of  a  decaying  age  to  the  self-sacrificing  lives  of  saints  who  had 
made  the  Church  illustrious  in  the  days  of  its  sorest  persecutions. 

Plate  YII  gives  a  good  idea  of  these  inscriptions.  The  clearness  and 
regularity  of  the  incisions,  as  well  as  the  metrical  character  of  these 
epitaphs,  are  manifest.  Also  from  No.  4  may  be  seen  the  results  of 
the  painstaking  work  of  de  Rossi  in  collecting  the  mi-  Tiie  method  of 
nutest  fragments  of  marbles  bearing  these  Damasene  complements, 
inscriptions,  and  afterwai'd  completing  the  slab  by  most  careful  adjust- 
ments. By  this  means  valuable  historic  materials  have  been  obtained 
to  supply  man}^  deficiencies  in  the  record.  It  will  be  noticed  that  even 
the  remarkably  clear  and  beautiful  inscription,  No.  I,  omits  some  let- 
ters, leaving  t'lem  to  be  easily  supplied  by  the  reader.  It  is  ad(b-essed 
to  St.  Agnes,  and  is  a  curious  commingling  of  faith  and  poetic  enthu- 
siasm. Whether  we  are  to  regard  this  address  as  an  in-  pmyers  to  the 
vocation  to  the  saint,  after  the  manner  of  the  classical  dead, 
writers,  or  as  an  e.vpression  of  veneration,  it  is  plain  that  here  is  a 
clear  indication  of  faith  in  the  iiifiiuMice  of  the  dead  upon  tlu'  fortunes 
of  the  living. 

No.  2  is  written  in  honor  of  the  martyrs,  Feli.v  and  Adauctus. 
Nos.  8  and  4  are  from  the  crypt  of  Kusebius  of  the  cemetery  San 
Calisto — No.  4  being  a  restoration  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  century 
from  numerous  fragments  found  in  this  cemetery.  The  vertical  in- 
scription in  the  margin  on  each  side  the  main  one  gives  the  nam*' 
of  him  who  prei)ared  the  work — Furius  Dionysius  Pliiloculus,  the 
enoraver  to  Damasus.     The  monument  is  of  special  inten-si  in  it'll- 


266  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN   ART. 

iiig  what  is  not  elsewliero  found;  namely,  that  the  pope  Eusebius, 
A.  D.  .no,  (lied  in  exile  in  Sicily,  whither  he  was  banished  by  Max- 
The  terms  for  entius.  It  is  notable  that  three  terms  are  here  used  in 
chief  pastor.  connection  with  Eusebius  and  Damasus:  episcopos,  rector, 
and  pappa.  Much  discussion  has  been  had  respecting  the  meaning 
of  these  words,  and  respecting  the  time  when  the  word  pappa  first 
became  the  official  characterization  of  the  head  of  the  Western 
Church.  The  word  rector  implies  a  degree  of  authority,  but  can 
hardly  be  claimed  to  carry  with  it  undisputed  and  irresponsible  au- 
thority. It  was  at  times  applied  to  simple  cures.  The  word  pappa 
seems  at  first  to  have  been  used  to  designate  the  sj^iritual  relation- 
ship of  those  who  had  been  especially  helpful  as  advisers.  The 
term  was  applied  to  numerous  bishops  in  both  West  and  East,  and 
was  not  the  exclusive  title  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  De  Rossi  has 
affirmed  that  it  was  originally  a  title  of  endearment  rather  than  of 
dignity.  The  term  episcopos  is  the  proper  official  designation  of  the 
chief  officer  of  the  Church,  both  in  the  time  of  Damasus  and  with 
his  successors.  This  is  the  term  whose  meaning  is  fixed  and  definite, 
about  which  no  doubt  can  be  entertained. 

No.  9  has  given  occasion  for  much  discussion  as  to  its  teaching. 
Number  of  "^^^^^^  epigraphists  (Marchi  notably)  have  claimed  that 
martyrs  not  reference  is  here  made  to  the  great  multitude  of  victims 
taught.  ^^,jjQ  perished  during  the  persecutions,  and  it  has  been 

cited  in  proof  of  this  opinion.  But  it  would  be  unwarrantable  to 
press  the  teaching  of  this  inscription  too  far.  The  manifestly  pan- 
egyric character  of  the  writing  may  well  suggest  caution  in  the  in- 
terpretation; yet  it  is  instructive  in  revealing  the  enthusiastic  spirit 
of  this  noted  bishop  in  caring  for  the  memory  of  those  who  had  so 
faithfully  witnessed  for  Christ. 

The  eleven  inscriptions  of  Plate  VIII '  are  from  the  last  half  of 
the  fourth  century.  They  are  of  fixed  date,  this  being  determined  by 
the  consulates  mentioned  in  the  inscriptions  themselves.  They  extend 
Characteristics  from  A.  D.  360  to  the  close  of  the  century.  The  char- 
of  inscriptions  acteristics  of  the  epigraphic  monuments  of  this  period 

of  the  last  half  i    &      i  r 

of  the  fourth  have  been  most  carefully  studied,  especially  by  de  Rossi, 
century.  j^  jjig  exhaustive  work  ^  he  has  given  the  following  as 

among  their  distinguishing  marks:  Frequent  recurrence  of  the  mon- 
ogram of  Christ  in  the  Constantinian  form,  ^;  the  use  of  the  cruci- 
form style  of  this  monogram,  ^\  the  associa'tion  with  it  of  the  A  fl; 
the  general  absence  of  the  symbolic  anchor  and  fish;  the  continuation 
of  the  doves;  and  an  almost  exclusive  use  of  the  Latin  language  on 

'  Reduced  from  Plate  Ixii,  vol.  ii,  of  Roller's  Les  Catacombes  de  Rome. 
*  Jioma  Sutkrranea,  t.  iii,  p.  ;!00. 


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PLATE  vn.— Inscriptions  of  l'op«'  Itainasus,  fount)  lentury- 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   EPIGRAPHY.  267 

the  monuments  of  the  West.  With  few  exceptions  the  simple  ex- 
pressions of  invocation,  as  vivas,  refrigera,  etc.,  are  discontinued, 
and  a  style  of  high  panegyric  is  frequently  indulged;  the  day  of 
death  and  even  of  burial  is  usually  mentioned;  and  a  general  pre- 
dominance of  the  expressions  clejyositics,  depositlo,  etc.     These  are 

to  be  regarded  only  as  general  marks  of  the  inscriptions 

.  .  Warning 

of  this  period;    for  it  must  be   remembered   that  the    aRainst  hasty 

style  of  the  epigraphic  monuments  does  not  undergo  a    •"'^"'='^'"°s- 

sudden  and  complete  transformation,  but  some  marks  continue  in 

permanence.     No.  1  is  somewhat  rude  of  workmanship,  tending  to 

the  cursive  style.     It  is  considerably  abbreviated,  yet  the  i)arts  are 

easily  supplied. 

"  Jlis  parents  to  their  most  dearly-beloved  son,  Dion^-sius,  who 
lived  five  years,  seven  months,  and  nine  days.  Buried  on  the  six- 
teenth before  the  Kalends  of  September,  Constantiiie  being  for  the 
tenth  time  consul.     In  peace." 

The  connection  here  of  the  A  S2  with  the  monogram  of  Christ 
(said  to  be  the  first  instance  where  these  are  associated  Divinity  of 
on  a  monument  of  fixed  date ')  certainly  suggests  the  Christ, 
everlastingness  of  the  second  })erson  of  the  sacred  Trinity.  Yet 
it  would  probably  be  unwarrantable  to  regard  the  presence  of  the 
symbol,  A  i2,  upon  a  monument  as  conclusive  proof  of  the  faith 
of  those  who  caused  its  erection  in  the  deity  of  Christ.  We  have 
already  spoken  of  the  use  of  the  D*  M*  upon  Christian  burial  monu- 
ments, and  have  seen  that  this  arose  from  the  fact  that  it  had  prob- 
ably become  a  sort  of  conventional  heading  to  these  inscrijitions,  and 
that  little  thouglit  was  probably  had  of  the  heathen  ifrnorance  of 
significance  of  the  symbol.  So  also  it  may  be  true  tliat  'l^^j,.^  o*f"ym- 
tlie  placing  of  the  A  S2  upon  the  tombs  of  the  deceased  bois  possible. 
Christians  may  have  been  without  thought  of  its  deep  dogmatic  im- 
l>ort  on  the  part  of  the  sculptor.  But  it  certainly  argues  that 
what  had  once  been  deliberately  chosen  as  signiticant  of  the  nat- 
ure and  person  of  Christ  continued,  however  unconsciously,  to  be 
accepted  by  the  Christians  of  the  fourth  century  as  expressive  of 
their  faith  in  the  eternity  of  that  Lord  in  whose  peace  tlieir  dejjarted 
dead  now  rested. 

The  semper  quiescis  secura  and  dormit  of  No.  2,  the  r<<iiilerii  in 
pace  of  No.  3,  and  the  hie  ypquiescit  oilS>o.  0  recall  the  (picstion 
whether  these  shall  be  regarded  of  dogmatic  import,  or  an-  only  ex- 
pressive of  the  current  belief  of  Christians  in  the  (piiet  repose  of  the 
actor  after  the  struggles  of  this  earthly  scene  are  passed. 

In  Nos.  5,  6,  V,  and  S,  the  high  eulogistic  character  of  many  of 
'  Roller:    Calucombvs  de  Home,  T.  ii,  p.  81. 


268  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN   ART. 

the  inscriptions  of  this  period  is  ilhistrated.  The  udroe  .sapieidce, 
Eulogistic  *'6'^^i^cr  cce^esifi'a  qucBrens,  optima  sercatrix  leyis,Jideique 
character  of  ill-  mcujistra  dedlt,  hlc  tumulus  lacrlmas  retinet,  etc.,  are 
scnptions.  -^^  strong  contrast  with  the  simple  and   expressive  in 

pace  or  the  hie  jacet  of  the  second  and  third  centuries.  In  No.  8 
are  the  clear-cut  workmanship,  the  regularity  of  the  lettering,  the 
equality  of  the  lines,  as  well  as  the  high  paneg^nic  of  the  Damasene 
inscriptions,  to  which  allusion  has  elsewhere  been  made. 

No.  10,  of  the  year  397  A.D.,  is  interesting  as  a  genuine  palimp- 
sest; since  on  the  back  is  seen  another  inscription, 
Leo  et  Statia  vivi  J'ecei  unt,  while  beneath  the  niai)i 
Latin  insci'iption  is  found  a  Greek  one  inverted,  of  good  characters, 
and  evidently  of  a  date  much  earlier  than  the  last.  It  reads 
ETTTXIANfi  A0rA£2  GEOT  IO?;AIANH  CTN  (6iw).  Thus  on  the 
same  slab  are  found  the  purer  Latin,  the  much  earlier  and  almost 
classical  Greek,  and  over  it  again  the  later  and  corrupt  Latin.  This 
monument  would  also  suggest  that  the  language  of  the  early  Cliurch 
was  the  Greek. 

An  interesting  class   of  objects  in  epigraphical  science  are  tlie 
(iraifitL     They  are  very  widelv  diffused  both  in  pati^an 

Tlie  graffiti.  f  ,  ^     •     ■  ri^i 

and  Christian  monuments.  Ihey  are  more  mimerous 
in  those  places  to  which  pilgrims  and  devotees  resorted  for  worship 
and  meditation,  where  the  sanctity  of  the  persons  interred,  or  the  in- 
spiring memories  of  the  scenes,  transform  the  spots  into  holy  shrines. 
Marked  examples  of  such  graffiti  are  met  in  many  parts  of  the  Orient, 
where  original  inscriptions  have  been  in  a  degree  effaced  by  others  of 
a  later  date,  and  these  in  turn  by  still  others.'  The  examples  on  Christ- 
ian monuments  and  in  sacred  spots  are  veiy  numerous,  but  the  diffi- 
culty of  deciphering  them  becomes  very  great,  and  many  valuable 
facts,  undoubtedly  concealed  under  the  commingling  of  characters, 
still  elude  the  ingenuity  of  the  epigraphist. 

In  some  portions  of  the  Christian  catacombs  of  Rome  the  graffiti 
have  been  studied  with  great  zeal,  especially  by  de  Rossi,  who  has 
given  a  resume  of  results  in  his  noted  work.^  As  in  the  case  of 
pilgrimages  to  heathen  fanes  the  devotee  was  accustomed  to  inscribe 
a  vow  or  a  prayer,  or  to  leave  a  record  of  his  visit  on  or  near  the 

'  Notable  examples  are  found  at  Doo;  River,  in  Syria,  Persepolis,  and  in  many 
parts  of  Egj'pt.  "Those  faintly  cut  emblems  of  Sesostris,  those  stern,  oold  soldiers 
of  Ciialdea,  those  inscriptions  in  Persian,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Arabic,  each  embodies  a 
history  of  itself,  or  rather  tells  of  one  written  elsewhere,  which  we  long  to  possess." 
Thomson:  The  Land  and  the  Book,  vol.  i,  p.  59.  For  Persepolis  see  especially  Fer- 
gusson  :  History  of  Architecture. 

"^Borna  Sotterranea:  t.  ii,  tav.  xx.\ii  and  xxxiii. 


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EARLY   CHRISTIAN   EPIGRAPHY. 


289 


sacred  shrine,  so  also   in   visiting  the  burial  i)laces  of   saints  and 

martyrs  the  pilgrims  were  desirous  to  indicate  their  feelings.     Fig. 

123  is  a  representation  of  a  small  wall  surface  in  the  cryjit  of  San 

Sisto  in  the  cemetery  of  San  Calisto,  at  Rome.     The  marks  seem  to 

be  mere  scratches  upon  the  mortar,  or  in  some  instances 

are  in  pigment.     The  variety  of   forms  in  the  letters, 

the  different  languages,  Latin  and  Greek,  and  sometimes  the  almost 


In  San  Calisto. 


FiK.  133.-GranUi  from  papal  crypt,  Sail  Sisto,  Rome. 

barl)arous  vernacular  of  a  later  time,  make  a  jumble  of  (hates,  of 
sentiments,  and  of  experiences  which,  if  unraveled,  might  doubtless 
furnish  valuable  historic  truths  to  su])ply  the  hiatuses  now  so  pain- 
fully felt.  The  portions  whicli  have  been  (h'ci])herc(l  arc  cnliicly 
harmonious  with  the  sentiments  exjiresscd  in  the  wi'll-un(lerst<iod 
inscriptions.  The  views  of  death  are  e(]ually  cheerful,  and  the  joy 
of  the  soul  in  C^hrist  is  equally  ecstatic. 

Sometimes  the  cross  a]>]iears  with  equal  arms  cnclo-ie  1  in  a  circle. 
It  is  not  eas}--  to  determine  how  far  this  may  be  regartk^d  as  of 
Sj'-mbolic    import.       The   extreme    sciiool    of    syndjolists  woidd   see 


270 


ARCHAEOLOGY    OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


Fig.  124,— Cross  in  circle  with  inscriptions. 


in  such  forms  the  teaching  of  the  eternity  of  the  ])erson  symbol- 
ized, as  well  as   tiie  continuance  in  perpetuity  of  the  doctrine  and 

k  i  n  g  d  o  m 

Avhich  He  has 

established. 

In     Fig.     124 

we    have    an 

example  from 

the  first  quar- 

t  e  r    of    the 

tifth  century. 

Probably      it 

was    part    of 

a  burial  mon- 
ument,   and 

the  legend  in 
the  circle  was  descriptive  of  the  persons  com- 
memorated, while  the  two  arms  of  the  cross 
bear  the  quite  common  deposlta  in  pace,  and 
the  agre  of  the  deceased.  Unfortunatelv, 
the  mutilated  condition  of  the  inscription 
prevents  its  satisfactory  interpretation. 

Fig.  125  furnishes  an  example  of  the  value 
Epigraphicand  of  archfeological  I'emains  in  the 
pictonai    aids   illustration  of  obscure  points  in 

to  history  illus-       _  _  J^ 

trated.  history.      It  is  a   small    column 

found  in  1874  among  the  ruins  of  the  Ba- 
silica San  Petronilla,  Rome.'  This  ruined 
basilica  has  already  been  described  (see  pp. 
174-1V6)  as  situated  above  the  cemetery  of 
San  Domitilla,  and  seems  to  have  been  built  on  account  of  the 
peculiar  sanctity  of  persons  interred  beneath.  In  former  times  this 
was  known  as  the  Cenieterium  DoruitillcB,  Nerei  et  AcJiillei,  ad 
Petronillani  Via  Ardeatinci.  The  reasons  why  Nereus,  Achilleus, 
and  Petronilla  should  be  thus  associated  wath  this  cemetery  were 
difficult  to  find, until  the  discovery  of  this  column  and  a  small  frag- 
ment of  a  like  column  with  faint  indications  of  the  representation 
of  a  scene  similar  to  that  depicted  in  Fig.  125.  Here  is  clearly  a 
martyrdom.  The  pursuing  soldier  with  the  deadly  weapon  Avould 
slay  the  retreating  victim,  ACILLEVS.  The  further  indication  of 
martyrdom  is  the  crown  above  the  cross,  the  frhimpJnis  CJiristi, 

•' It  had  fallen  through  the  pavement  of  the  basilica   into  a  lower  gnller}' of  the 
cemetery,     v.  Figs.  76,  77. 


Fig.  125.— Column  from  the 
Basilica  of  Petronilla.  Martyr- 
dom of  Achilles. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    EPIGRAPHY.  271 

which  is  the  symbol  of  the  maityi's  <k'atli  ami  triumph.  It  is 
conjectured  that  the  otlier  like  eohiiun,  a  small  i)orti(jii  of  whicli 
has  been  found,  may  have  similarly  depicted  the  martyr  death  of 
Xereus.  Furtlier  excavations  have  given  abundant  proofs,  also, 
of  the  connection  of  Petronilla  with  this  basilica  and  cemetery. 
The  most  plausible  explanation  is  that  the  cemetery  originally  took 
its  name  from  Domitilla,  to  whom  this  plot  of  land  belonged,  and 
that  its  name  was  afterward  changed  on  account  of  the  interment 
of  these  martyrs  in  the  sacred  i)recincts.' 

'  V.  Nortlicotc  and  Browiilow:  Roma  Sottt'rrnneu,\o\.  i,  pp.  121,  180-183.     Roller: 
Les  Catacomhes  de  Rome,  vol.  ii,  plate  xciv,  No.  4,  p.  331. 


273  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

EARLY    CHRISTIAN    POETRY    AND    HYMNOLOGY. 
§  1.  Prelimiiiary  Considerations. 

Religious  emotions  have  ever  sought  expression  in  poetic  meas- 
Reiations  of  ^""*-''  '^^^^  ^^"^^  poets  of  a  people  have  been  instinct  with 
poetry  and   prophetic   fire,  while   the   prophets   of   religion   clothe 

KioD.  their  weightiest  utterances  in  poetic  garb.     Poet  and 

prophet  alike  draw  inspiration  from  a  common  source.  Religion 
suggests  to  poetry  its  richest  themes,  while  poetry  furnishes  to  re- 
ligion the  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  its  deepest  truths.  The  sa- 
cred song  is  therefore  found  associated  with  every  religion.  The 
heathen  used  it,  the  Hebrews  chanted  it  in  their  temple  service,  the 
untutored  savage  utters  it  in  sacred  grove  or  consecrated  wood. 

Nor  is  the  Christian  religion  an  exception  to  this  rule.     The  true 

Te  Demn  Laudamus  had  been  chanted  by  the  angelic  choir  when 

they  announced  the  advent  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  and  the  song  of 

holy  triumph  of  devout  Simeon  and  Elizabeth,  N^unc  Diniittls,  has 

been  counted  among  the  valued  treasures  of  the  universal  Church.    In 

imitation  of  the  Hebrew  custom  the  first  apostles  had 
Earbest  hymns.    .  .  •   i  i       . 

inculcated  the  use  oi  hymns  m  the  social  gatherings  ot 

the  Church,  and  in  the  more  public  congregation.  That  these  spir- 
itual songs  Avere  a  means  of  edification  and  profit  cannot  once  be 
doubted.  But  we  are  not  to  suppose  that  a  feeble  and  despised 
Church  was  in  circumstances  favourable  to  the  development  of  a 
distinctive  hymnology  or  to  the  origination  of  a  characteristic  music' 
The  first  period  of  Christianity  was,  indeed,  filled  with  an  inspi- 
Eariy  christi-  '"'''^t.ion  such  as  the  world  had  never  before  known.  The 
anity  proline  of  founding  of  a  religion  so  new  in  spirit,  which  tended  to 
poetic  themes,   y^^.^^^  ^ij^^.,^  ^j^^,  barriei's  of  social  life  and  unite  all  men 

'  "It  is  probable  tliat  whatever  of  hymnology  was  practised  by  the  Jews  at  the 
time  of  Christ  was  appropriated  by  the  new  Church.  All  the  instructions  of  the 
apostles  agree  with  all  the  traditions  to  confirm  this  opinion.  Since  during  the  life 
of  St.  Paul  there  could  have  been  no  new  literary  develor)meiit  in  the  Church,  his 
exhortations  to  the  use  of  hymns  and  spiritual  songs  must  have  cliiefly  referred  to 
what  was  then  extant  iu  the  Jewish  Church."  v.  Bnrgoss:  Hymns  and  Homilies  of 
Ephraem  Synis,  London,  185:],  p.  xxiv.  Still  it  is  quite  probable  that  in  the  social 
gatherings  there  may  have  been  a  kind  of  improvisation  winch  was  the  beginning  of 
an  independent  hymnology. 


EARLY  CMRISTIAX    POETRY   AND    IIYMNOLOGY.  273 

in  one  holy  coniniunioii;  wliifli  presented  so  noble  an  ariav  of 
witnesses  and  martyrs  for  the  truth's  sake,  and  furnished  support- 
ing power  to  triumph  over  every  form  of  persecution  and  death, 
was  the  occasion  for  awakening  the  true  poetic  spirit  in  the  minds 
of  its  disciples.'  Such  circumstances  are  especially  jirolitic  of 
themes  of  song.  Nevertheless,  a  degree  of  leisure  is  requisite  to- 
set  these  themes  to  harmonious  verse.  While  the  mind  is  at  the 
extremest  stretch  of  action,  or  moved  hy  a  consuming  passion,  ])oetic 
conceptions  may  be  richest,  yet  jjoetic  versification  is  impossible;: 
this  comes  onl}'^  fi-om  quiet  contemplation  and  conditions  of  peace.' 
It  must  likewise  be  recollected  that  circumstances  of  danger  and 

persecution  interfered   with   the   sjrowth   and  perfection   ,,  , 

'  .  °  Yet  not  favour- 

of  the  Church  services,  and  also  retarded  the  develop-  able  to  luptricai 
ment  of  the  metrical  hymn.  Add  to  this  the  fact  be-  f'""'"'*- 
fore  referred  to  (pp.  52,  53),  that  the  Church  of  the  first  two  ami 
one  half  centuries  was  somewhat  hesitant  to  cultivate  some  forms 
of  the  fine  arts  because  of  their  supposed  contaminating  influences 
through  association  Avith  heathen  practices.  The  threat  to  the 
purity  of  Christian  doctrine  and  life  seemed  so  grave  that  long  after 
Christianity  had  received  recognition  from  the  state  Jerome  wrote: 
"  A  Christian  maiden  should  not  know  what  a  lyre  or  a  flute  is,  or 
,  what  is  its  use."  The  first  disciples  in  nearly  every  city  were 
from  Jewish  families  Avho  in  their  wide  dispersion  had  maintained 
the  Hebrew  worship  in  private  houses  or  in  synagogues.  It  Avould 
therefore  be  antecedently  probable  that  many  elements  ^.,    „   ,. 

'    »  _  *'  _  The  Psalter  at 

of  the  Jewish  service  would  at  first  be  incorporated  into  Drst  in  general 
the  religious  forms  of  these  early  converts.  The  writ-  "^''' 
ings  of  the  apostles  confirm  this  presumption.'  The  chanting  of  the 
Psalter  by  the  priest,  and  the  probable  antiphonal  singing  by  the 
congregation,  would  suggest  like  forms  to  the  proselytes  to  the 
new  faith.  The  extent  to  which  the  Church  of  the  first  two  gen- 
erations appropriated  and  adai)ted  the  then  existing  poetry  and 
music  to  its  own  wants,  is  a  (pu^stion  that  has  been  sharply  de- 
bated by  archaeologists.  It  is,  however,  generally  con-  oenns  of  a 
ceded  that  intimations  of  a  church  i)salmody  and  hym-  lh,"N"wTLiL" 
nology  are  found  in  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament,  ment. 
Kspecially  in  the  Apocalyi)se  are  met  suggestions  of  hymns  wliidi 
bear  a  distinctively  Christian  stamp. 

'  "Christianity  began  among  ;i  people  who  were  full  of  active  imapination,  ami 
of  keenest  sensibility.  Tliey  deliglited  to  liavc  the  Iioart  aroused  and  llie  fanny  ele- 
vated tlirongli  appeals  to  the  ej^e  and  ear."     Herder:  Zerslreuek  BliHtei;  5th  Samml. 

■'  Schlctterer:  Gc-ichichk  d.  yeisilichen  Dichtungen  u.  kirchlichm  Tohhiiuit,  Ihuiovor, 
1869,  8.  54.  *  Bnrges.":    Op.  cit.,  pp.  xxiii,  x.xiv. 

18 


274  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN    ART. 

The  gradual  liberation  of  the  disciples  from  the  burdens  of  the 
Mosaic  ritual  Avould  tend  to  eliminate  Jewish  elements  from  the 
public  services,  and  lead  to  the  preparation  of  a  liturgy  in  harmony 
with  the  needs  of  an  independent  and  distinctive  Church.'  The 
sharp  contrasts  between  the  monotheistic  belief  of  the  Christians 
Further  inHu-  ^"^^  the  prevalent  polytheism,  their  adoration  of  the  now 
encei.  risen  and  glorified  Christ,  the  inspiring  and  supporting' 

doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  and  the  quite  prevalent  expectation 
that  the  Lord  would  soon  return  to  awaken  the  sleeping  saints  to 
enter  upon  the  inheritance  of  a  universal  kingdom,  turned  the 
thought  away  from  systems  which  now  seemed  to  them  obsolete, 
and  contributed  to  the  development  of  a  hymnology  new  in  form 
and  content. 

No  extended  description  of  the  public   Christian  services  of  the 

first  two  centuries  by  contemporar^'^  writers  has  been  preserved;  we 

are  therefore  com]5elled  to  be  satisfied  with  a  someAvhat  imperfect 

^    ,      ,.  induction.     The  early  fathers  and  the  "  Apostolic  Con- 

Confoundintf  _        _  _       •'  _  ^ 

of  "hymu"  stitutions "  associate  praj^ers  with  the  song  of  thanks- 
prajer.  giving.^  They  were  regarded  as  like  in  spirit.  They 
also  seem  to  avoid  the  use  of  the  term  "  hymn  "  through  fear  that 
their  worship  of  the  one  God  and  Christ  might  be  confounded  with 
that  of  the  heathen,  who  were  accustomed  to  sing  "  hymns  "  in  praise 
of  their  divinities.' 

"  Psalm"  and  "ode  "  are  the  usual  terms  used  to  describe  these 
writings  and  exercises.  Although  no  hymns  from  the  first  or 
second  century  have  been  preserved  to  our  day,  and  no  mention  of 
The  probable  any  composer  of  hymns  is  found  in  the  records  of  the 
in^econd^cen-  ^^''*^  *^^'^  centuries,''  it  may,  nevertheless,  be  safely  in- 
tury.  ferred  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  as  well  as  from  the 

few  incidental  allusions  to  the  eai'ly  ritual,  that  hymns  were  com- 
posed and  existed  in  written  form  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century.^ 

'  "Even  if  tlie  Psalms  of  the  Old  Testament  could,  at  ihe  beginning:,  have  expressed 
all  the  deep  feelings  of"  the  Christian  heart,  the  very  use  of  these  would  liave  aroused 
in  the  worshiper  a  desire  for  new  hymns  whieli  their  pecuhar  gifts  and  inspiration 
would  have  created."  r.  Rambach:  Anthologie  christlicher  GesiXncje  aus  alien  Jahr- 
hunderten  der  Kirche,  Bd.  i,  s.  4. 

^v.  Angusti:  Handbuch  der  christlichen  Archceologie,  Leipzig,  183G,  Bd.  ii   s.  10. 

^Augusti:  Op.  cH.,  Bd.  ii,  s.  113.  Contra,  Bohmer:  Christ.-kirchlkhe  Wissenschaft, 
Breslau,  18.36,  Bd.  ii,  s.  335. 

*  Witli  the  possible  exception  of  the  Pedagogics  of  Clement,  and  tlie  Gloria  in 
Excelsis. 

*  Eusebius:  Hist  EccL,  v,  28,  wliere  a  writer  from  the  end  of  tlio  second  century 
is  represented  as  answering  the   Artemonites  liy  appealing  to  a  great  number  of 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    POETRY   AND    IIYMNOLOGY.  275 

Milliter  has  <5iven  the  following  brief  summary  of  his  investigations: 
1.  The  congregations  of  the  apostolic  period  used  hymns  of  thanks- 
giving in  their  puhlic  worship.  2.  They  also  used  these  MQnter's  con- 
hymns  on  the  oocasi<m  of  their  saered  feasts,  the  Agajia%  elusions. 
etc.  3.  The  sacred  song  was  set  to  music,  and  chanted  by  the 
entire  congregation.  4.  These  hymns  and  i)salms  which  the  earh 
Christians  used  were  not  all  derived  from  the  Old  Testament  Scrip 
tures,  but  some  were  of  their  own  origination  and  composition." 
With  regard  to  the  meagreness  of  our  information  relative  to  this 
subject,  he  suggests  that  it  should  cause  no  sur])rise  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  only  merest  fragments  of  the  historj'  of  the  early 
Church  have  been  preserved,  while  the  larger  part  of  Causes  of  mea- 
what  may  have  been  written  has  been  irrevocably  lost;  preness  of  in- 
that  since  the  hymns  were  kept  with  the  other  books  formation. 
of  the  Church,  they  may,  therefore,  have  furnished  a  special  reason 
for  persecution  when  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Christians  were 
hunted  out  and  destroyed. 

That  the  number  of  these  hymns  must  have  been  quite  limited, 
as  compared  with  the  number  in  later  times,  seems  probable  fnmi 
the  fact  that  most  of  the  early  Christians  were  uncultured  and  not 
in  circumstances  to  patronize,  much  less  to  cultivate,  the  fine  arts. 
Moreover,  at  a  still  later  date  the  councils  of  the  Church  were 
much  divided  in  opinion  relative  to  the  introduction  c„nciiiarv  dfv 
of  hymns  other  than  from  the  Psalter  into  the  public  cisions  di- 
services;  therefore,  the  writing  of  them  received  little  ''^^^' 
encouragement  even  by  those  who  possessed  the  requisite  gifts  and 
culture.^ 

The  hesitation  of  Christian  councils  and  bishops  to  sanction  th<' 
use  of  other  metrical  compositions  than  the  Psaltery  and  inspired 
utterances  from  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  finds  its  partial 
explanation  in  the  fact  that  the  heretical  leaders  were  among  the 
earliest  patrons  of  hymnology,  and  were  the  first  to  introdiu'c  int<» 
the  public  worship  a  greater  regularity  and  pomp.  By  this  means 
multitudes  were  attracted  from  the  orthodox  service,  and  the  spread 
of  the  Gnostic  heresy  was  greatly  promoted. 

On  the  propriety  of  using  other  metrical  compositions  than  th<' 
Psalms  of  David  synods  and  councils  were  not  agreed.     In  nutst 

ancient  hymns  whose  theme  was  tlie  pruiso  of  Christ.  "  Psalmi  qiioque  et,  canticu 
fratrum  j;im  pridcm  a  fidclibiis  conscripta  Chrisiiim  Yerbum  Dei  coiicelel)rant,  diviii- 
itatcm  ct  tribiiciKlo."  Also  the  custom  of  Paul  of  SamosaU  in  chanpinp  the  praise 
hymns  designed  to  be  sung  to  Christ  to  those  praising  himself,  is  a  further  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  hymns  and  music. 

'  Ueberdie  dlteste  christUche  Poesie,  ss.  18,  19.  ^  Op.  at,  pp.  30,  31. 


376  ARCH.EOLOGY    OF    CHKISTIAN    ART. 

instances  tlieir  decisions  were  very  cautiously  expressed.  By  some 
none  but  the  Psalter  was  permitted.  Nevertheless,  the  eastern 
fathers,  Chrysostom,  Ephraem  of  Syria,  and  others  had  ventured  1.) 
The  Greek  introduce  hymns  of  their  own  composition,  whose  use  liad 
fathers  favora-   jyi-gatlv  added  to  the  fervor  of  devotion,  and  had  been 

ble  to  the   use    o  J 

of  hymns.  powerful  in  recalling  to  the  orthodox  told  many  wliom 

the  alluring  service  of  the  heretical  sects  had  led  astray.  Tin- 
(character  of  most  of  the  early  sacred  poetry  which  has  reached  us 
liardly  permits  it  to  be  classified  with  hymnology.  Even  the  very 
prolific  poet  of  the  Greek  church,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  has  not  con- 
tributed a  single  poem  which  deserves  the  name  of  hymn.'  Indeed, 
there  is  a  most  marked  contrast  between  the  productive  power  of 
the  early  and  the  modern  Church  with  respect  to  the  number  and 
character  of  sacred  poems.  It  is  estimated  that  the  aggregate 
Small  number  hymns  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Syrian  churches,  prior 
of  hymns.  to  the  sixth  century,  would  not  equal  those  found  in 

the  ordinary  collections  used  by  the  churches  of  our  day.  Ram- 
bach  '^  has  afiirmed  that  the  total  number  of  Latin  hymns  and  sen- 
tences which  were  in  use  prior  to  the  fourteenth  century  did  not  ex- 
ceed four  hundred.  This  arose,  not  so  much  from  the  want  of  proj^er 
gifts  as  from  the  ends  had  in  view  by  the  writers  of  these  poetic 
.  i^g  compositions.  ]\[uch  of  their  poetry  was  of  a  dogmatic 
fewness   of   character,  and  was  intended  to  advocate  a  doctrine  oi* 

.good  hymns,  combat  a  heresy  rather  than  to  contribute  to  the  edi- 
fication of  the  worshiper.^ 

We  must  also  be  reminded  that  the  general  use  of  hymnbooks  in 
the  public  service  of  the  early  Church  is  not  once  to  be  supposed. 
While  the  diffusion  of  books  in  the  Imperial  period  was  very 
considerable,  and  the  multiplying  of  manuscripts  was  compara- 
tively inexpensive,*  from  the  best  authorities  to  which  Ave  have 
access  it  is  inferred  that  in  many  instances  large  congregations  had 

:  but  few  copies  of  the  hymns  which  were  in  use.  It  is  therefore 
probable  that  by  frequent  repetition  the  worshippers  committed  the 
hymns  to  memory,  and,  where  permitted,  also  sang  the  tunes  and 
chants  by  rote.  In  studying  subjects  of  this  character  the  investi- 
gator must,  as  far  as  possible,  transfer  himself  to  the  times,  and 
And  of  aids  to  realize  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  early  Christ - 
public  service,  ians.  It  must  be  considered  how  many  arrangements 
of  the  service  of  the  modern  Church  have  sprung  from  the  ease  ol" 

'  AtigHSti:   Ilandhuch  chrisl.  Arch.,  Bd.  ii,  p.  128. 

■^  Anthologie,  ii,  8.  '■>  August] :    Op.  cit,  B.  v,  c.  4,  ii. 

*  V,  Uhlhorn:  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Heathenistn,^.  24..  Merivale:  Hist.  <\f 
tfu  Romans  under  the  Empire,  vol.  vl,  p.  232. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   POETRY    AND    II Y.MXOLiXJY.  277 

iiiultiplyiiig  Bibles,   hyiunbooks,  ciitt'cliisiiis,  etc-.,  \>y    means  of    the 
art  of  printing. 

The  partial  exclusion  of  the  private  meniliers  of  the  early  Chiireli 
from  particii)atioii  in  the  singing  is  attrilmtable  far  more  to  their 
want  of  training  in  the  arts  of  poetry  and  music  than  to  the  arbi- 
trariness of  church  officials.  While  by  the  fourth  century  the  new 
religion  had  made  very  wide  and  important  co!i<piests,  it  neverthe- 
less seems  probable  that  most  of  the  professed  Christian  communi- 
ties enjo^'cd  but  limited  means  of  cultivating  the  arts  to  wliich  the 
grandeur  and  impressiveness  of  public  worship  are  so  largely  due. 
Not  till  a  later  period  did  the  singing-schools  of  Rome,  Fuida,  Metz, 
St.  Gallen,  etc.,  prepare  the  clergy  to  lead  the  congregation  in  por- 
tions of  the  singing  service.  By  the  study  of  the  early  hymnology 
we  are  impressed  with  its  comparative  })Overty.  The  depth  of  de- 
votional feeling  an<l  the  perfection  of  rhythm  which  characterize 
the  mediaeval  and  the  modern  hymn  are  largely  wanting.  The  dig- 
nity and  high  inspiration  which  have  characterized  public  worship 
since  the  reformers  joined  the  perfectetl  hymn  to  approjjriate  music, 
and  thus  brought  the  singing  to  the  entire  congregation,  could  not 
have  been  attained  even  in  the  most  imposing  churches  of  Constan- 
tinople, Antioch,  Milan,  or  Rome. 

§2.    ISacrcil  Poetry  of  the  S//ri(iu  Church. 

Syria  was  the  native  land  of  Christian  hymnology.  To  that  city 
where  the  disciples  were  first  called  Christians  probably  belongs  the 
honor  of  introducing  the  formal  hymn  into  the  public  services  of  the 
(■hurch.  A  questionable  tradition  contained  in  Socrates'  says  that 
Ignatius,  the  first  Christian  bishop  of  Antioch,  used  the  /ntioch  the 
antiphonal  hymn  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  second  mother  city, 
century.  From  this  very  brief  reference  no  definite  knowledge  of 
the  character  of  the  hynm  or  of  its  relative  ])roininence  in  the  pub- 
lic service  may  be  gained. 

By  other  means,  however,  the  history  of  Syrian  hymnology  can 
be  traced  with  little  interruption  to  the  second  or  early  portion 
of  the  third  century.  In  Syria,  more  than  elsewhere,  the  (inostic 
heresy  sought  to  propagate  itself  through  the  means  of  sacred  poetry 
and  hymns.     The  philosophic  theologian,  Uardesanes,  who  llourished 

'  Hist.  Ecrl.  lib.  vi.  c.  8.  "Jjini  vero  ilidaniiis,  unde  consiictiido  iiyinnonim,  qui  in 
Kcclesia  altornis  decniitantiir,  initiiim  ccpcrit,  Ignatius  Anliocliic  .|ii:c  est  in  Sy^ii^ 
tertius  a  Petro  apostolo  Kpiscopns.  qni  cnrn  apostolis  ipsis  miilium  vcrsalns  eat. 
visioncin  vidit  angclonnTi  Sanct;im  Trinitnlem  hymnis  alterna  vice  decaiitnti.s  onllan- 
dantinin:  et  formMn  caiiendi  in  ca  visidncin  c-xprcssam  eoelesiai  .\nlioclian:i' Indi.lit. 
(Tilde  ilia  tradilio  in  onuiibut*  ecclesiis  recopla  est." 


278  ARCHiEOLOGY    OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

in  tlie  last  half  of  the  second  century  at  Edessa,  in  Mesopotamia,  was 
The  hymns  of  among  the  earliest  writers  of  hymns  which  were  used 
theGuostics.  ^y  the  heretical  churches  of  the  East.  While  with  a 
single  exception  his  writings  have  been  lost,  we  are  informed  by 
Ephraem,  the  Syrian,  that  he  composed  one  hundred  and  fifty  hj^mns 
in  imitation  of  the  Psalter.  By  clothing  his  peculiar  tenets  in  the 
ynchanting  forms  of  song  he  seriously  threatened  the  purity  of  the 
Syrian  church.'  Multitudes  were  drawn  away  from  the  true  faith. 
His  skill  as  a  composer  of  music  was  equal  to  his  poetic  gifts;  for  it 
is  certain  that  he  gave  name  to  tunes  which  were  afterward  appro- 
priated by  the  orthodox  party.  For  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  the 
influence  of  these  hymns  was  perpetuated.'^  The  orthodox  teachers 
became  alarmed.  To  arrest  the  evil  tendencies  they  saw  that  like 
Ephraem  of  nieans  nuist  be  used.  Ephraem,  deacon  of  Edessa,  a 
Edessa.  contemporary  and  friend  of   Basil  the  Great,  entered 

upon  this  work  with  intensest  zeal.  He  organized  female  choirs,' 
taught  them  hymns  which  embodied  sublimest  spiritual  sentiments, 
set  to  song  the  fundamental  truths  of  the  nativity,  baptism,  passion, 
resurrection,  and  ascension  of  the  Lord,  and  required  the  deaconesses 
to  assemble  in  the  church  on  all  Sabbaths  and  feast  days.  On  these 
occasions  he  was  present  as  leader  to  teach  them  musical 
notation  and  the  laws  of  poetic  rhythm.  He  believed 
that  this  was  the  surest  means  of  gaining  the  goodwill  and  kindly 
aid  of  the  people,  and  of  breaking  the  power  of  his  opponents." 
Sozomen  ^  informs  us  that  from  that  time  the  Syrians  sang  the  odes 
of  Ephraem  according  to  the  methods  indicated  by  Harnionius,®  the 

'Epiiraem  of  Syria,  in  his  Homilies  against  Heresies,  bears  frequent  testimony  to 
the  influence  of  Bardesanes. 

'■'  "  For  these  things  Bardesanes  Uttered  in  his  writings — 

He  composed  odes.  And  min<j-led  tlieni  witli  music; 

He  harmonized  Psalms  And  iiUroduced  measures." — Homily  53,  Against  Heretics. 

■'  In  the  resorts  of  Bardesanes  Are  songs  and  melodies. 

For  seeing  tliat  young  persons  Loved  sweet  music. 

By  the  harmony  of  his  songs  He  corrupted  their  minds." — Homily  1. 

V.  Burgess's  translation.  Hymns  and  Homilies  of  Ephraem  Syrus,  pp.  xxx  and  xxxi. 

'Burgess  translates  tliis  term,  "  Daughters  of  the  convent."  Hymns  and  Homilies, 
[).  xxxviii. 

*  Acta  St.  Epraem,  e.  xxii. 

^  Hist.  Eccles.,  lib.  iii,  cap.  xvl,  "  Ex  eo  tempore  Syri  juxta  numeros  canticorum 
Harmonii  scripta  Ephraim  psallere  sclent." 

*  If  the  accounts  of  Sozomen  and  Tiieodoret  can  be  relied  upon,  Harmonius,  the  son 
of  Bardesanes,  reduced  tlie  Syrian  literature  to  measures  and  musical  laws  which  had 
been  suggested  by  the  Greeks.  He  also  adapted  these  to  the  uses  of  clmirs,  and  by 
the  beauty  of  his  compositions  allured  his  hearers  to  embrace  the  heretical  doctrine'^. 
Solomon:  Life  of  Epkruem,  lib,  iii,  cap,  16      Tiieodoret:   Hist..  EccL,  lib.  iv,  cap.  2'.». 


EARLV    CHRISTI.VN    POETRY   AND   IIVMXOLOGY.  279 

son  rii  jJardesaiies;  and  Theodoret  affirms  tliat  tliese  hymns  proved 
to  be  efficacious  medicine  to  arrest  the  si^read  of  heresy. 

The  number  of  Ephraem's  poems  is  unknown.'    It  is  certain,  how- 
ever, that  they  were  numerous,  and  covered  a  very  wide   His  pr^ms  uu- 
range  of  subjects — theology,  exegesis,  liymnology,  etc.   serous. 
His  hymns  were  widely  used  both  by  the  schismatic  sects  of  the 
Syrian  church  and  by  the  orthodox  Christians  of  the  East. 

Of  the  metrical  laws  governing  these  Syrian  poems  little  is  known. 
It  seems,  however,  that  the  meters  were  regulated  by  the  xhpir  metrkuii 
number  of  the  syllables,  and  not  by  the  quantity,  as  in  pnitipies- 
Greek  and  Latin  verse.  The  Latin  and  Greek  could  vary  the  number 
of  syllables  in  a  verse  according  to  their  quantity,  but  the  Syrian  seems 
to  have  adhered  rigidly  to  the  syllabic  order,  and  thus  greatly  hin- 
dered the  beauty,  flexibility,  and  variety  of  utterance  which  jn-oduce 
the  greatest  charm, 

"The  strophes  vary  in  length  from  four  verses  to  twelve,  sixteen, 
and  even  twenty.  Many  of  them  are  uniform  in  their  structure, 
every  verse  containing  the  same  number  of  syllables;  but  others  are 
studiously  varied,  exhibiting  great  art  and  labor  in  their  Buigesssopin- 
construction.  .  .  .  Indeed,  Ephraem  seems  to  have  had  ioa. 
a  nice  ear  for  variety,  and  if  what  has  already  been  said  respecting 
the  dislike  of  his  countrymen  to  the  monotonj^  of  the  psalms  is  cor- 
rect, he  must  have  gratified  the  most  fastidicjus  seeker  of  novelties.'" 

The  attention  given  by  Ephraem  to  antiphonal  singing,  by  which 
the  interest  and  attractiveness  of  the  public  assemblies  could  be  pro- 
moted, compelled  a  careful  arrangement  of  the  liturgy.  His  contribu- 
tions to  the  Church  of  his  own  time  Avere  varied  and  noble,  and  the 
infiuence  of  his  labors  in  the  px'omotion  of  Christian  liymnology 
was  positive  and  widespread. 

The  following  will  give  a  good  idea  of  the  character  of  his 
poetry : ^ 

Canon  LX. 
necessity  for  preparation  for  death. 

1. 

Pity  me,  0  Fatlierl  in  tliy  tender  mercy, 
And  ill  thy  tribunal,  let  thy  love  be  with  mo; 


'  There  lias  been  a  tendency  to  ascribe  to  him  every  thinjr  extant  in  the  metrical 
forms  of  Bardesancs  and  Hannonins,  and  wliich  was  used  in  the  Syrian  sacred  olTiccs. 
But  this  is  evidently  erroneous.  Many  metrical  compositions  in  the  Kphraomitic 
rhythm  are  plainly  the  work  of  other  hands,  t;.  Assemau :  Bibliotheca  Orientalis, 
torn,  i,  p.  GO. 

'  Burgess:    Op.  ciL,  p.  liv. 

'  Translated  by  Biuf^css  :   Metrical  ffymns  of  Ephraem  Syrus,  pp.  56,  57. 


280  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    CHR115T1AN    ART. 

And  make  me  to  rise  up  from  the  dust, 

In  tlie  day  when  thy  standard  sl:all  be  revealed 

0  Father !  whose  loving-kindness  formed  me, 

And  wlio  at  the  first  Fashioned  our  image ; 

Let  thy  nod  raise  our  bodies  again, 

In  the  day  when  the  world  is  destroyed. 

2. 

At  the  appearing  of  Jesus  otir  King, 
Example    of  Tiie  buried  of  all  ages  shall  stand  up; 

bis  poetry.  His  living  voice  shall  call  loudly, 

And  awaken  every  sleeper  ; 

What  terror  shall  be  to  all  men, 

When  the  thrones  are  set  in  order  I 

How  will  the  wicked  be  confounded, 

And  all  be  turned  into  hell ! 

3. 

Tlie  day  of  judgment  is  at  hand, 

And  all  faults  shall  be  disclosed ; 

Who  then  can  be  pure  in  thy  sight. 

In  the  iiour  when  the  books  are  opened? 

For  there  are  no  penitents, 

Xo  offerers  of  supplications ; 

For  that  is  the  daj'  of  doom 

In  which  no  word  or  speech  is  uttered ! 

§  3.   The  Greek  Ilymiiology. 

While  no  hymns  m  the  present  collections  of  the  Greek  Church, 
or  which  are  used  in  its  authorized  service,  are  older  than  the  eighth 
century,  sacred  poetic  compositions  in  Greek  by  the  fathers  of  that 
The  Pedaami-  ^'^^^''^^^  probably  date  from  the  second.^  The  well-known 
tts  of  Clement  work  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Pedagogus,  written  pri- 
exan  ria.  jjjr^j.jiy  f^j.  ^jjg  defence  and  propagation  of  the  orthodox- 
faith,  closes  with  two  hymns  which  were  well  calculated  to  promote 
the  religious  fervor  of  the  worshipper.  Both  are  clearly  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  in  opposition  to  the  growing  and 
threatening  heresies.  These  are  probably  the  oldest  Christian  hjniins 
which  have  been  preserved  to  our  day.^  They  have  often  been  trans- 
lated, yet  are  not  easily  adjusted  to  the  wants  of  the  modern  Church." 

'  Augusti :  Denkivilrdigkeiten,  Bd.  v,  s.  292. 

'Daniel:  Thesaurus  Hymnologiais,  iii,  pp.  3,  4.  This  opinion  of  Daniel  has  been 
controverted.  Some  good  archfeologists  regard  tlie  Gloria  in  Excelsis  of  earlier 
origin.     Rambach:  Aniliohgie  christlicher  Gesamje,  Bd.  i,  s.  35. 

'Probably  Dr.  Dcxter's  free  modernization  is  the  happiest  that  has  yet  appeared 
in  English — " Slieplierd  of  Tender  Youtli,"  etc.  Piper:  EvangeUscher  Kalender. 
1868,  ss.  17-39,  has  given  the  text  and  an  excellent  German  translation,  as  well  as 
a  good  anal5'sis,  and  a  good  literal  translation  has  been  given  by  SchafiT:  History  of 
Ihe   Christian  Church,  vol.  ii,  p.  230. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    POETRY   AND   IIYMNOLOGY.  281 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  of  true  Cliristian  part'iituuf,  was  (.'(lucated 
ill  the  best  schools  of  Cajsarea,  Alexandria,  and  Athens.  He  ha<l 
for  fellow-students  Basil,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  the  future  emperor, 
Julian  the  Apostate.  His  earnest  devotion  to  the  interests  (;  r ,.  f,  or  v  «.  f 
of  the  Church  after  his  elevation  to  the  see  of  Constan-  Nazianzen. 
tinople,  and  his  florid,  fervent  eloquence,  joined  to  a  lowly  humility 
of  manner  and  life,  were  the  means  of  restoring  many  churches  of 
his  diocese  to  the  prosperity  which  they  had  enjoyed  forty  years  be- 
fore. His  poems  were  numerous,  and  glowed  with  a  true  religious 
fervor  well  suited  to  stimulate  the  Christian  life.  Nevertheless, 
scarcely  a  trace  of  his  poetry  is  preserved  in  the  authorized  office- 
books  of  the  Greek  Church.' 

Synesius  of  Ptoleraais,  a  well-trained  scholar,  became  bishop  of 
his  city  late  in  life.    Many  notices  of  his  poetic  writings 

Sjmesiiis. 

are  found  in  the  Christian  fathers,  but  only  ten  j>oems 
have  been  preserved.     While  he  had  a  reputation  among  his  con- 
temporaries  for    great    poetic   gifts,   his    poems   were   but   |)oorly 
adapted  to  the  public  religious  services,  and  have  never  been  incor- 
porated into  the  authorized  collections  of  the  Eastern  Church.     His 
influence  as  a  writer  of  hymns  seems  to  have  been  considerable, 
but  it  was  oreatly  lessened  by  the  introduction   of  the 
philosophic  adages  ot   the  pagan   schools,  and   by  his 
too  careful   imitation  of  the  style  of  the  heathen  poets.*     In  his 
hymns  Platonic  notions  obscure  and  well-nigh  supplant  Christian 
doctrine. 

While  the  surviving  poems  of  Gregory,  Synesius,  Euthimius,  and 
Sophronius  exhibit  considerable  regularity,  and  some  may  be  re- 
duced to  metrical  order  as  of  anapests  and  iambics.  Decadence  of 
Greek  poetry  had  already  fallen  into  decay,  and  the  sutn-a  poetry. 
Eastern  Church  had  yielded  to  the  prevalent  artiflciality  and 
clamor  for  the  strange  and  the  extravagant  in  poetic  form  an<l 
content. 

'Rambach:    Op.   cit,    p.  48.     For  a   translation   and   note  of   his  Uov  6e  /6}ni 

TTTEpoh'Teg;  eig  aipa,  v.  Daniel:  Thesaurm  ntjmnohf/icus.  etc.,  iii,  11.     Also  Scliaff : 

Christ  in  Song:  ,         .        ,  i    , 

"Where  are  the  witifteil  words  .' 

Lost  in  the  air,"  etc. 

''v.  Clirist  andParanikas:  Anlhologia  Gra'cncayminum  Christianoritm,  Lipsia-,  1«71. 
This  work  has  been  the  means  of  awakening  new  interest  in  the  Greek  hyninolopy. 
Its  fonr  prologomcna  are  packed  with  learned  discnsfjion.  1.  On  the  Greek  Clirisi- 
ian  poets.  2.  On  the  different  kinds  of  ecclesiastical  h^vmn.s.  3.  On  the  rhyth- 
mical laws  of  the  Byzantine  hymns.  4.  On  iho  Byzantine  music.  This  work  gives 
the  first  place  to  Syuesins,  and  reproduces  in  excelleut  form  the  Greek  of  his  ten 
surviving-  hymns. 


083  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF   CHRISTLVN    ART. 

Anatolius,  of  Constantinople,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, endeavored  to  drop  the  classic  metre,  and  to  de- 
Auatoiius.  ^,^j^^^^  ^  ^^^.^^  ^^  poetry  more  in  harmony  with  the  wants 

and  spirit  of  the  Church.  In  this  he  was  but  partially  successful. 
Neale  has  given  an  English  version  of  the  hymn  on  Christ  stilling 
the  tempest  {^o<peQdc  rQiKviiiag),  which  ranks  among  the  best  speci- 
mens of  the  Greek  hymnology : 

1. 
Fierce  was  the    wild  billow 

Dark  was  the  night : 
Oars  labored  lieavily ; 

Foam  gleamed  witl;  white; 
Mariners  trembled; 

Peril  was  nigh ; 
Then  said  the  Son  of  God, 
"  Peace !  it  is  I.  " 


Ridge  ot  the  mouiit;iiii  wave, 

Lower  thy  crest! 
Wail  of  Euroclydon 

Be  thou  at  rest  1 
Peril  can  none  be — 

Sorrow  must  dy — 
Where  saith  tiie  Light  of  light, 

"Peace!  it  is  L" 

3. 

Jesus,  deliverer! 

Come  tliou  to  me ; 
Soothe  thou  my  voyaging 

Over  life's  sea ! 
Thou,  when  the  storm  of  death 

Roars,  sweeping  by, 
Whisper,  0  Truth  of  trutli! 

"Peace!  it  is  L" 

Even  less  satisfactory  were  the  attempts  of  Nonnus  of  Panopolis  in 
Egypt,  of  the  Empress  Eudoxia,  and  of  Paul  Silentiarius.^  Most 
of  the  (ireek  hymnology  of  the  first  five  and  one  half  centuries  lacks 
the  simplicit}^,  earnestness,  and  depth  which  characterized  the  life 
of  the  earlier  Church,     A  complete  collection  of  the  hymns  and 

'The  description  (rKcppaaiQ)  of  Saint  Sophia,  in  poetic  measure,  by  Paul  Sileutiarius 
has  helped  us  more  fully  to  appreciate  the  grandeur  of  this  temple,  and  the  dedica- 
tory services  herein  described  illustrate  the  ritual  of  the  Eastern  Church  in  the 
reign  of  Justinian.  This  work  has  been  translated  and  ably  annotated  by  Dr.  Kar- 
tiim  in  tlie  appendix  to  Salzenberg's  work :  "  Alt-christliche  Baudenkmale  von  Con- 
'>lantino2')Ie  mm  V  bis  XIJ  Jahrlmndert.   Berlin,  1854. 


EARLY   CHRISTIA:^    ROETRY  AND   IIVMNOLOGY.  2S:j 

chauts  of  this  church  during  the  first  six  centuries  furnishes  little 
that  can  worthily  compare  with  the  richer  and  more  devotional  spirit 
of  the  West.' 

§4.  The  Poetry  and  IIijiiDiology  uf  the  Western  Church. 

To  estimate  the  originality  and  creative  power  of  the  poets  of  the 
Western  Church  it  is  necessary  to  make  careful  discriminations. 
The  ecclesiastical  poetry  of  the  first  centuries  is  divided  into  two 
distinct  classes;  namely,  the  descriptive  or  narrative,  t„-o  kinds  of 
frequently  employing  high  panegyric,  and  the  lyric,  sacreu  poeiry. 
which  took  the  form  of  sacred  hymns  and  songs.*  The  first  con- 
forms quite  closely  to  the  then  prevalent  type  and  spirit.  This 
style  only  had  been  successfully  cultivated  by  the  later  Roman 
poets.  Both  heathen  and  Christians  alike  imitated  the  writers 
of  the  classic  period,  who  had  made  the  exploits  of  gods  and 
heroes  the  theme  of  their  noblest  verse.  The  descriptive  and  nar- 
rative poetry  of  the  Roman  world  during  the  first  three  Christian 
centuries  is,  however,  characterized  by  an  extravagance  of  panegyric 
which  is  almost  entirely  wanting  in  the  literature  of  the  golden  age. 
Nor  are  the  Christian  writers  of  the  same  period  seem-  ^  ^igii  pane- 
ingly  more  chaste  in  style  or  more  sober  in  the  treatment  f^y'^^- 
of  their  themes.  The  lives  and  fate  of  their  martyred  heroes  and 
saints  being  the  favorite  subjects  which  they  treat,  their  style  is  en- 
tirely conformable  to  heathen  models.  To  make  known  to  the 
world  the  history  of  those  who  had  given  their  lives  to  attest  the 
verity  of  the  new  religion,  to  exhibit  the  miglity  supporting  power 
and  completest  victory  of  faith,  and  to  awaken  in  others  a  burning 
zeal  for  the  truth  as  it  was  in  Jesus,  were  the  high  aims  of  these 

'  From  the  splendid  qualities  of  the  Hellenic  mind,  and  from  the  rich  inheritance 
which  the  Greeks  of  the  first  centuries  liad  entered  into,  we  might  antecedently  ex- 
pect much  from  the  hymnology  of  this  churcli.  Tiiose  expect-vtions  are,  however, 
sadly  disappointed.  Tiie  classic  age  of  hymnology  in  tiie  Eastern  Churdi  did  not 
begin  before  about  A.  D.  650,  lience  lies  outside  of  the  period  of  our  inquir}'.  The 
iconoclastic  controversy  gave  inspiration  to  the  hymnology.  Tliis  Greek  snored 
poetry  is  of  immense  volume,  filling,  according  to  Neale  {v.  Ilijiuns  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  Introduction,  p.  xli),  4,000  closely  printed,  double-column  quarto  pages. 
Tliis  mass  of  material  is  becoming  somewhat  bolter  known  to  the  West  through 
llie  devoted  labors  of  Neale  in  England,  Canliual  Pitra  in  Italy,  Vormbanm  (Donirr.s 
Thesaurus,  vol.  iii)  and  Christ  in  (Jormany.  Yet  the  judgment  of  Nealo  with  regard 
to  the  Menmi  (tiie  books  containing  the  services  for  each  month)  is  generally 
accepted  as  just:  "They  contain  a  deluge  of  worthless  compositions;  tautology 
till  it  becomes  almost  sickening;  the  merest  commonplace  again  and  again  decked  in 
the  tawdry  shreds  of  tragic  language,  and  twenty  or  thirty  times  repeating  the 
same  thought  in  slightly  varying  terms."  v.   Op.  cU.,  4ih  od.,  p.  88. 

'Bahr:    Geschichle  der  romische  LUerntur,  bd.,  iv,  §1. 


284  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF    CHRISTIAN    ART. 

narrative  and  descriptive  poems.     Somewhat  later  is  noticed  a  ten- 
dency to  set  the  Christian   doctrine  to  i>oetic  measure, 

Christian    doc-  ^  .  .  .  ,  rii 

trine  iu  poetic  and  to  clothe  the  biblical  narratives  m  poetic  garb,  lo 
^"'"™'  supply   the   lack  of  copies  of  the  sacred  books,   their 

most  important  truths  were  taught  to  the  Christian  congregations 
in  the  poi)ular  hexameter  verse.  The  chief  difference  between  the 
lieathen  and  Christian  poets  was  that  the  latter  adhere  strictly  to 
the  truths  of  history,  and  there  was  in  their  writings  a  spirit  which 
could  be  inspired  only  by  a  system  that  cared  for  the  sufferings  of 
humanity,  and  could  cast  light  on  the  destiny  of  the  race.' 

The  other  class  of  Christian  poetry  was  wholly  different.  Even 
Lyric  poetry  an  in  the  goldeu  age  of  Roman  literature  lyric  poetry  seems 
exoticiuRome.  ^q  have  been  an  exotic,^  while  during  the  first  period  of 
the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  it  had  become  almost  totally 
neglected  :  it  was  revived  through  certain  noted  poems  which 
belong  to  its  hymnology.  It  was  animated  by  a  spirit  wholly 
novel,  and  it  evinced  a  noteworthy  richness  and  originality.  Its 
Hich  character  introduction  into  the  common  services  of  the  Church 
of  Christian  required  that  it  be  simple,  earnest,  and  populai".  Some 
lyric.  ^^  ^Yi^  descriptive  and  narrative  poetry  of  the  fourth 

century  is  in  imitation  of  the  masters  of  the  best  period  of  Roman 
literature,  while  the  lyrics  are  original  not  only  in  their  spirit 
and  depth  of  feeling,^  but  in  their  rhythmic  forms  as  well.  In 
this  species  of  literature  the  Christian  Church  of  the  fourth  c-entury 
stands  out  in  bold  and  honorable  relief.'' 

The  poems  sometimes  ascribed  to  TertuUian,  because  in  some 
manuscripts  they  are  associated  with  his  name,  are  probably  the 
production  of  a  later  author.      Several  works  of  this  nature,  as 

'  "The  old  liymns,  from  Ambrose  to  Gregory  the  Great,  still  bear  in  their  earnest 
and  powerful  lineaments  the  portrait  of  the  conquering  martyr  period  of  the  Church. 
Their  entire  content  is  derived  from  the  new  and  sublime  view  of  the  world  which, 
in  opposition  to  the  scope  of  lieathen  i  bought,  sustained  and  filled  the  souls  of  the 
Christians.  Subsequently  there  was  developed  much  that  was  more  delicate  and  cul- 
tiu'ed,  but  seldom,  if  ever,  has  there  been  seen  any  thing  of  greater  purity  and  sim- 
plicity."    Wackernagel :  Das  deufsche  Kirchenlied,  Treface. 

'^Biilir:    Gesch.  d.  rom.  Lit,  Bd.  iv,  s.  2. 

*Bahr:   Op.  cit,  Bd.  iv,  s.  10.     AugusU:  Denkwiirdu/keiten,  Bd.  v,  s.  292. 

*"The  hymnology  of  the  Western  Church  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  th:ee 
Three  eras  of  principal  eras.  The  first,  wiiich,  borrowing  a  term  from  architecture. 
Latin  hym-  we  may  name  the  Romanesque  period,  extends  to  the  conclusion  of 
no  ogy.  (.]jg  pontificate  of  Gregory  the  Great,  and  is,  as  a  general  thing,  dis- 

tinguished by  the  absence  of  rhyme.  ...  In  this  period  the  Church  was  unsliack- 
ling  herself  from  tlie  fetters  of  metre;  in  the  second  she  was  bringing  out  all  the  ca- 
pal)iliiics  of  rhyme;  in  the  third  she  submitted  to  tlie  slavi.sh  bondage  of  a  revived 
paganism."     Nealc:  Mediceval  Hymns  and  Sequences,  Loxxdon,  1851,  Introduction. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN    POETRY  AND  IIYMNOLOGY.  28.-> 

Marcio,  clejucUcio  Domini,  Genesis,  iSodoma,  etc.,  both  from  inti-r- 
Jial  evidence  of  style  and  content,  as  well  as  from  posi-  poems  atirtb- 
tive  testimony,  must  be  assigned  to  a  period  considerably   ^^^    ^  '^'^^' 

,  ,  ^  .  "^     tiilllan  not  gen- 

later  than  tljat  of  Tertullian.     Many  poems  bcarint^  his  nine. 

name  can  no  more  be  attributed  to  him  than  to  Vir<^il  or  Homer.' 

If  this  opinion  is  well  founded,  then  must  Coramodianus,  who  lived 

about  A.  D.  220-250,  be  regarded  as  the  earliest  Latin 

/ii-j-  ,1  ,1  1  T9T-  Coinmodlanus. 

C/hristian  j)oet  whose  works  have  been  preserved.''  v  eiy 
little  is  known  of  his  personal  history.  According  to  his  own  testi- 
mony, he  was  a  native  of  Gaza,  of  heathen  parentage,  but  by  the 
reading  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  was  converted  to  Christianity. 
From  his  use  of  the  Latin  language  and  his  manifest  acquaint- 
ance with  its  literature  we  infer  his  Roman  descent.  Even  the 
place  of  his  labors  is  not  certaiidy  known,  but  his  zeal  for  Chris- 
tianity, as  against  both  Jews  and  heathen,  is  apparent  in  the 
poems  which  have  been  preserved.  Only  two  are  known  to 
exist:  the  Instructio)ies,  and  the  Carmen  Apohf/etictun  adversus 
JudcBOS  et  Gentes.  The  former,  Avhich  appeared  about 
A.  D.  249,^  shows  a  careless  indifference  to  the  laws  of 
prosody,  and  appeals  to  the  tastes  of  the  less  educated  classes.  It 
is,  as  its  name  indicates,  a  collection  of  teachings,  in  acrostic  forai, 
addressed  in  part  to  the  heathen,  pointing  out  the  vanity  of  their 
worship  of  the  gods,  and  exhorting  them  to  seek  a  better  system. 
In  part  it  is  addressed  to  the  Jews,  to  Avin  them  to  Christianity; 
while  the  last  part  is  prepared  for  the  Christians  them-  Ti,eir  charac- 
selves.  The  whole  writing  evinces  strong  moral  con-  tw  and  value, 
viction  and  Christian  zeal  for  the  truth,  but  contains  doctrinal  errors 
which  seem  to  have  been  disavowed  by  the  Church  nutliorities  at  a 
later  period.*  The  Carmen  Apolof/eticum,  a  later  production,  con- 
sisting of  more  than  one  thousand  lines,  is  of  somewhat  greater 
value  both  in  style  and  treatment.  It  furnishes  a  valuable  contribu- 
tion to  the  history  of  Chiliasm,  and  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
during  the  third  century. 

Several  poems  have  been  attributed  to  the  celebrated  chiirch 
father,  Lactantius,  many  of  whose  writings  have  been 

'  '  '  .  -.   .  ...  Lactantliis. 

preserved.    These  are  often  bound  up  with  edit  kjus  oi  his 

works,  thus  expressing  the  opinion  of  the  editors  respecting  their 

'Dupin:  BUdiotheca  nova  Audornm  Ecrlesicusticorum,  i,  p.  141.  Translation  under 
tlie  title  A  New  History  of  Ecclesia.stiral  Writas,  vol.  i,  p.  87. 

'Bernhardy:  Grundriss  dvr  romischen  Likratur,  5te  Art/g..  s.  986.  Biilir:  Op.  cit., 
Bd.  iv,  §g  8,  9. 

•'Teuflel,  W.  S. :  Geschichte  der  romischen  Literatur,  4te.  aufl.,  Leipzig.  18S2,  S3. 
899-902. 

<Biihr:    Op.  cit,  Bd.  iv,  s.  30.     Tenffei :    Op.  cit,  s.  900. 


286  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF    CHRISTIAN    x\RT. 

authenticity.  But  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  poems  de  Phcenice, 
de  Pascha,  and  de  Passione  Domini  are  the  works  of  other  writers, 
and  belong  to  a  later  age.' 

The  Spanish  writer,  Juvencus,  who  lived  in  the  firs|  half  of  the 
fourth  century,  is  the  first  Christian  poet  of  eminence  whose  works 
are  clearly  authentic.  While  little  of  his  personal  his- 
tory has  been  preserved,  there  seems  to  be  slight  ques- 
tion of  his  authorship  of  the  Ilistoria  Eocmgelica  and  of  tlie  lAher 
in  Genesi/t^  The  first  is  a  metrical  version  of  the  Gospel  history, 
based  chiefly  on  Matthew,  though  having  reference  to  the  other 
evangelists  as  well.  It  consists  of  more  than  three  thousand  lines. 
It  imitates  the  heroic  verse  of  the  heathen  writers,  and,  for  the  age 
Character  and  "^  which  it  is  written,  the  style  is  flowing,  easy,  and 
purpose  of  bis  pleasing.  It  may  be  called  the  first  Christian  epic.'' 
poems.  'YYie  design   of  this  metrical  version  was  to  bi'ing  the 

great  facts  and  principles  of  the  gospels  to  the  attention  of  tlie 
heathen  world. 

While  in  the  ordinary  form  in  which  they  were  then  preserved 
there  was  a  contempt  for  these  writings  on  the  part  of  the  learned, 
an  imitation  of  the  great  poets,  it  was  believed,  would  be  efl^ective 
in  awakening  a  wider  interest  in  a  religion  too  little  understood. 
Like  attempts  were  made  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  by  the  Saxon 
and  German  ecclesiastics,  for  the  more  rapid  education  of  the  com- 
mon people  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Church.  The  Liber  in  Geitesin  is 
a  similar  attempt  to  popularize  the  historic  writings  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament Scriptures.  These  are  the  first  examples  of  a  metric  form 
which  afterward  quite  frequently  appeared  in  the  poetry  of  the 
Church. 

Jei'ome,  Isodorus,  and  other  ancient  writers  mention  with  great 
respect  the  Christian  poet  Hilarius  of  Poitiers.  He  was  a  contem- 
porary of  the  great  fathers  Ephraem,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Basil, 
Hilarius  and  ^^^  Damasus,  and  also  shared  their  anxious  labors  to 
his  worics.  hold  the  Church  steadfast  to  the  orthodox  faith.     Dur- 

ing his  banishment  to  the  East,  Hilarius  became  convinced  of  the 
effectiveness  of  Church  songs  in  the  public  service.  On  his  return 
he,  therefore,  composed  a  number  of  hymns  for  popular  use,  and 
compiled  a  hymnbook  for  the  congregations  of  his  diocese,  which 
has  unfortunately  been  lost.  The  genuineness  of  several  poems 
formerly  ascribed  to  him  has  been  questioned.     While   it  is  difticult 

'  Biilir:  Op.  cit,  Bd.  iv,  s.  35.  Contra,  Tenffel :  Op.  cit.,  s.  932.  wlio  attributes  de 
Phoenice  to  liim. 

'TeiifTe!:    Op.  cit,  s.  943,  questions  the  ascription  o^  Liber  in  Genesin  to  Jnvenens. 
*  Jacob:  Die  Kunstim  Dienstt  der  Kirche.,  s.  371. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    POETRY   AND   IIYMNOLOGY.  2S7 

to  detenuiue  vvilli  accuracy  the  extent  of  his  work,  the  beginning 

of  a  genuine  Latin  hymnology   is  usually  ascribed   to 

hira.'     The  most  celebrated  of  his  hymns  are  the  latin-    "'^"  !""'*'  ^'^"' 

•J  till'  Laiiu  liyiii- 

ization  of  the  Gloi'la  in  J£xcelsis,  lieata  nobis  y undid,    uoioxy. 
and  Liccis  lanjitor  splendide. 

Through  the  liberty  of  worship  guaranteed  by  Constant ine  the 
services  of  the  Church  assumed  more  regularity,  and  the  growing 
splendor  of  the  basilicas  occasioned  a  growing  demand  for  instruc- 
tive and  impressive  ceremonies.  The  leaders  of  the  inereasinc  df- 
Church  now  gave  increasing  attention  to  the  improve-  manti  for 
ment  of  the  forms  of  public  worship.  The  hymns  ^^"""• 
were  more  carefully  written  and  adjusted  to  the  improved  music. 
So  rapidly  had  its  membership  multiplied,  and  so  widely  liad  its 
influence  extended,  that  the  Church  no  longer  deemed  it  expedient 
to  leave  the  public  worship  to  uncertain  tradition  or  to  the  mere 
caprice  of  individuals.  To  secure  uniformity  in  the  more  public 
services  there  must  be  a  fixed  and  authorized  liturgy.*  Also,  the 
memory  of  the  heroic  men  and  woinen  who  had  attested 
their  faith  by  suffering  a  martyr's  death  now  became    ,         ,  „    , 

J  >r>  J  Increaslns    at- 

more  cherished.     Every  act  was  sought  to  be  perpetu-   tentioii  to  lii- 
ated.     The  monuments  were  adorned  with  inscriptions,   "'"K"^'*- 
and  churches  covered  the  spots  where  the   sacred   dust    reposed. 
These  resting-places  of  the  holy  departed  became  sacred  shrines.* 

Among  the  most  zealous  promoters  of   this  work  was  Dainasus, 
bisho])  of  Rome,  Avho  was  born  about  the  beginning  of 
the   fourth  century.      His  zeal   for  the   doctrines   and 
ritual  of  the  Church  was  wellnigh  consuming.      To  him  is  attrib- 
uted the  regulation  of  the  morning  and  evening  In'mns.     lie  was 
among  the  most  earnest  promoters  of  the  hymnology  of  tlie  Latin 
Church,   and   zealous  for    its    orderly  arrangement.      The  number 
of  his   poems   still   extant  cannot    be    determined   with    j;,,,,,,,,.^     and 
certainty,  but   more   than   thirty    are  of  unquestioned   ciiaiiKtcr     of 
genuineness.      Among   these   are  but  two   of    a   lyric      '^  >yii>ns. 
character;  one  to  St.  Andrew,  the  other  to  St.  Agatha.     These  are 
constructed  upon  a  model  almost  entirely  unknown  to  the  Chi'istian 
poetry  of  that  period,  since  the  latter  is  in  rhyme,  and  has,  on  this 

'  According  to  Xeale  he  begins  tlio  second  period  of  LiUin  hymnology. 

*  The  discussion  of  tliose  attempts  belongs  to  the  iiistory  of  Clnircli  cniions  and 
liturgies.  Tliese  subjects  are  ably  treated  in  snch  works  as  Bovcridgo:  C<itlex  con. 
Eccl.  Prim.;  Ultzen:  Con.stitutiones  Apostolica ;  Chase:  Cnmtitutiom  and  Canons  of 
the  Apostles;  Muratori:  Liturgia  Romana  vetm;  Palmer:  On'rjines  Liturgies;  Dan- 
iel:   Codex  Liturgicus,  Qio.;  'iiQa\e:   Telra'ngia  Uturgica.  oAc     v.  Bk.  HI. 

'  For  the  intluei  cc  of  this  sentiment  on  Ciiristiauarcliitectnre.  etc.,  see  pp.  "206,  207. 


388  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN   ART. 

account,  been  thought  by  some  writers '  of  authority  to  belong  to 
a  later  age.  The  inscriptions  which  lie  composed  for  the  se- 
pulchi-al  monuments  of  the  popes  and  martyrs  share  in  the  general 
departure  from  the  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  earlier  classical 
induipes  in  masters,  and  abound  in  the  excessive  panegyric  which 
panegyric.  ^]^^,  heathen  writers  of  his  age  had  adopted,  and  which 
i.s  a  marked  symptom  of  decadence  in  style  and  taste. ^ 

The  fourth  century  was  an  age  of  fiercest  conflict  in  Church  and 
.State.  The  means  by  which  Constantine  had  come  to  the  throne  were 
such  as  only  a  desperate  condition  of  society  could  justify.  The 
t<jleration  granted  to  the  Church,  its  adoption  as  the  religion  of  the 
Disturbed  con-  State,  and  the  forceful  suppression  of  the  heathen 
(luion  of    so-  ^vorship  awakened  the  hostility  of  a  large  and  learned 

fiety     under  i  *'  '^ 

Constantine.  class  of  the  Roman  Avorld.  It  Avas,  therefore,  not  strange 
that  on  the  death  of  the  first  Christian  emperor  a  great  revulsion  of 
feeling  ensued  and  heathenism  attempted  to  reassert  itself. 

Upon  the  downfall  of  Licinius  multitudes  of  the  heathen  had  ac- 
cepted Christianity.  They  donned  the  white  robes  of  bai)tism,  and 
the  churclies  were  crowded  with  catechumens.  Through  an  evident 
Perils  to  tiie  want  of  deep  intellectual  and  spiritual  conviction  on  the 
( iiurch.  part  of  many  of  these  nominal  Christians  their  accession 

became  a  source  of  weakness  rather  than  of  strength.  Moreover, 
a  majority  of  the  Roman  nobility  still  clung  with  fondness  to  the 
ancient  institutions,  and  held  the  masses  loyal  to  the  ancient 
religion.  Within  the  territory  of  the  Eastern  Empire  the  new  doc- 
The  tenacity  triues  had  been  more  popular.  While  the  strong  influ- 
of  heathen  be-  ence  of  a  civil  or  military  aristocracy  was  there  want- 
''**'■  ing,  nevertheless  the  great  schools  at  Athens,  Ephesus, 

and  Antioch  were  still  under  the  direction  of  heathen  teachers  who 
by  their  zeal  and  ability  attracted  to  their  precincts  sons  of  the 
most  powerful  families.  Thus  an  aristocracy  of  learning  was  ar- 
rayed against  the  Church,  now  weakened  by  its  fierce  doctrinal 
struggles.''  The  imperial  power  exerted  by  Constantine  in  the  de- 
fence and  promotion  of  the  Church  had  become  weakened  through 
the  (contentions  of  his  sons,  and  the  cruel  suspicions  of  rulers  had 
wellnigh  annihilated  the  P'lavian  family.  But  the  hopes  of 
heathenism  now  centered  in  the  person  of  Julian.     This  emperoi', 

'Grimm,  W.:  Zur  Geschichte  des  Reims,  in  the  memoirs  of  the  Berlin  Academy 
of  Sciences  for  j-enr  1851,  p.  (18:?,  cited  by  Bahr. 

■■'Bahr:  Op.  ciL,  iv,  18.  De  Rofssi :  Inscriptiones  ChrMiance,  i,  329,  lias  called 
attention  to  the  reraarkab'e  neatness  of  these  sepulchral  inscriptions ;  v,  also  his 
Roma  Sotkrranea,  i,  p.  Ivi.     For  Damasene  inscriptions  see  Plate  VII. 

*  Uhlhorn  :   Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Heathenism,  bk.  ill,  cii.  iii. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  POETRY  AND  HYMNOLOGY.  289 

the  object  of  the  intensest  liatrod  of  his  enemies,  the  noble  advo- 
cate of  philosophy  and  tolerance  in  the  judgment  of  his  junan  and  his 
apologists,  certainly  aimed  at  the  restoration  of  the  P°"'^y- 
heathen  religion  at  the  expense  of  Christianity.  His  profession  of 
impartial  toleration  was  contradicted  by  his  edicts  against  the  Churcli. 
The  law  requiring  the  restoration  of  the  heathen  temples  which 
had  been  destroyed  under  the  previous  reigns  bore  with  exce])tional 
severity  upon  such  societies  as  had  removed  the  ancient  shrines, 
appropriated  the  valuable  ornaments,  and  on  the  old  sites  had 
erected  new  and  splendid  Christian  churches.  The  horrors  of  the 
grove  of  Daphne  near  Antioch '  were  by  no  means  exceptional,  and 
the  attitude  of  Julian  toward  their  promoters  clearly  reveals  the 
insincerity  of  his  professions  of  toleration. 

But  the  law  prohibiting  the  Christians  from  teaching  the  arts 
of  grammar  and  rhetoric  was,  if  possible,  still  more  wide-reaching 
in  its  consequences,  and  revealed  the  purpose  of  Julian  to  cast  upon 
the  Christian  doctrine  the  most  withering  contempt,  christians  pro- 
Since  the  education  of  the  Roman  youth  was  a  matter  hibued  from 
of  strict  legal  control,  the  effect  of  the  edict  was  to  *^'''^""^- 
banish  from  the  schools  all  Christian  teachers,  and  to  exclude 
from  those  which  the  Church  maintained  at  her  own  expense 
all  so  called  heathen  classical  authors.  Julian  firmly  believed 
that  the  consequence  of  this  prohibition  would  be  to  shut  up 
the  Christian  teachers  to  their  own  sacred  books,  and,  inasmuch  as 
he  supposed  that  in  these  was  no  "perennial  fountain  of  truth," 
the  Church  would  certainly  be  reduced  to  a  mass  of  ignorant 
and  enthusiastic  devotees,  whose  utter  extinction  must  speedily  en- 
sue. The  effects  of  the  publication  of  this  edict  were  far  other  than 
the  mystical  emperor  had  anticipated.  This  was  the  occasion  of 
one  of  the  most  interesting  phases  of  Christian  literary  histoiy. 

In  the  heathen  schools  alone  the  influence  of  classical  teaching 
could  be  enjoyed,  and  to  these  the  emperor  earnestly  in-  EiTwts of  these 
vited  the  youth  of  the  realm.  He  supposed  that  this  in-  cj,risUan  "ciii- 
vitation  would  be  gladly  accepted,  and  that  a  new  gen-  tui-e. 
eration  might  thus  be  reared  who  would  reverence  the  ancient- in- 
stitutions and  contribute  to  their  early  and  complete  restoration. 
But  the  Church  was  unwilling  to  entrust  her  children  to  this  heathen 
secular  tuition.  Moreover,  her  influence  must  be  lost  through  ne- 
glect of  her  youth.  The  result  of  the  edict  was  to  develop  a  Christ- 
ian poetry,  to  take  the  place  of  the  heathen  authors  who  had  been 
legally  excluded  from  the  schools  of  the  Church.  Instead  of  the 
epic  poems  with  which  the  professors  of  rhetoric  and  grammar 
'Gibbon:  Decline  and  Full,  elc,  chap,  x.viii. 
19 


290  ARCHEOLOGY    OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

had  familiarized  themselves,  a  class  of  able  Christian  teachers  at- 
tempted to  imitate  the  heathen  epic  by  substituting  biblical  charac- 
ters for  those  of  fable  and  tradition.  Thus  the  interest  in  Christian 
schools  was  maintained,  and  the  charge  of  ignorance  successfully 
met.  The  great  men  of  the  Church  who  were  engaged  in  this 
struggle  did  not  cease  their  efforts  even  after  Julian's  death.  The 
work  whose  beginning  he  had  compelled  went  forward,  greatly  to 
the  honor  and  to  the  edification  of  the  body  of  believers.  Not  only 
were  important  poems  Avritten  in  order  to  avert  the  evils  threatened 
by  the  inipei-ial  edict,  but  theories  of  poetry  were  developed  which 
have  not  become  obsolete.' 

Perhaps  no  writer  of  the  fourth  century  more  clearly  and  beauti- 
Pauiinus  of  ^^^^^Y  expressed  the  principles  of  Christian  aesthetics 
Noia.  than    Paulinus    of    Nola.      In  his   poem   addressed   to 

Jovius  °  we  find  these  brought  together  in  consecutive  order.  He 
first  claims  that  Christianity  provides  the  truest  and  noblest  subjects 
for  poetry;  that  the  fables  of  the  gods  have  amused  the  childhood 
His  theory  of  period  of  the  race;  that  to  yield  one's  self  to  the  Word 
poetry.  of  truth  is  worthy  of  the  adult  age  of  a  genuine  culture, 

and  of  the  most  conspicuous  talent.  "  Though  I  may  give  myself 
to  the  art  of  poetry  I  will  adhere  to  strict  historical  truthful- 
ness, since  it  should  be  uuAvorthy  of  a  servant  of  Christ  to  indulge 
in  the  false  and  the  deceiving.  Such  art  ma}^  be  pleasing  to  the 
heathen,  but  it  is  abhorrent  to  those  whose  master  is  the  Truth," 
The  subjects  of  Christian  poetry  are  so  vital  and  exalted  that  they 
give  a  higher  dignity  to  language,  ennoble  the  poet  himself,  and  be- 
stow upon  him  more  abundant  honor.  Faith  is  the  one  perfect  art, 
and  Christ  is  the  true  music,  since  he  first  restored  the  shattered 
harmonies  of  the  soul,  and  united  in  himself  the  divine  and  the 
human  spirit  which  were  before  so  widely  separated.  In  such  efforts 
the  poet  can  confidently  ask  the  aid  of  the  Creator  of  all  things. 
Therefore,  he  will  not  invoke  the  Muses,  nor  to  them  ascribe  praises, 
but  he  will  rely  upon  Christ,  Avho  for  us  became  incarnate  and  re- 
deemed the  world  through  his  own  blood.  He  will  invoke  Him — 
"Pour  thyself  into  my  heart,  O  Christ,  my  God,  and  slake  my  thirst 
out  of  thy  perennial  fountains.  One  drop  administered  by  thee  will 
become  in  me  a  river  of  water.  Graciously  stoop  to  my  relief,  O  thou 
Source  of  Speech,  Word  of  God,  and  let  my  voice  become  melodious 

'If  we  are  to  believe  Socrntes,  Eccl.  Hist.,  iii,  16,  the  writinirR  which  had  been 
prepared  to  counteract  tlie  effects  of  Julian's  edict  were  little  esteemed  bj'  the 
Cliristiaus  themselves  after  the  death  of  this  emperor.  Nevertheless,  tlie  interest 
awakened  by  this  stimulus  continued. 

'Foe77i.  22. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   POETRY  AND  IIYMXOLOGY.  291 

as  that  <jf  tlic  bird  of  s]»riii<r  I  "  Only  siu-li  a  jiootrv  can  (U-scr\  i- 
tlio  p:itroiia<4t'  and  genuine  approval  of  rational  and  riglit-nundc-il 
judges.  "  'I'heii,"  adds  Paulinas,  "  will  I  call  thee  a  true,  divine  poet, 
and  will  (piaff  thy  poems  as  a  draught  of  sweet  water,  since  they  flow 
to  me  as  from  the  fountains  of  heavenly  nectar,  because  they  sing  ol' 
Christ  the  Lord  of  all."' 

Thus  this  early  writer  develo})ed  the  tlieory  of  genuine  Christian 
poetry  which  has  widely  governed  the  Church  during  the  cen- 
turies,' Consistcntl}'^  with  this  theory,  he  carefully  avoids  all  ref- 
erence to  the  heathen  mythology  and  to  those  topics  in 
which  the  heathen  poets  were  most  fully  interested. 
AVhile  in  form  he  imitates  the  classic  poems  of  heroic  and  iambic 
measure,  and  sometimes  even  rivals  these  in  easy  rhythm  and  How 
of  verse,  he  adheres  closely  to  Christian  thought,  and  furnishes  ex- 
amples of  poetic  writing  which  could  take  the  place  of  the  heathen 
poetry  interdicted  by  Julian,  and  after  his  death  was  measurably 
excluded  by  the  power  of  Christian  sentiment.  Since  PaulinusMiad 
received  a  liberal  education  in  the  flourishing  schools  of  Bordeaux, 
and  was,  therefore,  familiar  with  the  classic  literature  of  the  pericd, 
he  was  on  his  conversion  of  great  benefit  to  the  Church  in  the  edu- 
cation and  guidance  of  the  young.  His  literary  and  poetic  influence 
upon  the  Church  of  his  period  was  marked  and  permanent.'* 

Of  even  greater  prominence  in  the  history  of  Christian  liym- 
nology  was  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  born  about  A.  1).  335. 
During  a  life  of  sixty  years  he  deeply  influenced  the 

°  "^     •'  ^    •.  Ill-  Ambixtse. 

theology  and   church  life  of  his  own  time,  and  by  his 
intelligent  reform  of  the  ritual  service  made  an  epoch  in  Christian 
history.    Among  the  four  great  Latin  fathers  whose  works  gave  sub- 
stantial aid,  and  were  a  bulwark  of  defence  to  the  Christians,  Am- 
brose stands  preeminent.     Like  his  noble  contemporary,  Hilary,  he 
was  of  influential  heathen  parentage,     Ilis  careful  training  under 
the    direction    of   pagan    masters    w^as   designed    to    fit    him    for 
honorable  public  station.     Under  Probus   he  was   aj)- 
pointed   governor  and  judge  of  Italy,  an<l  in  the  year 
A,  D,  370  obtained  the  governorship  of  Milan,  together  with  the 
control  of  Bologna,  Turin,   and   Genoa.     lie  began  his  career  as 
a  mere  catechumen   in  the  Church,  and  not  until  designated  by  the 

^  Poemeta,  6,  10,  20.  22,  23,  etc.,  in  Mijrne's  raUohxjia. 

'Jacob  :  Die  Knnst  im  Dienste  der  Kirc/w,  pp.  ;u;n,  .'{70. 

'Doubtless  tlic  estimates  placed  upon  tlie  writings  and  services  of  Paiiliniis  by 
some  Catholic  writers  are  extrava<rant.  On  the  oilier  hand,  wo  believe  that  .«nnie 
Trotestants  are  cliarfjeable  with  almost  equal  errors  from  the  low  value  at  whicli 
they  represent  his  labors. 


392  AllCILEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

popular  jutltjment  for  bishop  of  Milan  did  he  receive  Christian 
baptism.  But  when  once  he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  the 
episcopal  office  all  his  native  gifts  and  his  acquired  powers  were  de- 
voted without  stint  to  the  advancement  of  the  orthodox  faith. 
When,  after  the  custom  of  the  Greek  and  North  African  churches, 
he  had  introduced  the  sermon  into  the  regular  services  of  each  Sab- 
bath, he  also  felt  the  need  of  reforming  the  music  and  the  hymns. 
Connected  wath  his  eminent  services  in  church  music  Avcie  his 
attempts  to  improve  its  hymnologv.     In  the  midst  of 

His     contnbu-  *  „    „        .  ,  '       .         ^"       t     -i  -i      t       m  i 

tions  to  hym-  bitter  strifes  of  factions  he  aimed  to  hold  the  Church 
noiogy.  steady  to  its  pristine  faith.     As  we  have  before  seen,  the 

reform  and  perfection  of  the  service  were  intimately  connected  with 
the  Arian  controversy.  The  vigorous  leaders  of  this  heresy  had  ob- 
served that  the  mass  of  the  people  was  more  surel}^  influenced  through 
attractive  Christian  ceremonies  than  b}'  formal  dogmatic  statements. 
Here,  as  in  the  East,  they  aimed  to  propagate  their  peculiar  doctrines 
through  the  impressive  means  of  music  joined  to  sacred  song. 
Numerous  hymns  of  Arian  origin  had  become  familiar  to  the  people 
of  the  West,  and  by  their  pleasing  and  insinuating  influence  were 
leading  multitudes  away  from  the  orthodox  faith.  Both  Athana- 
sius  and  the  Church  historian  Philostorgius  make  reference  to  this 
influence.  The  spiritual  songs  of  Arius  were  so  much  in  favour 
Influence  of  as  to  contribute  powerfully  to  the  dissemination  of  his 
Avian  hymns,  doctrines.  We  are  told  by  the  historians  Socrates  and 
Sozomen  that  the  public  services  of  the  Arians  in  Constantinople 
were  so  popular,  on  account  of  the  hymns  and  antiphonies,  that 
even  Chrysostom  felt  compelled  to  introduce  into  the  orthodox 
churches  a  like  provision  in  order  to  retain  his  congregations.  In 
A.  D.  386  Ambrose  had  completed  his  important  reforms,  and 
very  soon  these  were  introduced  into  many  churches  of  the  West. 

Some  difference  of  opinion  has  existed  relative  to  the  exact  char- 
acter of  the  Ambrosian  service.  It  is,  however,  prett}'  generally 
agreed  that  the  whole  body  of  assembled  believers  participated  in  it, 
and  that  his  chant  was  founded  on  the  ancient  Greek  music,  while 
it  also  sought  a  more  intimate  union  of  the  rh3^thm  and  metre  of 
the  h3''mn  with  the  musical  melody.  It  might  be  expected  that 
Ambrose  himself  would  become  the  author  of  hymns  appropriate 
to  the  new  ritual;  still,  it  is  very  difficult  to  distinguish  those  of 
his  own  composition  from  many  which  the  new  order  had  called 
into  existence,  and  which  also  went  under  the  general  name  of 
Ambrosian.  The  Benedictine  editors  of  his  works'  claim  that  the 
united  testimony  of  the  writers  from  the  fourth  to  the  ninth  cen- 

'  Tom.  ii,  pp.  1219-1224. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   POETRY   AND   IIY.MNOLOGY. 


293 


tuiy  is  to  the  effect  that  only  twelve  of  the  so-ealled  Ambrosian 
hymns  can  be  regarded  as  genuine."      Of  the  form  and 

{_  ^  /•    ^1  1  •  ,  Number      and 

character  ot  tliese  Jiymns  it  can  be  said,  "  They  rank  character  ot 
well  with  the  best  heathen  poems  of  that  age.  Wlien  ^'^  ^>'"^^- 
they  are  compared  with  the  poetry  of  Ausonius  or  of  Claudianus 
they  are  to  be  preferred  both  for  their  perfection  of  rhythm  and 
earnestness  of  spirit.'"'  They  are  of  the  form  of  iambic  dimetre, 
which  seemed  best  suited  to  this  service,  but  avoid  all  attempt  at 
rliyme.  They  glow  with  a  pure  devotion,  and  place  their  renowned 
author  very  high  among  hymnologists  of  the  ancient  Church.  Both 
Catholics  and  Protestants  have  appropriated  tliese  hymns  for  the 
enrichment  of  tlieir  service,^ 

Very  prominent  as  a  poet,  and  in  the  discussion  of  the  principles 
which  should  regulate  poetic  writing,  was  the  Spaniard, 
Marcus  Aurelius  Clemens  Prudentius,  who  flourished  in  "'  *^°  '"*' 

the  last  half  of  the  fourth  and  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century. 
Until  his  fiftieth  year  his  life  was  passed  in  public  service,  chiefly 
as  an  advocate.  He  then  resolved  to  withdraw  from  the  affairs  of 
state  and  devote  himself  exclusively  to  the  Church.  In  common 
with  so  many  others  of  the  teachers  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies he  clearly  perceived  what  service  poetry  might  render  for 
the  education  and  edification  of  the  Christian  assemblies,  and  for 
the  defence  of  doctrine.  His  poems  were  of  both  a  didactic  and 
lyric  character.  Of  his  clearly  authenticated  writings  there  have 
been  preserved  more  than  ten  thousand  lines.  Of  these  His  works  and 
his  Cathemerinon,  a  collection  of  twelve  hymns  origi-  theircharacujr. 
nally  designed  for  daily  use  in  the  worship  of  the  Church  which 
the  poet  frequented,  was  widely  accepted  by  the  Latin  fathers, 
and.  incorporated  into  the  earl}'  hymnology.  These  poems  are 
characterized  by  simplicity  of  diction,  sublimity  of  thought,*  and  a 

'Daniel:  T/iesaur.  hymn.,  Bd.  i,  p.  12,  adds  largely  to  the  number  griven  by  tiie 
Dominicans.  Mone :  Lateinische  IJymnen,  Bd.  i,  has  ascribed  to  liim  three  others. 
So  also  Rambach:  Antholorjie,  Bd.  i,  s.  60.  and  Wackernagol:  Das  deutiche  Kirchenlied, 
are  inclined  to  increase  the  number  of  geiniine  Ambrosian  hymns.  Neale:  The 
Ecclesiastical  Latin  Poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages,  reduces  them  to  ten. 

^Biihr:    Op.  cit ,  Bd.  iv. 

'  Among  the  most  valued  of  his  hymns  are  the  celebrated  doxology,  Te  Deum 
laudamus,  Veni,  Redemptor  gentium,  and  Detut  Creator  omnium.  Tlicy  liave  found 
their  way  through  translations  into  many  modern  collections.  His  Veni,  Rtdempior 
gentium  has  been  translated  by  Luther,  "Nun  kommo.  dcr  Heiden  Heiland  ;  "  by  John 
Franck,  "  Komm,  Heiden  Heiland.  Losegeld ; "  by  J.  M.  Neale,  "Come,  tliou  Re- 
deemer of  the  earth  ;  "  by  Ray  Pahner,  "  0  tliou  Redeemer  of  our  race."  His  A  solis 
ortHs  cardine  has  been  well  translated,     v.  Schafl":    Chrial  in  Song. 

*  Bahr:   Op.  cit,  Bd.  iv,  s.  77. 


294  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN    ART. 

spirit  of  ardent  piety;  they  have  been  cherished  by  the  universal 
Church  as  expressive  of  the  believer's  richest  experiences.  His 
Peristephanon  is  a  like  collection  of  fourteen  poems  in  celebration 
of  the  praises  of  the  martyrs  who  have  won  their  heavenly  crown. 
The  growing  honor  paid  to  the  witnesses  for  the  truth  here  finds 
expression.  The  spirit  animating  these  poems  is  born  of  a  high  and 
holv  faith,  but  they  cannot  take  rank  among  the  foremost  Christian 
writings  of  the  first  six  centuries.  In  his  Apotheosis,  consisting 
of  one  thousand  and  eighty-five  hexameter  verses,  he  attempts  to 
set  forth  and  defend  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  true  divinity 
and  humanity  of  Christ  as  against  the  Sabellians,  the  Jews,  the 
Manichieans,  the  other  heretical  sects.  In  his  PsycJwtnachia,  of 
about  one  thousand  verses,  the  conflict  of  virtue  with  vice  in 
the  human  soul  is  portrayed.  This  poem  contains  some  truly 
eloquent  passages  which  rise  almost  to  the  intensity  of  the 
dramatic. 

The  attempt  of  Symmachus  to  reinstate  heathen  worship,  by  re- 
building the  altar  of  Victory,  has  already  been  referred  to  [v.  p.  GG). 
The  Christian  apologist  was  temporarily  successful.  But  the  spirit 
of  the  old  faith  was  not  thus  easily  subdued.  The  too  common  view 
that  heathenism  was  already  effete  is  evidently  erroneous.  A  crit- 
,,     ical  examination  of  the  teachings  of  the  leading  minds 

The      tenacity  o  V 

of  heathen  of  heathen  Rome  from  A.  D.  150  to  A.  D.  450  will  show 
thought.  ^Yyqx  the   number  of  atheistic  and  purely  materialistic 

thinkers  was  quite  insignificant.  Kven  Lucian  substantially  con- 
firms this  view,  though  his  interest  is  evidently  against  it/  Thus 
while  the  triumph  of  Ambrose  seemed  at  the  time  complete,  and 
Theodosius  refused  to  reinstate  the  altar  of  Victory,  Symmachus 
renewed  this  attempt  under  the  reigns  of  Arcadius  and  Ilonorius. 
This  was  probaby  the  occasion  for  Prudentius  to  write  the  Librl 
duo  contrci  St/mmadMm,  in  the  first  book  of  which  he  most  zeal- 
ously defends  the  excellencies  of  the  Christian  faith  as  against 
the  absurdities  and  defects  of  heathen  philosophy,  and  showed  that 
the  evils  which  the  empire  was  suffering  were  the  direct  effect  of 
the  corruptions  and  moral  delinquencies  of  the  heathen  teachei-s.  In 
the  second  he  refutes  the  arguments  of  Symmachus."  The  intelli- 
gent zeal  of  the  writer  appeai-s  most  conspicuously  in  this  poem. 
While  at  times  indulging  in  extravagant  statements,  it  must  be 
ranked  among  his  most  vigorous  writings. 

The  works  of  I^i'udentius  mark  a  new  period  in  the  history  of 

'  Jnp.  Tmgced.,  quoted  by  Friedlander :  Dwstdhm^en  avs.  (L  SiUengeschichte  RoniSy 
6te  Ausor.,  Bd.  iii,  s.  552. 
«Tcuffeh   Op.  ciL,_s,  1029. 


EARLY  CriRISTIAN  POETRY  AND  IIYMNOLOGY.  295 

Christian  poetry.  Ills  influence  was  lasting,  and  tlie  ]N[iddle  Ages 
cherished  most  carefully  his  poems  and  imitated  his  treatment.' 
His  peculiar  themes  initiated  him  into  an  almost  uncx-  His  influence 
plored  department  of  literature.  His  early  training  ])Ut  ii^sting. 
him  into  sympathy  with  classical  writers,  and  led  him  to  incorporate 
into  his  poems  classic  constructions.  Yet  the  spirit  of  the  new 
religion  and  the.  sublimity  of  the  themes  introduce  into  these  poems 
a  novel  and,  at  times,  almost  grotesque  inharmoniousness.'^  Wliili* 
his  talent  was  so  great,  it  was,  however,  insufficient  to  found  a  new 
school  of  poetry.^ 

Another  eminent  writer  of  the  sixth  century,  whose  j)oems 
have  been  preserved  in  the  hymnology  of  the  Church, 
was  Venantius  Fortunatus.  Both  from  the  references 
found  in  the  works  of  Gregory  of  Tours  and  of  Paul  Diaconus, 
as  well  as  from  his  own  writings,  we  gain  a  fair  idea  of  the  char- 
acter and  works  of  this  renowned  Christian  poet.  The  date  of 
his  birth  is  unknown.  According  to  his  own  account  he  was 
educated  in  Ravenna,  the  seat  of  superior  schools  for  training 
the  young  in  the  principles  of  the  Roman  law.  He  afterward 
journeyed  into  Austrasia,  where  he  became  the  friend  and  adviser 
of  King  Sigibert.  He  wrote  the  KpithalaiHiam  on  the  occasion 
of  the  marriage  of  Sigibert  with  Brunihild,  daughter  of  Athani- 
gild,  king  of  the  West  Goths.  Soon  after  he  was  appointed 
superior  of  a  cloister  of  nuns  at  Poitiers.  Here  he  took  up  his 
residence,  and  became  bishop  of  Poitiers  toward  the  close  of  his 
life.  He  died  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century,  and  was  buried 
in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Hilarius.  He  was  of  noble  character, 
and  his  name  was  held  in  highest  veneration  by  the  media'val 
Church.  His  poems,  like  those  of  most  of  his  con-  „, 
temporaries,  were  largely  narrative  and  panegyric,  tiieir  ciiiiracter 
In  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  the  form  of  his  poetry,  *°  "  '"'*"'^®- 
he  was  in  harmony  with  the  fashion  of  the  time.  Of  the  eleven 
books  of  his  poems,  the  largest,  as  de  vita  S.  Martini,  de  excidio 
Thnringim,  etc.,  are  descriptive  and  eulogistic.  John  of  Fritten- 
heim  f^peaks  of  seventy-seven  hymns  composed  by  Fortunatus,  but 
scarcely  more  than  a  dozen  have  been  }»rescrved  to  our  time.*  Some 
have  gone  into  the  hymnology  of  the  general  Church,  and  are  of 

'  Biihr :   Op.  ciL.  Bd.  iv,  s.  8G. 

*  Bernhai-dy:    Gescli.  d.  Kmn.  Lit.,  s.  995. 

3  SchafT:  Christ  in  Song,  lias  pronounced  tlic  Jam  mcesta  quiesce  querela  liis  master- 
piece. It  has  been  very  beaiitif\illy  translated  by  Mrs.  Charles — "Ah  I  hush  now 
your  mournful  complainings,"  etc.,  and  by  many  others. 

*  Teuffel:    Op.  cit.,  ss.  1177-1181.     Biilir:    Op.  cit.,  Bd.  iv,  s.  155. 


296  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

great  excellence  and  breathe  the  spirit  of  a  pure  devotion.  The 
beautiful  hymn  on  the  Nativity,  Agnoscat  onine  s(Bculum,  and 
the  two  in  celebration  of  the  passion  of  the  Lord,  Pange  lingua 
gloriosi,  and  Vexilla  regis  prodeant,  are  still  greatly  prized.  Their 
spirit  of  simple  piety  is  in  strong  contrast  with  most  of  his  de- 
scriptive poems  and  panegyrics,'  In  some  of  his  works  there  is  a 
close  imitation  of  the  style  and  metre  of  the  earlier  classic  poets, 
while  occasionally  the  influence  of  Claudianus  is  clearly  discernible. 
Close  attention  is  not  always  given  to  the  measure  and  rhythm, 
while  all  traces  of  what  we  understand  by  rhyme  are  wanting.  The 
Church  has  placed  very  high  value  on  the  few  gems  contributed  by 
this  author  to  her  hymnology.  As  a  theologian,  scholar,  and  pub- 
licist he  held  high  rank  among  the  men  of  his  century;  while  as 
poet  he  is  scarcely  excelled  by  either  heathen  or  Christian  of  his 
time. 

The  genuineness  of  most  of  the  hymns  once  attributed  to  Gregory 
the  Great  is  now  questioned.  The  Veni,  Creator  Spiritus,  formerly 
reckoned  among  his  noblest  productions,  is  now  believed  to  be  the 
work  of  another;  so,  also,  the  All  Saints'  hymn,  Christe,  nostra  nunc 
et  semper,  the  Advent  hymn,  Christe,  redemptor  omnium,  and  the 
Baptismal  hymn,  Ora  primum  tu  pro  nobis,  A  few  which  are 
believed  to  be  genuine  are  found  in  the  hymnology  of  the  modern 
Church.  His  morning  hymn,  Eccejam  tenuatur  umbra,  with  No.  15 
of  the  appended  doxologies,  has  been  translated  by  Caswell: 

"Lo,  fainter  now  lie  spread  the  shades  of  night, 
And  upward  shoot  the  trembling  gleams  of  morn." 

Other  writers,  as  Augustine  and  Caelius  Sedulius,  wa-ote  a  number 
of  hymns  of  considerable  excellence;  but  the  genuineness  of  much 
which  was  formerly  attributed  to  them  has  been  seriously  ques- 
tioned, and  their  influence  upon  the  hymnology  of  the  West  has 
been  comparatively  unimportant. 

We  give  six  specimens  of  doxologies  used  in  the  Latin  Church 
during  the  first  six  centuries.  They  are  taken  from  Wackernagel's 
work.  Das  deutsche  Kirchenlied,  and  are  numbered  as  they  there 
stand: 

1. 

Deo  patri  sit  gloria, 
Eius  que  soli  filio 
Cum  spirito  p'araclito 
Et  nunc  et  in  perpetuum. 

'  Some  of  his  hymns  have  been  frequently  translated,  notably  by  Neale,  Caswell, 
and  Mrs.  Charles,  and  have  been  very  widely  used  by  the  modern  churches. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   POETRY  AND   IIVMNOLOGY.  25)7 

4. 

Gloria  et  liouor  dco 

usque  quo  allissimo, 
UiiM  patri  filioque, 

iiidito  paraclito, 
Cui  laus  est  et  potestas 

per  elerna  saicula. 

6. 
Gloria  palri  ingenilo 

eiiis  que  uuigeuiio 
Una  cum  sanclo  spiritu 

iu  sempiterna  sa^cula. 

11. 
Lau!«,  honor,  virtus,  gloria, 

deo  patri  cum  filio, 
Saiicio  siniiil  paraclito 

in  sempiterna  stKCula. 

15. 

Pra^stet  hoc  nobis  deltas  beata 

patris  ac  nati,  pariter  sancli 
Spirilus,  cuius  reboat  in  oniui 

gloria  ranndo. 

18. 

Sit  laus.  perennis  gloria 

deo  palri  cum  tilio, 
Sancto  simul  paraclito 

iu  sempiterna  stecula. 


298  ARCILEOLOGY   OF   CPIIUSTIAN  ART. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

P:  A  R  L  Y    CHRISTIAN    MUSIC. 

The  strict  religious  education  received  by  every  Jew  put  liim  in 
sympathy  with  the  history,  the  trials,  and  the  hopes  of 

Educational  J      1         J  .   .  .      ,  ^       . 

value  of  Jewish  his  people.  1  he  repetition  or  the  synagogue  service 
ceremonies.  three  times  a  day,  the  duty  of  private  prayer,  the  cere- 
monial at  every  meal,  the  imposing  ritual  on  the  occasion  of  new 
moons,  new  years,  feasts  and  fasts,  and  the  great  national  festivals 
celebrated  with  unequaled  pomp  and  solemnity,  must  have  kept 
alive  in  every  Jewish  heart  a  warm  affection  for  his  nation,  and 
thoroughly  indoctrinated  him  in  the  truths  which  were  regarded  as 
essential  to  life  and  salvation.'  It  is  not,  therefore,  surprising  that 
the  converts  from  Judaism  to  Christianity  were  sometimes  slow  to 
distinguish  between  the  symbol  and  the  reality,  and  clung  with 
fondness  to  what  had  become  so  venerable  from  age,  and  had  per- 
vaded their  history  as  the  chosen  people  of  God.  Every  part  of  the 
temple  and  synagogue  service  had  been  prescribed  with  the  utmost 
minuteness,  and  maintained  with  scrupulous  care.  It  is  therefore 
Hebrew  music  someAvhat  disappointing  that  no  records  of  the  Hebrew 
•o*^-  music  have  been  preserved  to  our  time.     The  contrary 

opinion  of  De  Sola  ^  relative  to  the  great  antiquity  of  some  of  the 
Hebrew  melodies,  as,  for  example,  "  The  Melod}^  of  the  Blessing  of 
the  Priests"  (No.  44  of  his  collection),  "The  Song  of  Moses" 
(No.  12  of  his  collection),  etc.,  can  scarcely  be  accepted  by  the  best 
historic  criticism.  It  is  likewise  true  that  no  tune  from  the  first 
two  centuries  of  the  Christian  Church  has  come  down  to  our  time. 
In  the  absence  of  actual  examples  by  which  a  comparison  may  be 

'  V.  Edersheim :  The  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah,  bk.  ii,  chap.  ix.  Geikie : 
Life  and  Words  of  Christ,  vol.  i,  chaps,  xiii,  xiv,  Shiirer :  The  Jewish  Church  in  the 
Time  of  Christ,  Clark's  Foreign  Theological  Library,  vol.  ii,  §§  27,  28. 

^  Tlte  Ancient  Melodies  of  the  Liturgy  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jevjs,  by  E. 
Aguilar  and  D.  A.  de  Sola,  p.  15,  ei  al.  The  attempts  of  Delitzsch:  Physiologie  tc. 
Musikinihren  Bedeutung  fiir  die  Grammatik,  besonders  die  hebrdische,  Leipzig,  1868; 
Saalschiitz :  Geschichte  u.  Wilrdigimg  der  BTiisik  hie  den  Hebrdern,  Berlin,  1829,  and  many 
others,  have  failed  to  convince  the  imprejudiced  that  any  remnant  of  the  old  temple 
music  has  been  preserved.  The  traditions  in  the  East  and  West  do  not  at  all  agree 
and  the  methods  of  service  of  the  Jews  in  Germany,  in  England,  and  ia  Spain  are 
widely  different. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   3IUSIC.  299 

instituted,  we  must  betake  ourselves  to  other  sources  of  in  formation 
relative  to  the  early  Christian  music. 

The  first  converts  to  Christianity  were  Jews.  Tlun-  were  there- 
fore entirely  familiar  with  the  Jewish  forms  of  worshii). 

mi       e  •  f  1      /-^i     •     •  First  Christians 

The  few  notices  of  early  Christian  assemblies  found  in  familiar  witu 
the  New  Testament  indicate  that  the  infant  Church  ^'^'^'*^^  f'^'"'"*- 
largely  observed  the  services  of  the  synagogue,  and  that  little 
peculiar  or  original  was  at  first  introduced.  Prayer,  the  reading 
of  the  Scriptures,  the  chanted  i)salm,  and  the  exposition  and  ex- 
hortation by  some  chosen  rabbi  or  educated  member  of  the  congre- 
gation constituted  the  chief  features  of  the  Jewish  synagogue  service. 
But  what  was  the  character  of  the  music  then  used  ?  The  char- 
acteristic chanting  or  singing  called  caniiUation,  so  canti nation af- 
widely  practiced  by  oriental  peo^jles,  as  well  as  the  fix-  l".!!;'^,,,,'!!"^ [„ "^e 
edness  of  the  oriental  type  both  of  music  and  instru-  audeui  music. 
ments,  might  at  first  sight  seem  to  furnish  a  suggestion  of  the 
probable  character  of  the  Hebrew  music  in  the  time  of  Christ.  But 
to  suppose  that  the  Jewish  music  of  that  period  was  fhe  music 
practiced  in  the  Solomonic  temple  service,  or  even  in  that  of  Zerub- 
babel,  would  be  misleading.  By  the  wide  conquests  of  Alexander 
Greek  influence  had  been  disseminated  throughout  the  subject  na- 
tions.    For  three  hundred  years  prior  to  the  Advent  „     , 

"     ,      .  i  .      .  Greek      influ- 

Greek  thought  had  been  powerful  in  modifying  the  Jew-  ence  a  power- 
ish  philosophy  and  literature.  Not  only  in  Alexandria  '"'  factor, 
and  other  chief  Greek  cities  where  the  Jews  had  congregated,  but  in 
Jerusalem,  and  especiall}^  in  Samaria  and  Syria,  this  (ircck  iuHuence 
was  felt.  The  Sej)tuagint  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  is 
a  conspicuous  illustration  of  the  mutual  interpenetration  of  Greek 
and  Hebrew  thought.'  ]\Iany  of  the  Hellenistic  Jews  acquired  such 
aptitude  and  ease  in  the  Greek  i)oetic  art  that  they  competed  with 
Greek  masters,  and  produced  remarkable  p(K'ms  whose  subjects  were 
derived  from  their  own  history  and  religion.  The  truths  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  were  tlius  cast  in  a  (4reek  mould.  Frequently 
their  teachers  assumed  the  costume  of  the  ancient  (4reek  i>oets  and 
philosophers.  This  syncretism  of  thought  continued  into  the  ear- 
lier years  of  Christianity,  and  must  have  seriously  affected  the  po- 
etic and  musical  art  of  the  Jews.' 

'  For  the  ex'ont  of  ihe  Dispersion  and  Us  infiiienco  on  Jewish  llionpflit,  religious 
observances  and  manners,  anionj;:  others  v.  Sliiiror:  Op.  cit,  ^  31:  Friedlaiidcr:  Die 
Siltewje-srhicldp.  lioms,  1881,  ss.  570-584;  Westcott:  article  '^Dispersion,"  in  Smith's 
Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

2  V.  Ewald:  The  IliMnry  of  Tsrael.  translated  by  J.  Estlin  Carpenter,  London,  1S74, 
vol.  V,  pp.  260-2G2,  uiid  vol.  iii,  p.  283.     '•The  music  of  the  temple  services  was 


300  ARCILEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN    ART. 

The  old  temple  service,  in  which  the  prescribed  forms  were  ob- 
The  old  temple  Served  with  scrupulous  inflexibility,  served,  indeed,  as  a 
servile  a  par-   p^i-tJai  breakwater  to  this  insetting  tide  of  Greek  inno- 

ticil    couserva-    i  •  i  i 

tor.  vation.     "  The  old  Hebrew  music  must  nave  been  re- 

sumed in  the  new  temple  of  Zerubbabel,  and  pursued  with  great 
zeal.  This  is  plain  from  the  superscriptions  of  many  of  the  Psalms, 
which  were  then  collected  afresh,  and  from  the  historic  representa- 
tions of  the  Chronicles.  But  the  Greek  translators  of  the  Psalter 
evince  only  an  imperfect  and  obscure  knowledge  of  the  art  terms  of 
the  ancient  music,  which  clearly  proves  that  the  whole  of  this  an- 
cient art  suffered  severely  through  the  entrance  of  Greek  music,  and 
by  degrees  entirely  disappeared."  ' 

The  purity  of  the  temple  service,  including  music,  thus  lost  under 
the  Greek  conquerors,  was  not  recovered  under  the  Roman.  The 
Asmonean  princes  sedulously  cultivated  the  friendship  of  their  new 
masters.  Only  by  Roman  protection  and  sufferance,  indeed,  was 
this  house  perpetuated.  Moreover,  the  grand  old  festivals,  which 
in  the  time  of  religious  fervor  had  been  celebrated  with  such  pomp, 
had  been  partially  displaced  by  others  of  more  recent  origin.  The 
Influence  of  retirement  from  public  life  of  the  most  devout  sect,  the 
Jewish  sects.  Essenes,  the  proud  holding  aloof  from  state  affairs 
by  the  Sadducees  during  the  period  immediately  prior  to  the 
advent,  and  the  obscuration  of  the  law  by  the  teaching  of  the 
Pharisees,  tended  to  the  neglect  of  the  temple  worship,  and 
strengthened  the  desire  for  a  Graeco-Roman  style  of  music.  The 
magnificent  temple  of  Herod,  though  reared  in  accordance  with  the 
requirements  of  the  law,  and  by  the  encouragement  of  the  priests 
while  wearing  their  sacred  vestments,  failed  to  restore  the  purity 
of  the  service.  The  temple  itself  had  originated  in  selfish  ambi- 
tion; its  architecture  was  essentially  Greek;  its  ritual  had  become 
contaminated. 

The  first  converts  to  Christianity  probably  adopted  the  modified 
music  then  in  use  in  the  temple  and  synagogues.  The  music  used 
in  the  celebration  of  the  heathen  rites  could  not  be  tolerated  by 

doubtless  conducted  on  a  splendid  scale,  after  Solomon's  regulations,  in  all  tlie  sub- 
sequent centuries;  and  we  know  for  certain  that  Solomon  set  a  great  value  on  mu- 
sical instruments  of  costly  workmanship  (1  Kings  x,  12).  .  .  .  All  knowledge  of  it 
was,  however,  graduallj^  lost  after  the  Greek  period,  and  cannot  now  be  recovered; 
for  even  the  Chronicles,  from  which  we  derive  most  light  for  understanding  it,  con- 
tains no  more  than  faint  reminiscences  of  the  ancient  music."  Contra,  Martini,  G.  B. : 
History  of  Music,  vol.  i,  p.  350.  Saalschutz :  Geschichte  u.  Wiirdigung  der  Musik  bei 
den  Htbraern,  §  61. 

'  Ewald:   Op.  cit.,  vol.  v,  p.  267. 


EARLY  CIIRISTIAX   MUSIC.  301 

converts    who   liad   been    saved    from   the    polluliii':,'    [)ructices   oT 
heathenism.' 

Paul  probably  refers  to  the  then  extant  teni]>le  and  sj^nagogue 
music  when  he  exhorts  the  churches  wliicli  he  had  The  first 
planted  "to  be  tilled  with  the  Spirit  :  si)eakin<r  to  vour-  Christians 

'  .  I  '      1  .-^  .  adopted    what 

selves  in  psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual  songs,  singing  was  in  use. 
and  making  melody  in  your  heart  unto  the  Lord  "  (Eph.  v,  IH,  19); 
"Let  the  word  of  Christ  dwell  in  ^^ou  richly  in  all  wisdom,  teaching 
and  admonishing  one  another  in  psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual 
songs,  singing  with  grace  in  your  hearts  to  the  Lord"  (Col.  iii,  It;). 
This  custom  of  the  early  Christians  seems  to  be  coiifii-mcd  l»v 
heathen  testimony,  notably  by  the  younger  Pliny  in  his  c^p^,,,^,,,  ,,.. 
letters  to  the  Emperor  Trajan,  in  which  he  states  that  heatiu-n  testi- 
they  were  accustomed  "to  sing  responsively  a  hymn  to  '"°"^' 
Christ  as  God."*  The  meaning  of  this  passage  has  been  variously 
understood;  but  according  to  the  comments  of  the  Christian  writers 
of  the  hrst  four  centuries  its  evident  intent  is  to  speak  of  responsive 
chants  or  songs  which  the  Christians  were  accustomed  to  use  in 
their  early  meetings.^  The  positive  testimony  of  Justin  christian  testi- 
Martyr*  as  to  the  custom  of  the  Eastern  church,  of  Ter-  mony. 
tuUian  regarding  the  African  church,  of  Origen  as  to  the  church  of 
Alexandria,  of  Eusebius,  who  quotes  from  earlier  authorities  to  prove 
the  antiquity  and  continuity  of  this  custom,  leaves  little  doubt  re- 
specting the  use  of  music  in  the  services  of  the  Church  from  the 
apostolic  period.  An  expression  used  by  Tertullian  in  dcscril)ing 
the  worship  will  aid  us  to  uiKh'rstand  the  growth  or  develop- 
ment of  Christian  music.  When  he  says  that  each  one  of  the 
assembly  was  invited  to  sing  unto  God,  either  from  the  Scrii)tures  or 
something  indited  by  himself — "  de  proprio  ingenio" — we  may  well 
suppose  that  thus  early  was  i)racticed  a  sacred  impro- 

11  "  ,,.       T  .  i-  1  •    1      Improvisation. 

visation  which  by  degrees  crystallized  into  forms  wlncn 
by  frequent  use  and  repetition  became  the  common    ])ro])erty  of  tlie 
Church.     The  original  style  of  singing  was  evidently  the  chant.     The 
antiphonv,  in  its  earliest  form,  is  no  more  than  a  respon- 

1  •'  '  '  '.  TliP  chant. 

sive  chant  conducted  by  the  priests  and  the  congregation. 

Yet  the  chant  bears  the  same  relation   to  music,  proju'rly  so  called, 

'  Fotkel:  Grsrhirhfe  der  Mnsil:  Bil.  ii.  ss.  01.  92.  We  Imvo  only  to  T<^n<^  tlip 
odes  of  llornce  which  describe  the  choral  processions  to  be  convinced  t.lml  tlie  mu- 
sic used  iu  snoli  associations  must  iiave  been  excluded  from  the  services  of  the  Chrial- 
ian  assemblies. 

*  Epistolo',  Lib.  10,  97.     "  Carmen  Christo  quasi  Deo  diem  secum  invVeni." 

3  Tertullian :  Apologdkus,  c.  2.  "  Co-lus  antelucanas  ad  cancudum  Christo  lit 
Deo,"  etc. 

*  Apolorjia,  c.  13.     "  Rationalibns  cum  pompis  ct  hymnis  oelcbrnre?" 


302  AKC1I.E0L0GY  OF  CHKISTIAN  ART. 

as  docs  sjieecli  to  a  developed  language.  Speech  is  spontaneous, 
while  a  grammatically  constructed  language  is  the  product  and 
property  of  peoples  more  or  less  advanced  in  culture  and  enlight- 
enment. So  man  may  sing  by  virtue  of  his  nature;  yet  it  is  no 
more  difficult  to  develop  a  literary  language  from  primitive  speech 
than  to  construct  a  methodical  and  scientific  music  from  the 
Music  is  not  I'utliinentary  chant.'  Nor  are  we  to  suppose  that  music 
imitation  of  comes  from  imitation  of  sounds  in  nature.  There  is  no 
nature.  music  in  nature,   neither   melody  nor   liarmony.     The 

many  expressions  regarding  "  the  harmonies  of  natui'e,"  "  the  music 
of  the  spheres,"  etc.,  are  to  be  regarded  as  purely  metaphorical. 

From  the  simplest  musical  utterance  in  the  chant  or  improvisation 
the  musician,  with  almost  infinite  pains,  must  work  out  the  complex 
results,  also  the  orderly  and  harmonious  combinations  called  music, 
which  becomes  the  most  effective  means  for  the  expression  of  the 
deeper  emotions  of  the  soul.^  At  what  precise  time  the  first  attempt 
The  beginning  of  the  Church  to  develop  a  music  peculiarl}^  its  own 
of      chn.stian  made  we  have,  unfortunately,  no  means  of  deter- 

niusicofuncer-  _  _  '  _  ..... 

tain  date.  mining.     In  this,  as  in  many  other  historical  inquiries, 

we  are  left  to  conjecture  and  tradition,  or  are  compelled  to  reach 
conclusions  from  analogical  reasoning.  From  the  circumstances  of 
povert}^,  persecution,  and  obscurit}^  Avith  which  the  earl}'  Church 
Avas  surrounded,  it  might  be  expected  that  little  or  no  effort  Avould 
at  first  be  made  to  develop  the  simple  chant  into  a  more  methodi- 
cal and  scientific  form.  The  Christian  assemblies  Avere  generally 
only  tolerated,  sometimes  tliey  were  under  the  severest  ban.  These 
conditions  of  hardship  and  proscription  were  most  unfavourable 
to  the  cultivation"  of  the  fine  arts.  Moreover,  the  natural  disin- 
clination to  use  either  Jewish  or  heathen  forms  in  their  own 
services,  through  fear  of  some  misleading  influence  upon  the  Avor- 
shipers,  probably  induced  in  the  overseers  of  the  Church  of  the  first 
tAvo  centuries  a  measui-e  of  indifference  to  whateAcr  of  musical 
science  might  then  have  been  extant.  Doubtless,  by  frequent  repe- 
tition of  chants  and  antiphonies  a  considerable  body  of  simple  melody 
had  come  to  be  the  common  property  of  the  Church.  But  it  was  not 
until  a  period  of  quiet  and  toleration,  Avhen  the  erection  of  buildings 
for  the  worship  of  God  called  for  a  more  methodical  arrangement 

'  Fetis:  Histoire  fjenerah'.deJa  \[miqne.VAy\?,  1869,  p.  2.  See  also  J.  Grimm  :  Utber 
der  Ursprung  dur  Sprache,  ss.  19,  55,  et  al.  Renan :  J)e  V  Origine  du  langage,  Paris,  1858, 
cliap.  V.  Max  Miiller:  Science  of  Langnnge,  London,  1862,  especial!}'  Lect.  ix.  Con- 
tra, Clement,  Felix:  Hiitoire  de  la  miLsique  depuis  les  temps  anciens  jusqu^ a  nos  jours, 
Paris,  1885,  pp.  I!,  4,  5,  etc. 

'  Haweis:  jMitsic  and  Morals,  London,  1877,  pp.  7,  S,  et  al 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN   MUSIC.  303 

of   the    puWic    worsliip,    tliat    music    could     liavc    been     caivfullv 
cultivated. 

The  first  well-authenticated  account  of  the  formal  arrangement  of 
church  music  is  given  by  the  historian  Theodoret,  pjrst  recorded 
where  he  describes  the  efforts  of  Flavianus  and  Diudo-  atu-mpts. 
rus,  who  divided  the  choristers  of  the  church  of  Antioch  into  two 
parts,  and  instructed  them  to  sing  responsively  the  psalms  of  David.' 
It  is  probable  that  this  did  not  originate  a  new  era  of  musical  in- 
vention so  much  as  methodize  wliat  was  already  known.  I»ut  the 
occasion  of  this  innovation,  as  given  by  the  surviving  authorities, 
is  most  suggestive,  and  renders  it  probable  that  from  this  tinu'  the 
cultivation  of  music  received  greatly  increased  attention,  ^rian  influ- 
The  governor  of  the  church  of  Antioch,  Leontius,  was  an  ence. 
avowed  Arian,  while  the  monks,  Flavianus  and  Diodorus,  were  zeal- 
ous and  saintly  defenders  of  the  orthodox  faith.  To  draw  away  the 
people  from  the  heretical  preaching  of  their  bishop  these  earnest 
men  instituted  the  antiphonal  service.  It  proved  so  attractive  that 
the  bishop  was  in  turn  compelled  to  introduce  the  same  practice  into 
his  own  church.  Thus  from  the  powerful  capital  of  the  East  the 
practice  extended  to  the  provincial  societies,  and  soon  prevailed 
in  many  leading  churches  of  the  West.* 

The  growing  attention  to  the  study  of  church  music  is  shown 
from  the  fact  that  it  soon  after  became  a  subject  of  con-  conciiiary  ac- 
ciliary  action.  The  council  of  Laodicea  (360-370),  "0°- 
in  order  to  the  promotion  of  good  order  and  the  edification  of  be- 
lievers, decreed  that  none  but  the  canons,  or  singing  men  who  ascend 
the  ambo  (or  singing  desk),  should  be  permitted  to  sing  in  the  church.  / 
Much  diversity  of  opinion  relative  to  the  intent  of  this  canon  has 
been  entertained  by  commentators.  l>aronius  seems  to  regard  it  as 
a  positive  prohibitioji  of  the  laity  to  engage  in  the  public  singing, 
thus  confining  this  part  of  the  service  to  an  official  class.  IJingham^ 
is  inclined  to  the  same  view  from  the  fact  that  from  the  f)p,„,„„  ^pj^, 
time  of  this  council  the  singers  were  regarded  as  officers  tiveio  iiiis  ai- 
of  the  Church,  being  called  KavoviKol  ipaXrai,  canonical  """" 
singers.  He,  however,  believes  that  this  was  only  <»f  tcni])orary 
authority.  Neander,^  on  the  contrary,  regards  this  as  nothing 
more  than  a  prohibition  of  the  laity  to  attemi>t  the  office  of   the 

'  Jlist.  Eccl,  1.  ii,  c.  xix.  "  Hi  prirni,  psallentiuin  clioris  in  pnrtcs  divisis,  liymnos 
Davidicos  alternis  canere  docnerimt." 

i'Theodoret  saj'S:  "  Ubiqiie  dcincepsobtiiuiit,  et  ad  ultiraos  tfrnf  fines  pervasit " 
{in  loc.  cit). 

^  Antiquities  of  the  Church,  b.  iii,  c.  vii. 

*  History  of  the  Church,  b.  ii,  p.  674,  n.  4,  Torrey's  trans. 


304  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

regularly  appointed  singers  in  conducting  the  church  music.  He 
believes  that  such  prohibition  of  the  laity  to  engage  in  the  singing 
would  have  been  in  direct  contradiction  to  the  instruction  of  the  most 
noted  Church  fathers,  as  Basil,  Chrysostom,  etc.,  and  the  almost 
universal  practice  of  the  Eastern  Churches.  The  opinion  of  Nean- 
der  is  entitled  to  great  respect,  since  it  seems  to  find  confirmation 
in  the  teaching  and  practice  of  these  saintly  men.  It  is  certain  that 
Basil,  during  his  education  at  Antioch,  came  to  enter- 
asi  opimon.  ^^.^  ^^^  ardent  love  for  the  forms  of  worship  there  preva- 
lent, so  that  when  he  was  installed  bishop  of  Caesarea,  in  Cappado- 
cia,  he  introduced  the  Antiochian  music  into  his  own  diocese,  and 
greatly  encouraged  it  both  by  practice  and  public  teaching.  From 
the  account  preserved  in  his  own  writings  we  may  suppose  that  the 
singing  in  the  assemblies  of  Cresarea  in  Basil's  day  somewhat  re- 
sembled the  informal  praise  service,  or  service  of  song, 

The    character  .  \  i       •  t         •  i       i 

of  the  singing  in  modern  social  religious  gatherings,  barring  the  har- 
service.  niony,  which  was  not  yet  known.     Nevertheless,  we  are 

not  too  hastily  to  conclude  that  the  use  of  simple  melody  by  an 
entire  congregation  was  necessarily  less  effective  to  awaken  re- 
ligious emotions  than  the  more  involved  harmonies  of  later  times, 
since  it  has  often  been  remarked  that  by  the  uncultivated  ear 
the  simple  succession  of  sounds  may  be  better  appreciated  than 
the  more  involved,  which  may  be  pitched  above  the  popular 
comprehension.' 

When  he  became  bishop  of  Constantinople,  Chrysostom  likcAvise 
cultivated  the  music  to  which  he  had  earlier  become  accustomed 

at  Antioch.  In  the  severe  contest  with  the  Arians,  he, 
Chrysostom.        ti       t-.     -i  n       i  i      i  •  i     i  t     i 

like  basil  and  others,  used  the  new  music  to  hold  the 

people  loyal  to  the  orthodox  faith.  But  in  those  times  of  passion- 
ate and  brutal  encounters  the  services  of  the  Church  were  fre- 
quently interrupted  by  exhibitions  of  anger  and  party  strife 
entirely  at  variance  with  the  spirit  of  Christian  worship.  Only 
with  greatest  difficulty  could  the  people  be  restrained  even  by  the 
entreaties  and  authority  of  this  most  eminent  and  spiritually  minded 
father. 

Thus  it  seems  fairly  probable  that  the  more  serious  and  success- 
ful attempts  to  improve  the  music  of  the  public  services 

Conclusion.  •    •      .     \    •        ^       c^      •  ,         ■,  -,,  loi- 

originated  m  the  hyrian  churches,  and  that  the  feyrian 
modes  were  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  adopted  by  the  East  and 
West. 

To  St.  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  has  usually  been  attributed  the 
further  reform  and  improvement  of  the  music  which  was  afterward 
'  V.  "Wallis :  Philosophical  Transactions  (Abridgment),  vol.  i,  p.  618. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   MUSIC.  30S- 

extensively  used  in  the  Latin  cluirc-lies.  Tliis  attempted  modi- 
fication dates  from  the  last  quarter  of  the  fourth  century.  The 
Ciottus  Ambrosianns  has  come  to  be  applied  to  a  style  of  music 
which  Ambrose  is  said  to  have  arranged  for  his  own  Ambrosiaa 
cathedral,  and  which,  in  modified  form,  is  believed  by  chant, 
some  to  have  continued  in  the  Western  churches  to  the  present 
time.  The  subject  is  beset  with  difficulties,  and  opinions  are  at 
variance  with  respect  to  the  originality,  nature,  and  extent  of  the 
reform  introduced  by  Ambrose. 

As  to  its  originality,  it  must  be  recollected  that  the  Cliurcli  had 
now  emerged  from  the  catacombs,  and  had  received  the  protection 
and  patronage  of  the  imperial  governinent.  Instead  of  obscure 
upper  rooms,  private  houses,  subterranean  retreats,  or  humble 
churches,  the  Christians  now  had  well-built  and  snliMidid  ^,  ^ 
edifices,  to  whose  erection  even  emperors  felt  honored  cmtisiaiices  of 
in  making  contribution.  The  circumstances  necessi-  "i«  cimrch. 
tated  a  change  in  the  church  appointments.  The  ceremonial  now 
assumed  a  splendor  and  an  impressiveness  before  unknown.  This, 
is  evident  from  the  notices  of  contemporary  writers  both  Christian- 
and  pagan,  Christianity  was  now  the  state  religion.  Its  votaries, 
occupied  the  highest  positions  of  trust  in  the  government.  Meir 
thoroughly  versed  in  the  heathen  philosophy  were  now  high  office- 
bearers in  the  Church.  Prejudice  against  the  literature  and  the  art 
of  heathendom  had  been  greatly  allayed. 

The  introduction  of  art  forms  into  the  churches  had  long  ceased 
to  be  regarded  as  sinful  or  misleading.  All  that  was  truly  useful  and 
educating  was  now  pressed  into  the  service  of  Christ,  and  thus  be- 
came sanctified.  Every  analogy  of  the  other  arts  which  we  have 
traced  is  convincing  that  the  Christians  of  the  fourth  Appropriation 
century  freely  appropriated  whatever  might  contribute  "'  '""'• 
to  the  effectiveness  of  public  worship.  If  they  had  not  been 
offended  by  the  statue  of  Hermes,  the  ram-bearer,  if  they  had 
pictured  upon  the  walls  of  the  catacombs  Orplieus  as  a  type  or 
heathen  prophecy  of  the  subduing  power  of  Christ,  if  they  had 
adopted  the  Greek  style  in  the  sculpture  of  their  sarcophagi,  if 
from  their  general  convenience  of  form  the  heathen  basilicas  fur- 
nished suggestions  for  church  archite(!ture,  it  cannot  be  reasonably 
supposed  that  music  alone,  of  all  the  fine  arts,  was  an  exception  to 
this  general  Christian  appropriation  and  use.  With  respect  to 
music  and  poetry,  as  to  philosophy  and  the  arts  of  foriii,  it  was  but 
natural  that  the  attention  of  the  Christian  fathers  sli<)u]<l  be  turned 
toward  the  writings  of  the  Greeks  for  suggestions  in  tlicir  attempted 
development  of  the  congregational  chant,  which  had  grown  up,  from 
20 


806  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

long-continued  repetition,  into  more  regular,  scientific,  and  imposing 
forms.' 

By  his  careful  training  prior  to  conversion  Ambrose  was  pre- 
pared to  successfully  examine  whatever  of  useful  helps  might  be 
contained  in  the  Greek  writers  on  music,  and  to  develop  a  system 
more  in  harmony  with  the  conditions  and  needs  of  the  Church. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  term  "  music  "  had  among  the 
Musicofbroad-  early  Greeks  a  much  broader  significance  than  in  mod- 
er  signifleance   ^^.^^    times.     It   embraced  poetry,   the    dance,   and    the 

araongthe  r  j  ^  •> 

Greeks.  drama,  as  well  as  the  melody  of  sounds.     It  was  inti- 

mately connected  with  moral,  intellectual,  and  even  physical  train- 
ing; it  was  not,  therefore,  chiefly  studied  as  a  fine  art.  It  ranked 
rather  among  the  disciplines  necessary  to  the  best  and  completest 
education,  and  was  regarded  more  as  a  means  to  an  end  than  as  an 
independent  art.  Based  upon  certain  harmonic  and  rhythmical  pro- 
portions, it  was  believed  to  contribute  to  the  best  mental  training  and 
the  highest  moral  development.  There  is  an  essential  agreement 
among  the  best  historians  that  during  the  most  flourishing  period 
of  Grecian  art  instrumental  music  had  no  separate  existence.  Mu- 
sic, recitative,  and  poetry  were  inseparably  united.  Musical  rhythm 
was  governed  by  the  poetical  cadence.  Musicians  were  the  poets; 
and  poets  invented  melodies  to  which  the}^  chanted  their  verse  at 
the  national  games.  The  early  music  of  the  Greeks  had  no  higher 
aim  than  to  supply  the  language  of  the  poet  with  melody  and  mus- 
ical accents.  They  never  strove  to  invest  m.usic  with  a  dignity  that 
should  make  it  independent  of  poetry.^  It  was  only  in  the  later  his- 
tory that  music  and  poetry  attained  to  a  separate  existence.  Yet 
Plato  complains  of  this  divorce,  and  argues  that  it  is  a  departure 
from  the  original  lofty  ethical  aim  of  music,  and  it  is  certain  that 
as  an  independent  art  Greek  music  thus  suffered  a  real  decadence. 
Music  and  po-  Its  close  association  with  epic  and  lyric  poetry  in  the 
etry  associated,  religious  life  and  ceremonial  had  dignified  and  inspired 
it.  The  decay  of  religion  brought,  therefore,  like  decay  to  poetry 
and  music.  The  departure  of  the  spirit  left  the  body  lifeless,  as  in- 
stitutions do  not  long  survive  the  wants  and  the  spirit  that  call  them 
into  being.  With  the  prevalent  scepticism  came  the  neglect  of  all 
which  religion  and  devotion  had  devised  to  aid  in  their  cultivation 
and  expression.^ 

'  Kiesewetter :  Ge.Khichie  der  europceisch-ahendliindischen  oder  unser  lieutigen  Musik. 
Leipzicf,  1816,  p.  2.     Ambros:    Geschichte  der  Mimk,  vol.  ii,  pp.  9,  10. 

'  Naiimann:  History  of  Music,  translated  from  the  German  hy  F.  Praeger,  London, 
1885,  p.  137. 

*  Schliiter:  Allgemeine  GeschicJiie  der  Musik,  etc.,  Leipzig,  1863,  p.  4. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    MUSIC.  307 

While  Christianity  alone  has  brought  music  to  its  highest  perfec- 
tion as  a  fine  art,  expressive  of  the  deepest  si)iritual 

XheGrpt'ksfiir- 

emotion,  the  Greeks,  nevertheless,  developed  a  most  nishedamusir- 
complicated  and  ingenious  system  of  musical  nota-  ^'^o^^i'""- 
tion,  whose  influence  was  felt  far  into  the  centuries  of  tlie 
Christian  era.  Their  writers  on  music  were  the  mathematicians, 
who  treated  it  as  a  mathematical  science.'  The  drama  was  little 
more  than  a  musical  recitative,  while  the  chorus  was  intoned.  Their 
theatres  being  open,  roofless  areas,  where  thousands  gathered,  it  was 
often  necessary  to  resort  to  the  use  of  metallic  masks  to  increase  the 
sonorousness  of  the  voices  of  the  actors. 

The  systems  thus  developed  were  complex  and  difficult  in  the  ex- 
treme, and  were  capable  of  being  understood  and  prac-  xhe  notation 
ticed  by  only  a  favored  few,  who  must  give  years  complicated, 
of  study  to  their  mastery.  Moreover,  there  was  little  attempt  to 
popularize  these  systems  and  to  bring  them  into  general  use.  On 
the  contrary,  there  seems  to  have  been  a  design  on  the  part  of  those 
who  treated  this  subject  to  make  it  the  property  of  the  few  who 
were  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  the  science  as  it  was  taught  by 
the  philosophers.  Their  musical  notation  was,  therefore,  most  in- 
volved and  perplexing.  The  characters  invented  by  the  Greek  writ- 
ers on  musical  harmonics  have  been  placed  as  high  as  sixteen  hundred 
and  twenty.*  Since  these  were  no  better  than  so  many  jjere  arbitrary 
arbitrary  marks  or  signs  placed  on  a  line  over  the  words  signs, 
of  the  song,  and  had  no  natural  or  analogical  signification,  the  sys- 
tem must  have  imposed  on  the  memory  an  intolerable  burden.''  Be- 
fore the  advent  of  Christianity  the  Greek  system  had  somewhat 
fallen  into  disuse,  and  the  practical  spirit  of  the  conquer- 
ing  Romans  was  unfavourable  to  the  cultivation  and  not  patmns  of 
patronage  of  the  fine  arts.  Their  great  men  were  en-  '^"" 
gaged  in  the  affairs  of  state,  and  in  developing  and  perfecting 
political  policies  for  a  now  practically  unified  nation.  They  had, 
indeed,  rejected  the  complex  musical  notation  of  the  Greeks,  which 
had  been  the  product  of  refined  speculation,  and  in  place  of  the  six- 
teen hundred  and  twenty  characters  had  substituted  the  first  fifteen 
letters   of   their   own   alphabet.       Thus    the    eiihannonic   and   even 

'  Hawkins:  A  General  niitory  of  the  Science  and  Pmctice  of  .\fu.iir,  London, 
1853,  vol.  i,  p.  103.  With  this  view  aprec  Dr.  Wallis  and  many  other  liijrh 
authorities. 

^  Some  authoriiies  place  the  number  al  twelve  liuudrcd  and  forty.  It  is  very  dif- 
flcnlt  to  determine,  but  fortunately  the  question  is  of  slight  archaeological  imports 
ance. 

*  Hawkins:    Ftistwy  of  Music,  vol.  i,  p.  104. 


308  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

chromatic  scales  had  fallen  into  disuse,  and  the  more  natural 
The  diatonic  diatonic  with  its  greater  simplicity  and  sweetness  had 
itdopted.  been  accepted. 

The  old  Greek  music  had  virtually  perished  in  its  childhood, 
and  the  world  lost  little  or  nothing.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the 
Western  Church  first  developed  a  truly  Christian  music,  such  as 
contributed  to  the  highest  edification  of  believers,  when  it  com- 
l)letely  broke  away  from  Greek  influences.'  The  art  of  Greece 
(ireece  had  no  was  largely  objective.  In  music,  therefore,  the  Greeks 
high  music.  ^[^  not  attain  to  those  grand  results  which  in  sculp- 
ture, architecture,  and  poetry  have  been  entireh^  incomparable. 
The  best  authorities  are  in  substantial  agreement  that  they  were 
not  acquainted  with  music  in  consonance,  or  with  harmony  in  its. 
modern  sense.  Their  music  was  simply  a  succession,  and  not  a 
harmony,  of  sounds." 

But  with  Christianity  began  an  era  of  feeling  and  contemplation, 
chrstanit  From  the  study  of  government  and  the  state  it  directed 
flrst  developed  attention  to  the  life,  obligations,  and  destiny  of  the  in- 
"■  dividual.     This  tendency  to  introspection,  and  to  the 

study  of  the  condition  of  the  feelings,  gave  occasion  for  their 
expression  by  methods  in  harmony  with  this  new  view  of  individual 
life  and  duty.  Music  is  the  art  which  of  all  others  is  expressive 
of  the  feelings  of  the  soul.^  Unlike  poetry,  architecture,  sculpture, 
or  painting,  music  can  express  itself  freely  and  completely  without 
the  aid  of  other  arts.*  Hence  it  might  be  supposed  that  each 
nation  and  each  independent  religious  or  psychical  de- 
velops its  pe-  velopment  would  have  its  own  music  to  express  its 
cuhar  music,  peculiar  emotional  condition,  just  as  each  nation  or 
tribe  has  had  its  own  language  or  idiom. ^  Since  ever^^  religion  has 
had  much  to  do  with  the  sentiments  and  emotions — Christianity 
most  of  all — this  new  revelation  of  God  to  man  in  Jesus  Christ 
would  greatly  quicken  the  emotional  nature  and  lead  its  followers 
to  devise  means  for  its  appropriate  expression. 

'  Kiesewetter :  Geschichte  der  europM^ch-ahendlandischen  oder  wiser  htutigen  Mu- 
fdk,  s.  2. 

'■  This  has  been  a  subject  of  protracted  controversy.     Doubtless  the  lack  of  clear 
definition  has  been  one  cause  of  the  great  diversity  of  opinion.     The  preponderance 
of  autliority  is  in  favour  of  the  statement  of  the  text. 
'     ^  Haweis :  Music  and  Morals,  p.  10. 

"  "The  musician  has  less  connection  with  the  outward  world  than  any  other  artist. 
He  must  turn  the  thought  inward  to  seek  the  inspiration  of  his  art  in  the  deepest 
recesses  of  his  own  being."  Goethe:  Wilhelm  Meister,  bk.  ii,  cap.  ix.  Brendel: 
Geschichte  der  Musik,  s.  8. 

*  P.  Clement:  Histoire  generale  de  la  Musique  Eeligieuse,  p.  4. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    MUSIC.  309 

In  obedienct'  to  this  [)riiiciitk'  Ambrose  was  led  to  devise  a  more 
appropriate  music  for  his  clmrches.  It  is  to  be  deeply  regret- 
ted that  we  have  such  scanty  materials  by  which  to  judi^e  of  the 
character  and  extent  of  the  Ambrosian  reform.  From  the  few  his- 
toric notices,  and  from  the  musical  traditions  of  the  Latin  Church, 
it  is  believed  that  he  simplified  the  then  prevalent  Ptolemaic  sys- 
tem by  reducing  the  seven  recognised  modes  to  four.  Reduced  th.- 
lie  deemed  these  sufficient  for  the  proper  conduct  of  the  modes  U)  fou:. 
Church  service.  lie  believed  that  thus  the  various  tunes  which  had 
been  hitherto  in  use  could  be  reduced  to  systematic  form,  and  yet 
be  so  simple  that  the  congregation  inight  use  them  to  their  own  i>rofit 
and  to  the  common  edification. 

The  four  modes  which  he  thus  borrowed  are  indicated  as  follows: 


The  Antique. 

Mediaeval. 

Ambrosian. 

Plirygiim 

D  to  D 

WHS  the 

Dorian          \Vi 

is  llie 

1st 

tone  or  mode. 

I>oriMii 

K  to  K 

Phry<;iau 

2d 

•• 

loniuu 

V  to  K 

•'     •• 

Lydiaii 

:{d 

Hypoplirygi 

iaii 

( ;  to  u 

Mixoiydiau     ' 

' 

4th 

" 

These  seem  to  have  been  distinguished  from  one  another  oidy  by 
the  i)lace  of  the  half  tones  in  the  gamut,  thus: 

1st  mode  D.  eTf.  (i.  A.  VI.  C.  D. 

2d         "    \Cf.  C.   a.  IIM".  D.   E.  Scheme. 

3d         "     F.  G.  A.J^.  0.  D    hiTp. 

4tli        "     G.  A.   H.  C.  D.  E.  F.  G. 

In  this  reform  the  tetrachonl  system  was  abandoned,  and  the 
metric  of  the  poetry  determined  the  musical  accent.  It  is  believed 
that  attention  was  given  only  to  the  pitch,  and  not  to  the  volume 
or  length  of  note.  In  the  time  of  Charlemagne  an  attempt  was 
made  to  displace  the  Ambrosian  by  the  Gregorian  chants.  Thus  the 
Ambrosian  notation  was  lost.  It  is  not  even  known  whether  Am- 
brose devised  an  independent  notation,  but  since  his  .system  was  of 
Greek  derivation,  it  is  conjectured  that  the  Greek  nota-  Fell  mto  (li*- 
tion  was  retained  in  so  far  as  was  consistent  with  his  "••«'• 
purpose.  The  notation  found  in  tlie  so-calle<l  Ambrosian  singing 
books  is  certainly  of  later  OTigin:  of  the  original  nothing  has  sur- 
vived. Also,  in  how  far  the  traditional  Ambrosian  chant  reseiid)lcs 
the  original  is  matter  of  pure  conjecture.' 

While  the  range  of  the  And)rosian  chants  must  liave    Effect  upon  the 
been  verv  narrow,  the  influence  of  the  service  of  song 
upon  the  church  of  .^^ila^  was  most   happy.     Augustine,   who  was 

'  V.  Forkel :   AUgemnne  Gc.schichte  (kr  Muxik,  Bd.  ii,  ss.  1G3,  IGt. 


310  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  ART. 

accustomed  to  visit  this  then  noted  church,  speaks  of  its  inspira- 
tion to  himself.'  He  afterward  introduced  the  same  form  into  the 
churches  of  his  own  diocese,  and  by  personal  efforts  and  the  writing 
of  a  systematic  treatise  became  a  zealous  promoter  of  sacred  poetry 
and  music. 

During  the  following  two  and  one  half  centuries  the  Ambrosian 
chants  seem  to  have  been  widely  used  in  the  Latin  Church.  This 
is  evident  from  the  fact  that  they  are  mentioned  in  the  acts  of  the 
fourth  Council  of  Toledo,  A.  D.  633,  as  forming  a  part  of  the  ser- 
vice in  the  Spanish  churches.  They  gave  form,  method,  and  dig- 
nity to  the  public  singing.  The  adaptation  of  words  to  these  modes 
became  a  matter  of  deep  interest  to  the  bishops,  so  that  even  in  the 
most  trying  and  stormy  times  of  Roman  history  the  impressiveness 
and  solemnity  of  the  public  services  wei-e  maintained. 

The  writings  of  Macrobius,  Capella,  Cassiodorus,  and  Boethius  ex- 
other  wTiters  erted  little  modifying  influence  on  the  music  of  the 
on  music.  Church.     They  lost  sight  of  the  practical  needs  of  the 

times,  and  returned  to  the  study  of  the  theory  of  proportions  as 
developed  by  the  aid  of  arithmetic  and  geometry.  Even  the  pious 
Boethius,  in  his  labored  work,  de  Miisica,  does  not  once  refer  either 
to  the  use  of  instruments,  to  the  voice  as  used  in  the  singing  of  the 
sanctuary,  or  to  any  practical  application  of  his  ab- 
sti'use  speculations.  He  was  a  close  adherent  of  the 
Pythagorean  theory,  that  consonances  or  harmonies  are  to  be 
determined  by  mathematical  ratios  and  not  by  the  ear.  His  chief 
merit  is  that  he  has  preserved  tlie  elements  of  the  ancient  systems 
of  music;  which  fact  makes  it  possible  to  compare  them  with  what 
is  now  extant,  and  thus  determine  the  originality  of  the  modern 
masters  of  harmony.^ 

So  far  as  can  be  inferred  from  either  literary  or  monumental 
evidence,  no  further  musical  reform  was  effected  until  near  the 
close  of  the  sixth  century.  After  his  elevation  to  the  pontificate, 
Gregory  the  Great  gave  much  thought  to  the  improvement  of  the 
Church  ritual,  and  originated  a  style  of  music  which  has  borne  his 
name.  The  Gregorian  chant  ( Cantus  Gregorianus)  marks  a  revo- 
lution no  less  distinct  than  useful.  Such  has  been  the  tenacity  of 
its  life  that  it  is  still  the  leading  form  in  nearl}"  all  the  Catholic 
churches,  and  has  modified  the  singing  in  some  Protestant  churches, 
notably  the  Lutheran  and  Anglican. 

By  his  patrician  rank,  his  sound  learning,  his  wide  experience  of 
public  affairs,  and  his  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  most  noted  men 
of  his  age,  Gregory  was  thoroughly  qualified  to  exert  a  commanding 

1  Can/essiones,  ix,  vii.  «  Hawkins:  History  of  Music,  pp.  124,  125. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   MUSIC.  311 

influence  on  both  the  temporal  and  spiritual  interests  of  the  West- 
ern Empire.  The  missionary  and  reformatory  schemes  which  he 
successfully  executed  give  to  his  pontificate  a  i)r()ininent  oreKory's 
place  in  the  history  of  the  Church.  His  efforts  to  ffeat  services, 
mitigate  the  severities  of  slavery,  and  to  secure  a  more  coin- 
l)lete  recognition  of  the  rights  of  the  jjoor  before  the  law,  often 
brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  temporal  authorities.  lie  has 
been  accused  of  undue  ambition;  but  this  charge  is  not  sustained, 
since  in  all  his  efforts  he  seems  to  have  had  little  thought  of  per- 
sonal aggrandizement,  but  was  only  zealous  for  the  honor  and  suc- 
cess of  the  Church.  The  service  which  he  renderetl  Church  music 
was  great  and  lasting.  Besides  substituting  the  Roman  letters  for 
the  Greek  characters  in  his  notation,'  he  reformed  the  antiphonary, 
and  founded  and  endowed  seminaries  for  the  study  of  music.  By 
the  aid  of  singers  herein  trained,  the  improvements  which  Gregory 
had  devised  were  widely  introduced  into  the  public  worship  of  the 
West,  and  thus  the  influence  of  his  I'eform  was  more  lasting  than 
otherwise  had  been  possible. 

"  He  also  took  time,  even  amid  the  great  cares  that  severely  taxed 
his  frail  body,  to  examine  with  what  tunes  the  psalms,  MaimbourR's 
hymns,  orisons,  verses,  responses,  canticles,  lessons,  estimate, 
epistles,  the  gospel,  the  prefaces,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  were  to  be 
sung;  what  were  the  tunes,  measures,  notes,  and  moods  most  suit- 
able to  the  majesty  of  the  Church,  and  most  proper  to  inspire  devo- 
tion." *  The  accounts  given  by  John  the  Deacon  in  his  life  of 
Gregory  relative  to  the  services  of  this  pontiff  are  quite  circum- 
stantial, and  awaken  our  admiration  of  his  energy  and  tireless 
industry  to  perfect  the  Church  service.'' 

The  so-called  Ambrosian  system  was  the  basis  of  the  Gregorian 
improvement.  The  four  modes  of  this  system  were  retained.  To 
these  were  added  four  others,  so  that  the  first  note  in  the  Grepory's  re- 
Ambrosian  became  the  fourth  of  the  Gregorian.  The  f*""'"- 
original  Ambrosian  modes  were  called  Authentic,  and  the  four  added 
ones,  Plagal,  as  follows: 

1st  Ambrosian  or  authentic  mode  D.EiF.G.A.HTc.D.  Rave  rise  to  1st  Plajyal  A.H.C.D.E.F.C.A. 

•>d            *'            "            •'            •'  f3.G.A.h7c.D.E.  "      "        -.'d      *'  H.C.D.E.F.G.A.H. 

3d            F.G.A.nic.D.ErF.  "      "       "Jd      "  C.D.E.F.G.A.H.C. 

4th          ' G.A.h'!c.D.EF.G.  "      "       4th     "  D.E.F.G.A.H.C.D. 

'  That  Gregory  was  not  tlie  inventor  of  tlie  Lutin  notation  is  shown   by  Fetis : 
Histoire  generale  de  la  Musique,  t.  iii,  pp.  521-528. 

*Maimbour£r:  Histoire  du  Pontifical  de  St.  Oregoire,  Paris,  168(j,  pp.  330.  3.11. 
'  Johannes  Diaconus :   in  Vita  Greg.,  lib.  ii,  cap.  vi. 


313 


ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 


The  following  modern  notation  is  believed  to  represent  these  Au- 
thentic and  Plagal  modes: 


1st  Authentic. 


1st  Plagal. 


2d  Authentic. 


»7rr"rf 


2d  Plagal. 


'^    ^'^'r-'Prg 


P^^f^ 


3d  Authentic.  /  §^ 

3d  Plagal. 


4th  Authentic. 


4t]i  Plagal. 


With  Ambrose,  Gregory  exchanged  the  irrational  system  ol' 
the  Greek  tetrachord  for  the  system  of  the  octave,  which  is  now 
recognised  as  the  only  natural  system.  He  also  liberated  the  melody 
from  the  metric  accent,  thus  allowing  to  the  melody  a  more  free  and 
independent  development  according  to  its  own  laws.' 

'  Kiesewetter :  Op.  at,  Bd  i,  p.  5.  Reissmann  :  Gregorianischer  Gesang  in  Musi- 
calischea  Conversations- Lexicon,  Bd.  iv,  ss.  346,  347.  In  a  melodic  sense  (Gregory  be- 
ing unacquainted  with  liarmony)  an  authentic  mode  was  a  melody  moving  from 
Touica  to  Tonica.  It  is  thought  that  by  such  modes  the  ancient  Christians  gave 
expression  to  firmness,  deep  conviction,  or  abounding  joy.     Those  melodies  that 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MUSIC.  31:} 

The  contribution  to  the  improvement  of  music  by  this  increase  of 
tones  can  be  better  appreciated  by  observing  the  change  effected 
in  the  place  and  use  of  the  Dominant  and  the  Final  note.  Tlie 
Ambrosian  chant  recognized  but  four  modes,  or  eiglit  sounds  in  a 
natural  or  diatonic  order  of  progression,  proceeding  from  Mature  of  uiis 
1),  E,  F,  and  G  to  the  octave  of  the  same.  This  sys-  rcf">"""- 
tern  required  the  chant  to  begin  and  end  on  the  same  note.  Tlic 
Dominant  (so  called  from  the  note  which  was  most  [jrominent  in 
tlie  rendering  of  the  chant,  "  the  note  on  which  the  recitative  is  madr 
in  each  psalm  or  canticle  tune")  did  not,  therefore,  accord  with  the 
fundamental  or  key  note  of  modern  nmsic,  upon  which  all  the  har- 
mony must  be  based.  In  the  Ambrosian  chant  the  frequent  return 
to  the  fundamental  note  was  necessary  in  order  to  keep  the  voices 
of  the  chanters  and  of  the  congregation  in  unison  by  being  sustaine*! 
at  the  proper  pitch,  and  holding  to  the  mode  to  which  the  chant  was 
set.  The  Gregorian  chant  differed  from  the  Ambrosian  also  in  the 
place  of  ending.  While  the  latter  must  return  to  the  note  of  begin- 
ning, the  former  permitted  the  final  to  be  other  than  the  lowest 
note,  thereby  giving  a  greater  variety  to  the  ending  of  the  chants. 
"  Each  of  the  Plagal  modes  added  by  Gregory  is  ajourth  below  its 
corresponding  original,  and  is  called  by  the  same  name,  with  the  pre- 
fix /lypo  (  vTTo)  heloio,  as  follows:  5.  Ilypodorian;  0.  ll3'pophrygian; 
7.  Ilypolydian;  8.  llypomixolj'^dian.  Each  scale  here  also  consists 
of  a  perfect  fifth  and  a  perfect  fourth,  but  the  positions  are  re- 
versed; the  fourth  is  now  below,  and  the  fifth  above.  In  the 
Plagal  scales  the  Final  is  no  longer  the  lowest  note,  but  is  the 
same  as  that  in  the  corresponding  Authentic  scale.  Tims  the  final 
of  the  Ilypodorian  mode  is  not  A,  but  D,  and  a  melody  in  that 
mode,  though  ranging  from  about  A  to  A,  ends  regularly  on  I), 
as  in  the  Dorian.  .  .  .  The  semitones  in  each  scale  naturally  vary 
as  before.  The  Dominants  of  the  new  scales  are  in  each  case 
a  third  below  those  of  the  old  ones,  C  being,  however,  substi- 
tuted for  B  in  the  Hypomixolydian,  as  it  had  been  before  in  tlie 
Phrygian,  on  account  of  the  relations  between  B  and  the  F  abo\(' 
and  below."  ' 

This  system   was  subsequently  developed  by  the  ad-   further  devei- 

...  «^  1  »       1  •         *    1  11     1  ^1  *      T-    1-  opinent. 

dition  of  two  other  Authentic  modes,  calle^i  tlie  .holian 

and  the  Ionian,  and  of  their  corresponding  Plagals — the  IIypox>olian 

moved  around  the  Tonica  wore  called  Plapral.  Tliese  are  believed  to  Iiiivo  been 
expressive  of  variable  emotions,  or  of  a  more  pensive  and  subdued  state  of  religions 
fcelinpc. 

1  V.  Rev.   Thon-.as  Ilelmore   in    Grove's   Mu.'iical  Dictionary,  vol.  i,  p.  626,  article 
'•  ("Jrcgoriao  Modes." 


314  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

and  the  Ilypoionian.  Thus  resulted  a  complete  scheme  which  has 
powerfully  influenced  the  ecclesiastical  music  of  the  Western  Church. 
The  Ritual  Service  books  have  been  a  means  of  preserving  this  im- 
proved system,  so  that  in  most  churches  of  Western  Europe  the  psalm 
and  canticle  tunes,  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  the  Benedictus,  the  Anti- 
phones,  the  Nicene  Creed,  the  Processions,  etc.,  are  based  essentially 
on  the  scheme  which  Gregory  devised,  and  on  whose  strictest  observ- 
ance he  so  strongly  insisted/ 

Gregory  also  invented  a  system  of  notation  for  his  improved 
Gregorian  Au-  niethod.  Tradition  says  that  his  Antlphonarlum,  the 
tiphonarium.  book  containing  this  notation,  was  kept  chained  to 
the  altar  in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  in  order  that  it 
might  be  immediately  consulted  in  case  of  any  suspected  inno- 
vation in  the  choral  service.  In  order  to  conform  the  music  in 
the  churches  of  his  empii'e  to  this  standard  it  is  claimed  that 
Charlemagne,  in  A.  D.  790,  applied  to  Pope  Adrian  I.  for  a  copy 
of  this  manuscript  Antiphonarium,  The  copy  is  now  one  of  the 
most  valued  treasures  in  the  library  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Gall  in 
Switzerland.'^ 

Plate  IX  represents  the  first  page  of  Lambillotte's  facsimile  of 
this  famous  manuscript.  It  contains  portions  of  Psalm  xxv;  on  this 
page  are  parts  of  verses  1,  2,  3,  5.^  The  extreme  care  with  which  this 
work  was  prepared  proves  the  thoroughness  of  the  Gregorian  re- 
form. The  various  marks  connected  with  the  words, 
The  numsB.  i     •      n  n    i  i-    •      i     i 

technically  called  numm,  have  elicited  the  most  careful 

and  patient  study;  but  their  meaning  and  use  have  not  yet  been 
determined.  Whether  they  were  a  system  of  musical  notation,  or 
were  indications  to  the  singers  of  variation  in  quality  and  volume  of 
tone,  is  still  a  matter  of  debate.     Already  in  the  time  of  Guido  of 

'  Helmore:    Op.  cit.,  vol.  i,  p.  627. 

^  This  copy  at  St.  Gall  was  most  faithfully  facsimiled  under  tlie  direction  of  the 
zealous  Jesuit,  Lanibillotte,  in  1848  (v.  his  work  Antiphonaire  de  Saint  Gregoire,  Fac- 
simile du  Manuscript  de  Saint-Gall,  VIII'  Siecle,  Paris,  1851,  4to.)  He  claims  that 
the  manuscript  is  authentic,  and  contains  the  system  as  it  was  instituted  by 
Gregory.  Against  the  objections  to  its  authenticity  urged  by  Dunjou,  Fetis,  and 
others  (who  claim  that  it  is  of  a  later  origin)  Lambillotte  gives  what  he  regards  abun- 
dant evidence,  both  external  and  internal,  of  its  genuineness.  The  art  work  con- 
nected with  the  Antiphonarium  would  point  to  an  origin  not  later  than  the  tenth 
century,  possibly  considerably  earlier,  u.  also  Coussemaker:  Histoire  de  Vharmonie 
an  moyen  age. ;  and  Schubiger :  Sdngerschule  St.  Gallens  vom  achten  bis  zwblften  Jahr- 
hunderte. 

^  The  text  is  sufficiently  clear  to  most  readers:  Ad  te  levavi  animam  meam,  Deus 
mens,  in  te  confido  non  erubescam.  [Psalm us.]  Vias  tuas,  Domine  [ad  repeten- 
dum],  dirige  me  in  veritate  tua  [responsorium  graduale].  Universi  qui  te  expectant 
non  confuudentur,  Domine.     Vias  tuas,  Domine,  etc. 


LEVA 


4 


NIMAM.  m£a  u'jf  m"  lyTEcoNfiao  t' 

nonerut./>r-    PsxlMUS"  \>.ar".»r  Jn%         |H 


k    f^.  A  -^^  ■'^'' 


rzOn  coTJfLnc/eTvru^      -Dcmime. 


<^ 


fz^ 


Platk  IX.— Facsiiullf  of  tUe  flrst  puRe  of  tlu'  Aiiii|ilj..ii.iniiiii  or  tir.k'"i'.v  lUi-  (.n 


EARLY    CHHISTIAX    MUSIC.  315 

Arezzo  (eleventh  century)  their  .signitication  had  been  lost.'  Much 
learned  comment  upon  them  has  ai)i>eared,  an<l  a  few  writers  claim 
that  the  key  to  their  meaning  has  been  discovered. 

We  give  examples  from  four  most  ancient  and  interesting  codices, 
now  preserved   in   the  abbey  libraries  of  St.  Gall  and 

TT      •     1    1       c.     •  1    /  IllustraUons 

Emsiedeln,  Switzerland  (y.  Plate  X).     Pso.  1  is  a  "Hal-      ami  transia- 
lelujah"  from   the   tenth    century,-  giving  the  accom-      ""'*•''• 
panying  numae  and  the  suggested  translation  into  modern  musical 
notation.     It  is  from  the  library  of  St.  Gall. 

No.  2  is  a  facsimile  of  an  early  Gloria  in  excelsis  from  a  codex 
now  preserved  in  the  abbey  library  of  Einsiedeln.'  The  numaj  are 
well  defined;  the  manuscript  is  among  the  earliest.  It  is  very  inter- 
esting as  giving  this  noble  hymn  of  the  early  Church,  and  seems  to 
justify  the  earnest  attempts  to  find  the  key  to  the  strange  notation 
whose  discovery  would  so  materially  aid  in  the  appreciation  of  the 
work  of  Ambrose  and  of  Gregory  in  the  reform  of  ecclesiastical 
music. 

No.  3  is  from  the  sarae  codex,  showing  a  still  more  complicated 
system  of  numoe.'*  In  the  appended  scale  is  given  the  proposed 
equivalent  in  the  modern  notation. 

No.  4  is  the  copy  of  a  portion  of  a  very  early  codex  in  the 
abbey  library  of  St.  Gall,^  in  which  the  nunue  are  found  in  their 
greatest  complication.  As  in  the  foregoing,  the  accompanying  scale 
is  a  tentative  translation  of  the  same. 

While  names  and  values  have  been  given  to  every  distinct  numa 
and  to  their  combination  in  these  early  manuscripts,  it    xo  koy  to  the 
is  exceedingly  doubtful  whether  any  of  the  interpreta-   numae. 
tions  have  proved  satisfactoiy;  much  less  have  they  real  historic 
foundation. 

The  Gregorian  system  contained  the  germs  of  the  later  advanced 
and  perfected  system  of  Cliurch  music;  but  during  the  st(jrmy  times 
following  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  it  fell  somewhat  into  neglect, 
and  even  the  hymns  which  he  had  so  carefully  pri'i)ared  and  ar- 
ranged to  music  for  the  use  of  the  Church  were  in  danger  of  being 
lost.     A  few  learned  men  took  upon  themselves  the  duty  of  saving 

'  V.  Migne:  Fatrologue,  torn.  141,  pp.  41:!.  414.  Aliw  Gidd^misregnlmdevjnotoainln, 
••  Vi.v  deiiique  umis  concordat  alteri,  iioii  iiingi.stro  di.scipuliH  noc  di.scipnliis  coiidi.'*- 

cipvilis,"  etc. 

*  From  Cod.   S.    Galli,  No.  3;{8,  Sicc.   x.     v.   Sciuibiger:    Sungemrhule   St.  Galleii, 

s.  iv.  No.  22. 

=*  From  Cod.  Einsidlensi,  No.  121.     Schubiger:    Op.  cit ,  s.  iii,  No.  5. 
••  Schubiger:    Op.  cil.,  ».  iii,  No.  12. 

*  From  Codex  S.  Galli,  No.  359.     Schubiger :    Op.  cit.,  a.  iii,  No.  7. 


316  ARCHEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN    ART. 

to  the  Church  what  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  do  b}^  means 
of  simple  tradition.  Even  during  the  lifetime  of  Greg- 
ofTheGreKo-  or}^  the  ambition  of  musical  leaders  strove  to  break 
rian  reform.  ^wa}^  from  the  simplicity  of  his  prescribed  methods, 
and  so  frequent  and  serious  Avere  the  innovations  which  threatened 
the  purity  of  the  choral  service  after  his  death  that  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal court  at  Rome  was  frequently  besought  by  the  temporal  princes 
to  interpose  to  restore  it  to  its  simplicity  and  save  it  from  utter 
extinction,' 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  in  the  development  of  this  new^  sys- 
tem Gregory  and  his  helpers  had  a  deeper  insight  into  the  essentials 
of  an  ecclesiastic  music  than  any  of  their  predecessors.  While  he 
betook  himself  without  stint  to  the  study  of  the  music  of  the  Greeks, 
his  system  was  original  in  its  greater  simplicity,  in  the 
Its  oripndity.  ^.^^j-^^j^j^j^  q£  j^.^  j-esults,  and  in  its  practical  adaptation  to 
the  wants  of  the  Church.  As  in  other  fine  arts,  so  here,  from  the 
materials  at  hand  Christianity  constructed  a  new  body,  and 
breathed  into  it  its  own  new  spirit  of  life  and  hope."  It  is  probable 
that  the  chants  of  the  Christian  liturgy  had  no  more  resemblance 
to  the  Greek  melodies  than  the  sacerdotal  garments  of  the  Christ- 
ians had  to  those  of  the  Levites  or  the  priests  of  Zeus.  In  these  re- 
spects this  ecclesiastical  music  may  be  regarded  as  original,  and  not 
a  derivation  from  the  old  Greek  musical  theory  or  notation.'* 

While  it  is  probable  that  the  Ambrosian  chant,  introduced  into 
Milan,  resembled  in  some  respects  that  which  was  used  in  the 
churches  of  Basil  and  Chrysostom,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  nei- 
ther these  simple  modes,  nor  even  the  improved  and  i)erfected 
modes  of  the  Gregorian  chant,  could  satisfy  the  restless  and  fieiy 
spirit  of  the  East. 

The  Greek  Church  was  then  expending  her  energies  in  wrang- 
„    .   ^   ,.    ,   linof  over  dogrmas    often   the  most   insignificant.     The 

Music  declined  .  .  .        . 

in  the  Eastern  intimate  relations  of  the  temporal  and  ecclesiastical 
churches.  powers  likewise  subjected  this  Church  to  influences  de- 

structive of  the  simplicity  and  purity  of  Christian  faith.  The  great 
festivals  were  celebrated  with  a  pomp  and  splendor  of  ceremonial 
before  unknown.  It  was  not  the  happy  alliance  of  religion  and  art 
to  express  and  more  powerfully  to  inculcate  tlie  saving  truths  of 
Christianity,  but  a  degeneration  into  a  semibarbarian  finery  and 
senseless  extravagance  indicative  of  spiritual  bondage,  and  destruc- 
tive alike  of  purity  of  doctrine  and  of  nol)ility  of  art.     Hence  this 

'  KieRewetter:    Op.  cit.,  p.  7.     Hawkins:    Op.  cit ,  vol.  i,  p.  131. 
"  Anibros:    Op.  cit.,  vol.  ii,  p.  11. 
2  Clement:    Op.  cit,  p.  22. 


|g:)jjddjri  d  d  d   I 


Alle        Itx 


ja 


En  regna  tor  coale    sti    ujn.     et 


ISTo.   1. 


„^     / 


/      ^     ^ 


i-y 


i*i'*%m 


gjjl'^i^^^i^'^  V-T" 


Qo  ria       in    er  eel  Us     ^e  -  o 


/-     c/-      .•     -p   //■    r  t    /-  /  ^  -       /    '^  ,    •^ 
Co   XJomufmea  c/Jm ufo'-at lOr-ifuocdtitwr 


Domus       me      a     do    mus      o  ra  tl  o    nis. 


IS"!^. 


ccum -princ/iptum  tn    2>i^    uirtTU- 


^cTc 


I 


^     i|     J*A    ;iF^ 


e   virtu 


Tecum princi pi  un\  in.  di 

No.  -1. 

Plate  X.— Facslinllles  of  eiirllest  luusit-ul  iiuinustTlpts. 


EARLY   CIIHISTLVN   MUSIC.  317 

coiulition  of  absolutism  in  the  state,  and  of  superstition  in  the  Chureh, 
was  most  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  poetry  and  music,  as 
well  as  of  painting  and  seulpture.  Hence,  too,  the  simple  and  impres- 
sive Gregorian  modes  were  never  introduced  into  the  Greek  Church. 
New  and  extravagant  modes  were  devised,  and  the  singing  of  the 
processions  and  of  the  Church  services  was  intermingled  with  the 
braying  of  trumpets  and  the  clangor  of  horns.  Only  eunuchs  were 
admitted  to  the  choirs,  whose  very  dress  was  an  example  of  degen- 
erate finery.  Thus  every  thing  in  the  Greek  Church,  Decadence  of 
after  the  sixth  century,  took  on  that  type  which  is  the  iecauencr^'of 
sure  effect,  as  well  as  evidence,  of  a  decadence  of  faith  art. 
and  manners.'  The  bondage  of  art  to  false  and  degenerate  Church 
standards  repressed  all  vigor  and  originalit}'^  in  the  artists.  The 
iconoclastic  spirit  declared  war  against  sculptured  images,  while  a 
subsequent  degrading  superstition  came  to  attach  special  sanctity  to 
the  most  grotesque  and  repulsive  pictures.* 

'  K;irl_v  Christian  music  is  a  subject  of  peculiar  difficulty.  Tiie  researcjies  of  the 
historians  have  been  most  thorough;  3-et  with  respect  to  some  features  of  the  sub- 
ject tliere  seems  to  be  little  promise  of  substantial  agreement.  The  immense  liter- 
ature of  the  subject,  down  to  near  the  end  of  the  eighteentii  ceritur}',  as  given  by 
Forkel:  Allgemeine  Litero.tur  der  Musik,  etc.,  Leipzig,  1792,  and  by  other  writers 
since  his  da\',  may  well  induce  modesty  of  opinion  respecting  many  controverted 
points. 

-  "The  ruder  the  art  the  more  intense  the  superstition.  The  perfection  of  the  fine 
arts  tends  rather  to  diminish  tiian  promote  sucii  superstition.  .  .  .  There  is  more 
direct  idolatry  paid  to  the  rough  and  ilishapen  image,  or  the  flat,  unrelieved,  or  star- 
ing picture — the  former  actually  clothed  in  gaudy  or  tinsel  ornaments,  the  latter  with 
the  crown  of  goldleaf  on  the  head,  and  real  or  artificial  flowers  in  the  hand — than  to 
the  noblest  ideal  statue,  or  the  Holy  Family  with  all  the  magic  of  light  and  shade." 
Milman:  Latin  Christianit}/,  ii,  pp.  30.3,  304. 

"These  miraculous  images  were  not  admitted  to  be  the  work  of  man,  but  were 
proclaimed  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  to  liave  been  dug  from  the  bowels  of  the 
earth,  or  obtained  in  some  similar  mysterious  manner.  Others  were  said  to  be  as 
old  as  the  religion  itself,  such  as  the  picture  of  Ciirist  in  Edessa,  given  by  the  Saviour 
himself  to  the  messengers  of  King  Al)garus,  and  the  many  portraits  of  the  Madonna 
painted  by  the  evangelist  Luke,  etc.  Idolatry  of  this  k'nd  excited  the  ridicule  of  the 
unbelieving,  the  serious  disapprobation  of  the  Church,  and,  finally,  the  forcible  inter- 
ference of  the  temporal  powers.  This  destruction  of  earlier  artistic  monuments, 
and  interference  with  the  customary  pictures,  resulted  in  a  change  in  the  traditional 
manner  of  representation,  and  gave  to  all  succeeding  By/.antine  art  a  somcwhn', 
different  characior.  Tlie  ol)jection  had  not  been  raised  against  painting  itself,  but 
.igainst  the  portrayal  of  Christ,  of  the  Virgin,  and  of  the  saints:  thus  the  attention 
of  the  artists  was  diverted  from  sacred  subjects  to  other  themes,  and  the  merely 
decorative  treatment  of  tlie  ecclesiastical  edifices  again  became  of  importjince." 
Reber:  History  of  Mediceval  Art,  New  York,  1887,  p.  92. 

"Let  us  be  thorotighly  penetrated  with  the  thought  that  art  is  also  to  itself  a  kind 
of  religion.     God  manifests  himself  to  us  by  the  idea  of  the  true,  by  the  idea  of  the 


318  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   ART. 

good,  by  the  idea  of  the  beautiful.  Eacli  one  of  them  leads  to  G-od,  because  it  comes 
from  him.  True  beauty  is  ideal  beauty,  and  ideal  beauty  is  the  reflection  of  the 
infinite.  So,  independently  of  all  official  alliance  with  religion  and  morals,  art  is  by 
itself  essentially  religious  and  moral ;  for,  far  from  wanting  its  own  law,  its  own 
genius,  it  everywhere  expresses  in  its  works  eternal  beauty.  .  .  .  Every  work  of  art, 
whatever  may  be  its  form,  small  or  great,  figured,  sung,  or  uttered — every  work  of 
art,  truly  beautiful  or  sublime — throws  the  soul  into  a  gentle  reverie  that  exalts  it 
toward  the  infinite.  Tiie  infinite  is  the  common  limit  after  wliich  the  soul  aspires 
upon  the  wings  of  imagination  as  well  as  reason,  by  the  route  of  the  sublime  and 
beautiful  as  well  as  by  that  of  the  true  and  the  good.  The  emotion  that  the  beau- 
tiful produces  turns  the  soul  from  tiiis  world;  it  is  the  beneficent  emotion  that  art 
produces  for  humanity."     Cousin:   The  True,  the  Beautiful,  and  the  Good,  p.  164. 


BOOK  SECOND, 


The  Arch/eology  of  the  Constitution  and  Government 
OF  the  Early  Christian  Church. 


THE    ARCHEOLOGY 

OF 

CHURCH  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH  IN  ITS  IDEA   AND  ORIGIN. 
§  1.  New  Testament  Idea  of  the  Church. 

Christ  taught  his  disciples  to  pray,  "  Thy  king(h)in  coine  "  (Matt.. 
vi,  10).     lie  designates  his  (^hurch  as  "the  kingdom  of 
God,"  Tfjv  fiaaiXeiav  tov  Oeov  (Matt,  vi,  38;  Jolm  iii,  :!,  "^  '""' 

et  al.);  "the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  i]  (iacLXeia  rcov  ovQavo>v  (Matt.. 
V,  3;  xi,  11;  xviii,  1,  et  al.);  or  simply  "my  kingdom,"  or  "the  king- 
dom," 7]  (iaaiXeia  fiov,  rriv  (3aaiXetav  (Matt,  xiii,  38;  Luke  xii,  32; 
Luke  xxii,  30,  et  al.). 

The  terra  £«:«:A7/a/a  is  used  by  Christ  (Matt,  xvi,  18)  to  describe 
the  unified  and  collected  body  of  his  disciples;  in  Matt.  ,„  .  . 
xvui,  17  this  term  seems  to  be  restricted  and  localized 
in  its  reference.^  The  term  is  applied  by  Luke  to  the  company  of 
the  disciples  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii,  47);  and  to  an 
ordinary  town  assembly  (Acts  xix,  41).  In  other  passages  in  the 
New  Testament  it  signifies  the  whole  body  of  sanctified  Christian 
believers  (Eph.  v,  27;  Phil,  iii,  6;  Col.  i,  18,  24,  et  (il.)\  an  organ- 
ized church  placed  under  pastors  (1  Cor.  xii,  18;  Phil,  iv,  15, 
et  al.);  the  separate  societies  of  a  district  or  province  (Gal.  i,  2; 
2  Cor.  vii,  19);  and  sometimes  the  Christians  gathered  for  wor- 
ship, or  the  assemblies  of  these  societies  (1  Cor.  iv,  17;  xiv,  19-28, 
et  al.).  In  all  these  passages  the  word  measurably  preserves 
its  radical  signification,  KaXelv,  to  call,  to  invite/  KXfjatg,  a  call,  a 
c(  filing,  "the  divine  invitation  to  embrace  salvation  in  the  kin  ff  do  in 
of  God''''  (Thayer's  Grimm  Wilkie,  .s.  ?>.);  kXtjtoI,  the  called,  ^^  the 
invited  to  saloation,"  etc.  The  futidamental  notion  thus  suggested 
by  this  word  is  the  body  or  assembly  of  those  called  or  "  invited  to 
obtain  eternal  salvation  in  the  kingdom  of  God  through  Chri.-it^^ 
(Thayer's  Grimm  Wilkie,  s.  v.). 

'On  the  genuineness  of  Matt,  xvi,  18,  and  xviii,  17,  miicli  diversity  of  opinion  exists. 
21 


'd-22    ARCH-EOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  aOVERNMENT. 

Another  characterization  quite  frequent  in  the  epistles  is  acbfia 
The  body  of  XgiOTov  (>  Cor.  xii,  27;  Eph.  iii,  6;  iv,  4,  et  al).  "Ye 
Christ.  jvi-e  the  body  of  Christ,''''  and  this   "  body  is  one,"   of 

which  "  Christ  is  the  Saviour." 

The  Church  is  also  represented  under  the  figure  of  a  "  spiritual 
liouse,"  olKoq  -rrvevfiariKog  (1  Pet.  ii,  5),  which  is  composed 

^""''''  of  all  God's  people,  and  which  he  makes  his  dwelling- 
place  (1  Cor.  iii,  16,  17;  2  Cor.  vi,  16;  Rev.  xxi,  3,  et  al.);  of  "a 
liouse,  a  holy  temple  in  the  Lord,"  elg  vabv  ajLov  kv  Kvg'utt  (Eph.  ii, 
21,  22). 

It  is  also  spoken  of  as  the  Bride,  of  whom  Christ  is  the  Bride- 
groom, rfjv  yvvatKa  ttjv  vvii(f>7]v  rov  dpviov  (Eph.  v,  31, 
32;  Rev.  xxi,  9);  the  Light  of  the  World,  to  (pCog  rov 
Koofiov  (Matt.  V,  14),  et  al. 

From  such  characterizations  it  is  evident  that  the  vital  element  of 
the  Churcli  is  spiritual.  Its  inspiration  is  from  above;  its  essential 
life  comes  from  direct  contact  with  its  Head  and  Lord.  It  is  more 
than  the  aggregated  life  of  those  Avho  have  been  sanctified  by  the 
Spirit  through  faith  in  Christ;  it  is  a  living  organism, 
in  which  each  feels  the  inspiration  of  the  entire  body, 
and  the  whole  is  sustained  and  invigorated  by  the  abiding  holiness 
of  the  individual  members. 

Nevertheless,  like  the  Holy  Scriptures,  it  contains  a  divine  and  a 
human  element — a  spirit  and  a  body.  While  the  life  is  spiritual, 
it  must  have  a  medium  of  manifestation.  The  visible  Church  is 
this  body  of  divinely  called  or  invited  men  and  women,  organized 
for  moral  and  religious  ends,  and  which  is  to  become  the  channel 
through  which,  ordinarily,  redemption  is  brought  to  fallen  men,  and 
they  are  fitted  for  the  companionship  of  the  Church  triumphant.' 
The  Church  is  therefore  the  outward  form  which  results 

A  visible  form.      „  ^         r^^      •       •  T  n  1   •       •      •  -1  IT  1  1 

from  the  Christian  lite,  as  this  is  inspired  and  developed 
by  the  divine  Spirit,  and  modified  by  providential  environments 
(Matt,  xviii,  15-18;  John  x,  16;   1  Cor.  xii,  27;  Eph.  iv,  25,  et  al). 

§  3.    Tlte  Names  applied  to  its  Memiers. 

The  terms  applied  to  its  individual  members  will  further  illus- 
trate the  orio^inal   conception  of  the  Church.      In   the 

PisciplHs.  , 

evangelists  they  are  known  only  as  "  disciples,"  fiadrjTai. 
of  Christ;  those  Avho   are  in  the  relation  of  learners   to  a  master, 

'  This  triumph  and  completion  of  the  "kiti,Q:clom  of  iieaven  "  would  be  fully  real- 
ized onl}^  at  the  reappearing  of  Christ  on  earth.  Tlie  powerful  influence  of  this  ex- 
pectation of  the  speedy  second  coming  of  the  Saviour  is  seen  in  various  passages  of 
the  apostolic  writings. 


THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH  IN  ITS  IDEA  AND  ORIGIN.       im 

wliose  (loctriiie  they  seek  to  iiii(U'rstand  and  lu'artily  emhnicc.     They 

are  belie  vers,  -nioroi,  who  appreheiul  the  Messiahship  of 

Christ  tlirough  his  words  and  works.     They  are  breth-  B«"evHr«. 

ren,  ddeA0ot,  who  are  born  of  the  same  spirit,  and  are  associated  in 

most  intimate  fellowship  witli  tlieir  Lord  and  witli  each 
.•I  .  <•        -I  Brethren. 

Other,  as  m  a  common  lamily. 

In  tlieir  epistles  the  apostles  frequently  speak  of  the  members 
of  the  Church  as  the  "holy,"  dyioi,  set  apart  to  sacred  uses;  the 
"elect,"  knXeKToi,  chosen  for  good  works  to  the  honor  of  his 
name ;  "  a  chosen  generation,"  to  ytvog  eKkeKTOv ;  "  a  royal 
priesthood,"  (iaaiXnov  lepaTevna  •  "  a  holy  nation,"  idvog  dytov 
(I  Pet.  ii,  9).  In  Antioch  they  were  first  called  "Christians," 
Xptariavoi,  that  is,  the  dei)endents,  the  clients  of  their  master, 
Christ.'  Their  Jewish  enemies  apj)lied  to  them  opprobrious  epi- 
thets, as  Nazarenes,  Na^wpaZot  (Acts  xxiv,  .5);  Gali-  opprobriou>' 
leans,  TaXiXaloi,^  expressive  of  the  low  popular  esti-  epithets. 
mate  placed  upon  the  city  and  province  where  w^as  the  home  o\ 
Christ  and  his  first  followers  (Acts  ii,  7). 


§  3.    The  Apostolate. 

While  the  institution  of  a  church  by  Christ  is  unquestionable, 
and  its  essential  nature  and  design  are  clearly  revealed,  we  search 
in  vain  in  the  acts  and  words  of  our  Lord  for  any  traces  of  an  eccle- 
siastical constitution.  He  spoke  of  a  kingdom;  he  chose  us  triumph  as- 
and  trained  apostles  to  preach  the  truth  pertaining  to  sured. 
it;  he  prescribed  the  conditions  of  citizenshij)  therein;  in  the  last 
Supper  he  provided  a  centre  of  worship,  and  of  possible  future 
organization.  The  Church  shall  not  lack  an  infallible  Guide,  for 
"  when  he,  the  Spirit  of  truth,  is  conu*,  he  will  guide  you  into  all 
truth"  (John  xvi,  13).  Nor  shall  the  kingdom  which  Christ  has 
established  fail  ;  rather  must  it  "accomplish  that  which  he  please, 
and  it  shall  prosper  in  the  thing  whereto  he  sent  it"  (Isa.  Iv,  2). 
But  what  specific  form  it  is  to  assume  in  fulfilling  the  purpose  of 
its  institution  is  not  given  by  tlie  Founder  ;  no  type  of  organization 

'  The  oriffin  of  this  iinme  is  not  altofjotlier  certain.  Prob:il)ly  it  was  Ih-st  applied 
to  the  disciples  by  the  heathen  residents  of  Antioch.  It  is  only  in  harmony  wit'i 
other  examples  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Chnrch,  where  a  name  that  was  m 
first  used  derisivelj'^  was  afterward  accepted  by  the  parties  themselves.  F'or  exam- 
ple, Beghards,  Methodists,  etc.  v.  Lipsius:  Ueher  Ursprung  u.  GeUmucJi  den  V/ui.^- 
tennamens,  Jena,  1873. 

"  The  Emperor  Julian  "countenanced,  and  probably  enjoined,  the  u.se  of  the  U;sk 
honourable  appellation  of  Galileans.  .  .  .  contemptible  to  men  and  odious  lo  ilic- 
gods."     V.  Gibbon:  Decline  and  Fall,  etc.,  chap,  xxiii. 


;j24    archeology  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

is  anywhere  revealed.  The  single  suggestion  relative  to  the  treat- 
ment of  offenders  seems  to  recognise  the  body  of  the  Church  as 
No  inspired  tlie  depository  of  all  governing  and  disciplinary  power 
form.  (Matt,  xviii,  17);   and  the  decisions  of  the  early  church, 

thus  guarded  from  error  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  were  to  be  tiual  with 
respect  to  faith  and  morals  (Matt,  xviii,  18;  John  xx,  23;  Gal.  ii, 
7-9,  €t  ul.).  B}^  virtue  of  their  receiving  divine  enlightenment,  of 
sharing  the  divine  nature,  and  of  the  impartation  of  those  special 
charisms  by  which  they  could  discern  the  character  of  spirits,  the 
apostles  and  the  primitive  church  were  qualified  to 
bind  or  loose  (deetv,  Xvuv)^  to  remit  or  retain  (d(f)ievai, 
Kpavelp),  the  sins  of  the  people. 

The  lack  of  a  distinct  and  thorough  organization  is  likewise 
manifest  from  the  continued  participation  of  the  apostles  and  dis- 
ciples in  the  temple  service  after  the  ascension  of  Christ.  They 
still  observed  the  Jewish  ordinances,  and  acknowledged  the  rightful 
authority  of  those  in  Moses'  seat.  While  often  meeting  by  them- 
selves to  listen  to  the  preaching  of  the  apostles,  to  pray,  and  to 
The  early  con-  celebrate  the  communion  in  the  breaking  of  bread, 
verts   adhered   ^|^gy  nevertheless  regarded  themselves  as  still   within 

to   the    leiiiple  •  ^ 

service.  the  pale  of  the  Jewish  church,  fulfilled  the  obligations 

thereby  imposed,  and  revered  the  temple  as  the  sanctuary  of  the 
Most  High  God. 

Notwithstanding  the  prevalence  of  the  new  spirit  of  brotherly 
h)ve, which  led  them  to  hold  all  things  in  common,  and  to  sell  their 
estates  and  place  the  price  in  the  apostles'  hands;  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  rapid  increase  of  the  number  of  the  disciples,  from  about 
six  hundred  at  the  date  of  the  ascension  to  five  thousand  within 
forty  days  thereafter,  there  is  no  evidence  of  an  ecclesiastical  organi- 
zation. The  apostles  appear  prominent  as  actors  in  the  history,  but 
the  spirit  of  prophecy  rests  upon  the  body  of  believers  as  well.  The 
pungent  preaching  of  Peter  is  scarcely  more  effective  than  the  ex- 
christ  alone  ercise  of  the  varied  gifts  of  the  Spirit  bestowed  u])on 
thT  aToSes  ^°^^  ^^^  ^"^  women.  The  statement  that  the  multi- 
were  disciples,  tude  who  were  converted  under  the  preaching  of  Peter 
''continued  steadfastly  in  the  apostles'  doctrine"  (Acts  ii,  42) 
might  at  first  appear  to  clothe  the  apostles  with  the  authority 
of  original  teachers,  to  whom  the  others  stood  in  the  relation  of  dis- 
<;iples  (iiaOrjrai).  This  view  appears,  however,  untenable  from  the 
positive  injunction  of  Christ  himself,  "But  be  not  ye  called  Rabbi: 
for  one  is  your  master,  6  JtrSda/raJLo^,  even  Christ;  and  all  ye  are 
brethren,"  o'l  ddeA^ot  (Matt,  xxiii,  8).  The  apostles  im])osed  no  doc- 
trines of  their  own   origination  ;  they  claimed  no  power  to  found 


THE  CIIHISTIAN  CIIURCII  IN  ITS  IDEA  AND  ORIGIN.       325 

schools  or  makf  disciples;  '  rather  were  tliey,  and  all  wlio  sliould  1k- 
lieve  on  Christ  through  their  preaching,  alike  diseiples  (iiaOr]rai)  of 
one  common  Master,  This  view  was  strongly  emphasized  by  Paul 
when  he  rebuked  the  Corinthian  believers  for  their  factious  attach- 
ment to  different  teachers,  thus  fostering  contention  and  <lividiii'4 
the  body  of  Christ  (1  Cor.  i,  12,  13;  iii,  4-6).  The  business  of  the 
apostles  was  not  to  make  law  for  the  Church,  nor  to  institute 
any  exclusive  form  of  ecclesiastical  constitution;  but  they  were  to 
l>reach  the  Gospel  as  they  had  received  it  from  their  Master,  and 
inspire  in  the  hearts  of  men  faith  in  the  doctrines  which  Jesus  had 
taught  them,  and  in  the  kingdom  which  he  had  come  to  establish 
(Matt.  X,  7,  et  seq.;  Acts  ii,  32;  iii,  15,  16;  xiii,  31;  xxvi,  22,  23; 
1  Cor.  iv,  5;  P]ph.  iii,  et  al). 

The  bond  existing  between  the  early  disciples  was,  in  its  es- 
sential nature  and  purpose,  far  other  and  much  more  wide-reach- 
ing than  that  implied  in  a  "  school,"  or  "  guild;  "  it  was  best  ex- 
pressed by  the  word  "fellowship"  [Koiv(M)via);^  they  being  par- 
takers of  a  like  faith   in  Christ,  which  was  the  inspira- 

,.,,,.  ...  1   1       •  •  A  fellowship, 

tion  or  all  their  activities,  and  having  a  consciousness 

of  common  citizenship  in  the  kingdom  of  God.  This  helps  us  t«» 
understand  the  fact  already  hinted  at  ;  namely,  that  the  apostles  and 
first  disciples  did  not  wish  to  be  considered  apostates  from  the  old 
faith,  but  because  they  remained  Jews  they  regarded  themselves 
subject  to  the  local  authorities,  and  recognised  the  Sanhedrin  as  the 
supreme  court.'  A  special  and  independent  constitution  was  not 
yet  thought  of. 

The  apostolate  was  originally  instituted  as  a  means  of  extending 
the  Church  through  the  preaching  of  doctrines  which  ^^^^  ^.  ,,^^. 
had  been  communicated  by  the  infallible  Christ  (]\Iark  funiKT  iiius- 
xiv,  15).  Its  original  number  corresponded  to  that  of 
the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  and  was,  therefore,  chosen  in  deference 
to  tlie  history  and  prejudices  of  the  existing  Jewish  church  (Matt. 
xix,  28;  Luke  xxii,  30).  By  careful  training  the  twelve  had  l)eei\ 
fitted  to  become  the  j)reachers  and  custodians  (»f  the  truth  which 

"•Jesus  was  no  founder  of  a  sect.  Tie  had  no  desire  to  found  a  school:  hi- 
ministry  was  directed  to  the  people  as  a  nation."  v.  Weiss:  Life  of  Clirist.  Chirk* 
trans.,  vol.  ii,  pp.  259,  260.  "  He  was  oonsoioiis  of  beinj»  in  the  strictest  sense  ilie 
Kin?  of  humanitv.  and  of  founding  a  kingdom."     Lauu'e:   Li/f  of  Chri.'^t.  Kdinbin-pli. 

1864,  vol.  ii.  p.  ISS. 

"Compare  Acts  ii,  42  wiili  Gal.  ii,  0;  also  Act.'*  i.  13,  ,vf/..  reveal.^  the  real  bond  of 
the  first  believers,  and  the  simplicity  of  their  assembly. 

^Weizsiicker;  Da.s  apostolisclte  Zeitalter  der  chruiUichen  A'trcA*,  Freiburg,  18SG.  »«. 
36-38. 


32G    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

was  to  be  accepted  by  all  who  would  become  the  disciples  of  their 
Master.' 

The  term  "  apostles  "  was  in  familiar  use  among  the  Jews.  In 
the  various  centres  where  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion  had  settled, 
large  sums  of  money  were  contributed  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
tem})le  service  at  Jerusalem ;  and  after  the  destruction  of  the 
temple  by  Titus  this  tribute  was  still  collected  by  messengers,  drToo- 
roXoi,  sent  out  by  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  for  this  purpose. 
These  are  referred  to  by  the  early  Christian  writers  and  were  the 
occasion  of  legal  enactments.'     It  has  also  been  well 

Apostles  .  ^  T-1 

known  to  the  established  that  there  was  a  Jewish  propaganda  for  the 
Jew isi) Church,  (jigggu^ination  of  correct  religious  knowledge  among  the 
heathen,  as  well  as  for  the  preservation  of  the  true  faith  among  the 
Jews.^  Nor  can  it  be  doubted  that  the  Christians  may  have  ac- 
cepted the  institution  of  apostles  and  their  work  from  the  then 
existing  Jewish  apostolate,  and  not  the  contrary.''  The  account 
(Acts  xi,  2V-30)  of  the  work  of  Barnabas  and  Saul  in  bringing  aid 
to  the  suffering  brethren  at  Jerusalem  reminds  us  directly  of  the 
functions  of  the  Jewish  apostles,  so  that  before  they  are  called  apos- 
tles (Acts  xiii,  14)  they  are  doing  the  identical  work  which  fell  to 
these  officers  in  the  Jewish  church.  When,  therefore,  Jesus  used 
the  word  "  apostles  "  to  designate  the  disciples  whom  he  called  to  a 
special  work,  the  term  was  not  new  nor  unfamiliar  to  his  hearers.^ 

By  the  spiritual  endowments  vouchsafed  to  them  in  virtue  of  be- 
ing witnesses  of  the  resurrection,  and  by  the  promised  aid  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  they  were  to  be  the  representatives  of  Christ  with  re- 
spect to  matters  of  life  and  doctrine.  They  were  to  be  ovei-seers 
and  guides  of  no  single  society  or  diocese,  but  were  themselves  to 
be  the  pillars  of  the  whole  Church,  Christ  himself  being  the  chief 
corner-stone.  Their  work  was  peculiar,  their  relation  was  unique. 
They  were  without  predecessors;    they   were   to   have   no  succes- 

'  Tlie  exact  lime  and  circumstances  of  the  call  of  the  apostles  are  not  readily  de- 
termined, since  it  is  not  easy  to  harmonize  the  statements  of  the  Synoptists.  It  is 
very  probable  that  tiiey  were  called  at  different  times,  as  Jesus  found  men  who  were 
judged  fit  to  be  trained  to  become  preachers  of  his  doctrine. 

^  V.  Schiirer:  The  Jewish  People  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  Edinburgh,  1885,  vol. 
ii,  pp.  269,  289.  S.  quotes  the  following  authorities;  Eusebius:  Comment  ad  Jesaj., 
xviii,  1.  Epiphanius:  Haer,  xxx,  4,  11.  Jerome:  ad  Gal,  i,  1.  Codex  Tlieodos., 
xvi,  8,  14. 

^v.  Hausrath:  Xeutestamentliche  Zeitgeschichte,  Bd.  ii,  ss.  95,  seq.,  101,  seq.;  Shiirer: 
f)p.  cit,  pp.  297-307 ;  and  the  authorities  cited  by  S.,  pp.  304,  305.  Harnack  ; 
Lehrhuch  der  Dogmenfjeschichte,  Freiburg,  1886,  bd.  i,  ss.  73-75. 

*v.  Lightfoot:    Com.  on  Galatians,  p.  94,  note  1. 

'f.  Seufert:  Lev  Vrsprung  u.die  Bedeutung  des  Apostolates,  etc.,  s..  13. 


THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH  IN  ITS  IDEA  AND  ORKilN.       327 

soi-s.'  The  preaching  of  the  word,  the  care  of  all  the  churches  aii.l 
their  grounding  in  the  truth,  the  careful  guarding  of  the  doctrine 
which  they  had  received  from  all  admixture  of  error,  the  care  of 
souls,  and  the  relief  of  the  pressing  needs  of  the  poorer  brethren 
were  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  apostolic  function. 

With  the  apostolic  age  this  function  ceased.  The  term  apostle 
was  not,  however,  confined  to  the  original  twelve,  but  otht-r  minis- 
was  extended  to  those  who  had  been  intimately  associ-  ^^■ 
ated  with  them,  and  with  Paul  and  Barnabas,  in  the  extension  of  the 
(xospel  and  in  the  care  of  the  churches.  At  this  time  the  word 
seems  to  have  had  a  broader  application.  Paul  calls  Titus  aiul  his 
fellow  laborers  "apostles  of  the  churches,"  dnoaroXoi  hKlrjaiibv, 
(2  Cor.  viii,  23) ;  and  he  speaks  of  himself,  Timothy,  and  Sylvanus, 
as  the  "apostles  of  Christ,"  dnooTo^oi  Xqiotov  (1  Thess.  ii,  6);  he 
is  associated  with  Barnabas  under  tlie  expression,  avi>  rolg  aTrooTO- 
koig  (Acts  xiv,  4);  Barnabas  and  himself  are  equal  to  the  other 
apostles,  the  brethren  of  the  Lord  and  Cephas,  oyg  Kai  oi  Xoinoi 
dTToaroXoL  K.r.A.,  in  matters  of  Christian  freedom  and  privilege 
( I  Cor.  ix,  5);  and  James  seems  to  be  reckoned  among  the  ai)ostles, 
treqov  de  ribv  dfTooToXoyv  kt.X.  (Gal.  i,  19). 

From  these  passages,  as  well  as  from  the  statements  in  the  apos- 
tolic fathers,  and  of  the  "  Aidax^]  ribv  SojSeKa  'ArroaTc^Aojr,"  ^  it  must 
be  inferred  that  there  was  no  strict  limitation  of  the  term  apostle  to 
the  number  of  twelve.  "The  twelve"  was  applied  to  Tiie  twelve— 
the  apostles  of  the  circumcision  as  representative  of  itssiKtiiucam*-. 
the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  and  continued  to  be  the  leading  idea  in 
the  Apocalypse,  whose  whole  imagery  is  essentially  Jewish.'  Paul 
(1  Cor.  XV,  5,  7)  distinguishes,  however,  between  "  the  twelve"  and 
"  all  the  apostles,"  rolg  dnooroXoig  -rrdaiv,  who  had  seen  the  Lord. 
His  statement  may  help  to  understand  the  ground  of  the  extension 
of  the  term  "apostle"  to  the  seventy  whom  Christ  had  sent  fortli, 
and  to  those  who  had  seen  him  after  his  resurrection,  and  were 
therefore  competent  witnesses  to  this  vital  truth. 

While  these  various  persons  were  performing  duties  wliich  might 
characterize  them  as  "the  sent,"  they  were,  nevertheless,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Jewish  Christians,  lacking  in  some  of  the  <pialitica- 

'  "Tlie  twelve,  as  liie  first  preacliois  of  tlie  Gospc-1  tniiiiotl  \>y  llie  Loni  for  lli:il 
end,  occupied  a  position  in  tlie  Churcli  tliat  could  be  tilled  by  none  tliat  came  aCter 
lliem.  Tliey  were  the  foundation  stones  on  wliicli  tlie  walls  of  tlie  Clnireh  were 
built.  They  sat,  so  to  spealc,  on  cpiscopMl  thrones,  jud<i:in>r,  uniding,  rulinjj  the 
twelve  tribes  of  the  true  Israel  of  God,  the  holy  commonwealth  embracing  all  who 
professed  faith  in  Christ."     r.  Bruce:    Training  of  the  Tivdve,  pp.  257,  253. 

«  Teaching  of  t/if  Tirdv>;  cti.  .\i. 

3  Lightfoot :   Epistle  to  the  Galntlatts,  j).  05. 


328    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

tions  essential  to  the  real  apostolate.  As  Paul  here  informs  us,  these 
had  "  seen  the  Lord,"  but  had  not  been  immediately  chosen  by 
him  for  their  work,  nor  i-eceived  from  him  special  instruction  in  the 
truth,  both  of  which  were  regarded  by  the  Christians  of  the  circum- 
cision as  among  the  peculiar  marks  of  an  apostle.     The 

er  apos  es.  ^^^.^.^^j^g  ^^lus  referred  to  as  apostles,  together  wath  Mark, 
Timothy,  Silas,  Apollos,  Trophimus,  and  others,  were  probably  evan- 
gelists, itinerant  preachers,'  fellow-labourers  with  "the  twelve," 
ministers  of  the  word,  or  delegates  entrusted  with  some  special  mis- 
sion to  the  churches. 

Others,  as  Barnabas,'  Manaen,  Agabus,  etc.,  were  specially  en- 
dowed with  prophetic  gifts,  and  had  the  peculiar  power  of  dis- 
cerning the  qualities  and  spiritual  condition  of  those  to  whom  im- 
portant functions  were  to  be  entrusted.  They  thus  possessed 
another  indispensable  requisite  for  an  apostle,  to  which  Paul 
appealed  in  his  conflict  with  the  Judaizing  opposers  of  his  own 
claim  to  be  of  equal  rank,  dignity,  and  authority  with  even  the 
Theflrsttestof  "pillar  apostles,"  namely,  success  in  preaching  the  word 
apostieship.  and  in  building  up  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  (1  Cor. 
ix,  1,2).  When  this  important  test  of  the  apostolic  ofiice  is  applied 
to  those  whom  Paul  calls  apostles,  it  may  be  safely  inferred  that 
only  by  the  Christians  of  the  circumcision  could  this  term  be  limited 
to  "  the  twelve,"  while  in  the  thought  of  those  who  had  embraced 
the  universalism  of  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles  the  apostolate  was  of 
broader  scope  and  deeper  import.  This  struggle  between  narrow 
and  exclusive  limitations  on  the  part  of  the  Judaizing  sects  and  the 
Gentile  Christians  continued  in  the  second  century,  long  after  the 
death  of  the  original  twelve. 

'  It  is  interesting  to  notice  the  use  of  the  term  "apostle,"  aTrdoro/lof,  in  tlie 
'•Teaching  of  the  Twelve,"  which  probably  belongs  to  the  last  quarter  of  the  first,  or 
the  first  quarter  of  the  second  century.  He  is  a  sort  of  itinerant  preacher,  having 
loss  claim  to  honour  than  the  prophet,  Trpo(j)r/rr/g.  "But  in  regard  to  the  apostles 
and  prophets,  according  to  the  ordinance  of  the  gospel,  so  do  ye.  And  every  apostle 
wlio  Cometh  to  you,  let  him  be  received  as  the  Lord;  but  he  shall  not  remain  more 
than  one  day;  if  however  tliere  be  need,  then  tlie  next  day ;  but  if  he  remains  three 
days  he  is  a  false  prophet.  But  when  the  apostle  departeth,  let  him  take  nothing 
f'xcept  bread  enough  until  he  lodge  again ;  but  if  lie  ask  money  he  is  a  false  prophet." 
?'.  chap.  xi. 

^  Barnabas  by  special  ordination  (Acts  xiii,  3),  and  by  intimate  association  with 
Paul  (Acts  xiv,  12;  xv,  2;  Gal.  ii,  1,  et  al),  stands  specially  near  the  twelve  in  dig- 
nitv  and  lionour. 


APU610L1C  CllLliCH— irs  CUMPU61T10N  AND  OFFICERS.  3>9 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH— ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS. 
§  1.    The  AposlU'S  and  Deacony. 

In  the  earliest  stage  of  the  history  of  Ciiristiunity  scareelv  a  trace 
of  a  distinctive  organization  is  noticed.  The  Christian  imperfect  oi- 
church,  as  sliarply  distinguished  from  the  Jewish,  did  Bauuaiion. 
not  yet  exist.  Of  a  distinctive  church  office,  and  of  a  formal 
church  constitution,  there  is  as  yet  no  evidence.  The  apostles 
were,  for  the  most  part,  the  mouthpiece  and  representative  authority 
of  the  Christian  community  while  it  was  yet  one  and  undivided  at 
Jerusalem.  To  them  the  freewill  offerings  were  brought,  through 
their  word  the  first  ecclesiastical  discipline  was  inflicted  pjrst  discipline 
in  the  death  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira.'  As  helpers  in  i"flictea. 
the  performance  of  mere  manual  labcjr  they  appear  to  have  had 
some  younger  men,  ol  veoyrepoi,  of  the  company  (Acts  v,  C-IO),  whose 
service  was  voluntary  rather  tliaii  official.  This  superiority  and 
leadership,  and  the  consequent  limitations  of  the  authority  of  the 
body  of  believers,  seemed  due  rather  to  the  personal  endowments 
of  the  tw^elve,  their  authority  derived  from  Christ,  and  the  manifest 
success  of  their  ministry,  than  to  the  prerogatives  attaching  to  a 
specific  office^  (1  Thess.  ii,  7-10;   1  Cor.  ix,  2;  2  Cor.  xii,  12,  etc.). 

The  large  accessions  to  the  body  of  believers,  however,  early 
brought  with  them  the  necessity  for  a  more  methodical  adminis- 
tration. The  diversity  of  elements  already  found  in  the  Christian 
society  occasioned  an  unequal  distribution  of  the  charities  wliicli 
had  been  so  liberally  provided  under  the  first  impulse  of  a  new  faith 
and  experience.  To  remove  the  cause  of  complaint,  the  recommen- 
dation of  the  twelve  that  "seven  men  of  honest  report, 

.       '  First  offlcers. 

full  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  wisdom     (Acts  vi,  3),  be 
appointed  to  this  business,  resulted  in  a  division  of  labour  most  sim- 
ple and  salutar^^     The  choice  of  the  "  multitude  of  the  disciples," 

'  Thierscli  calls  tliis  punislimniit  '•  tlie  fearful  act  of  divine  ecclesiastical  disci- 
pline."    V.  Die  Kirche  tin  aposlolischen  ZtUnlter,  3te  AiiH.,  1870,  a.  75. 

''Among  others  v.  Bickell:  Gtschichte  des  Kirchenrtchts,  Frankfort,  1849,  8.  71. 
Neander:  Planting  and  Tiaining,  etc.,  trans,  by  Ryland,  New  York,  1844,  p.  3:{. 
Weizsacker:  Op.  n't.,  s.  Gil.  Lechler:  Dun  apo,slolische  u.  nachapusiulu,cJie  Ztilalter, 
Leipzig,  1885,  s.  91. 


:J30    archaeology  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

'^the  whole  multitude,"  fell  upon  seven  devout  men  "whom  they 
set  before  the  apostles;  and  when  they  had  prayed  they  laid  their 
hands  upon  them"  (Acts  vi,  6).  Such  was  the  occasion  and  such 
were  the  circumstances  of  the  institution  of  the  earliest  distinct 
class  of  officers — the  deacons.' 

While  the  terms  diaKovia,  SiaKovelv,  etc.,  are  used  both  in  the 
New  Testament '  and  by  the  early  Christian  fathers  *  in  connection 
with  any  one  who  ministers,  it  is  likewise  applied  to  presbyters  and 
bishops,  and  even  to  the  apostles  themselves.  From  the  history 
But  one  order  given  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  no  conclusive  evi- 
at  first.  deuce  appears  that  in  the  apostolic  Church  there  was 

more  than  one  order  of  ministers,  aside  from  the  apostles.*  While 
there  is  a  variety  of  terms,  these  are  neither  clearly  defined  nor  are 
the  duties  easily  determinable.  This  was  in  harmony  with  the 
existing  conditions  of  religious  activity  and  devotion,  and  is 
entirely  analogous  to  other  institutions  in  the  incipient  stages 
of  their  organization.  Not  until  the  second  century  is  the  term 
deacon  used  with  absolute  precision  of  reference  and  function. 
Who  were  the  Nevertheless,  when  Irena3us^  marks  with  definiteness  this 
deacons?  term,  he  also  insists  that  the   order  instituted  by  the 

apostles  was  identical  with  that  of  his  day.  The  almost  uniform 
traditions  sustain  this  view,  while  the  Latin  Church,  in  deference  to 
the  apostles'  institution,  long  restricted  the  number  of  deacons  in  a 
single  church  to  seven.  At  a  later  period,  when  the  organization 
of  the  Church  had  become  more  formal,  the  original  functions  of 
"the  seven"  were  more  clearly  limited  to  the  deacons,  until  the  in- 
stitution of  hospitals,  almshouses,  orphanages,  etc.,  transferred  to 
others  the  services  at  first  assigned  to  them. 

The  qualifications  for  this  office,  as  enumerated  by  Paul  (1  Tim. 
Gravity  of  their  iii>  8,  seq.),  are  just  of  that  nature  to  fit  them  for  min- 
functions.  gling  with  the  church  in  most  familiar  relations,  to  as- 

certain and  relieve  the  wants  of  the  poorer  members  with  delicacy, 
appropriate  reticence,  and  freedom  from  temptation  to  avaricious 
greed.  It  is  noticeable  that  gravity,  honest  words,  temperance,  un- 
selfishness, probity  in  themselves  and  in  their  households,  and  an 
honest  faith  outrank  "  aptness  to  teach,"  which  in  the  context  is 
said  to  be  an  indispensable  qualification  of  the  presbyter  or  bisho{i. 

'  While  Luke  does  not  call  the  seven  "deacons,"  the  word  was  evidentl}'  derived 
from  diaKovla,  the  distribution  of  alms,  which  was  their  original  function. 
«  Acts  i,  24;   1  Cor.  iii,  5;  2  Cor.  vi,  4;   Eph.  iii,  7,  et  al. 
^  Clirysostom :  Horn.  1  in  Phil,  i,  1,  et  al. 
•*  Neandor :    Op.  cit,  p.  33. 
*  Irenaeus,  i,  26,  3;  iii,  12,  10. 


APOSTOLIC  CHURCII-ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS.   :5:;| 

There   its  abundant   evidence   that   this   office,    first    instituted    in 
Jerusalem    in    a    church    com|)<)sed    almost    excUisivelv 

c    T        •   I  ,  .  "      Adopted  by  thtf 

or  Jewish  converts,  was  also  widely  adopted  by  churches  (amiiiu church 
of  Gentile  origin.  At  Corinth  and  Rome,  likewise  in  '''*" 
the  societies  of  Asia  Minor,  are  met  those  "helps,"  avTiXippeiq 
(I  Cor.  xii,  28),  and  "ministrations,"  elte  <5iaKoviav  ev  tij  6iaKoria 
(Rom.  xii,  7),  which  were  the  peculiar  duty  of  the  deacons.'  The 
office  seems  to  have  been  generally  recognized,  although  tlu-re  are 
intimations  that  it  was  not  regarded  as  absolutely  indispensable.' 
A  little  later  in  the  apostolic  period  is  noticed  a  further  provision 
for  the  more  complete  oversight  and  care  of  the  poor.  "  The 
strict  seclusion  of  the  female  sex  in  Greece  and  in  some  Oriental 
countries  necessarily  debarred  them  from  the  ministrations  of 
men;  and  to  meet  the  want  thus  felt  it  was  found  necessary  at 
an  early  date  to  admit  women  to  the   iliaconate.      A 

,  ,,  .  ,  ,  ,p/,i  Iteicones-sei). 

woman  deacon  belonging  to  the  church  ot  Cenciirea' 
is  mentioned  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.^  .  .  .  Again  ])assing 
over  an  interval  of  some  yeai's  we  find  St.  Paul,  in  the  First  Epistle 
to  Timothy  (1  Tim.  iii,  8,  seq.),  about  A.  D.  66,  giving  express 
directions  as  to  the  qualifications  of  men-deacons  and  women- 
deacons  alike."* 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  to  the  deacons  and  deaconesses  was  assigned 
primarily  the  duty  of  ministration  to  the  poor,  and  the  oversiglit  of 
the  temporal  affairs  of  the  Christian  societies,  yet  the  deacons 
retaining,  as  in  the  case  of  Stephen  and  Philip,  the  right  to  teach 
and  baptize.*  "The  deacons  became  the  first  preachers  of  Christian- 
ity; they  were  the  first  evangelists,  because  they  were  the  first  to 
find  their  way  to  the  homes  of  the  poor.  They  were  the  construc- 
tors of  the  most  solid  and  durable  of  the  institutions  of  Christianity, 
namely,  the  institutions  of  charity  an<l  beneficence.""  Of  all  the 
offices  of  the  Church  the  diaconate  seems  peculiarly  ^,^p  .nacomit.. 
Christian  in  concej)tion  and  origin.  The  attempts  to  p.-cui  i  «  r  i  v 
derive  it  from  the  synagogue'  have  proved  unsatisfac-  ^''"■'*"""- 
tory.      The   peculiar  exigencies  of  the  early  apostolic  Church  coni- 

'  V.  Lifjlitfoot:    The  Christian  Minlstrij :  in  Commentary  on  th>i  EpLslh-  t^i  the  Philip- 
pians,  8th  edition,  London,  1885.  p.  191. 
'  V.  Titns  i,  5,  seq. 
'  Chap,  xvi,  1.     ^oijirjv  tijv  aAehpijv  r//iiJv,  ovaav  du'iKovov  Tt/q  tKK^J/aiaq  K.r.A. 

*  Ligiitfoot:    Op.  cm  id. 
'  Acts  vii ;  viii,  35-40. 

«  Stanley:    Christian  Institution.  New  York.  1881,  pp.  210,  21 1. 
'  Vitrinfia:  de  Syn.  Vet.  p.  BS.--..   seq.,   ospocinlly   insists   tluil  tlio  doacon  of  llio 
Ohristian  Church  finds  its  su,'i,'estioii  in  the  clinzim  of  liio  synagogue. 


332    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

pelled  its  institution.  It  was  almost  entirely  independent  of  all 
then  extant  models  and  precedents,  and  in  nature  and  function  was 
original  and  unique.' 

To  their  humbler  work  of  the  administration   of  charities  were 
united,  in  the   case  of  some,  at  least,   certain  spiritual    functions. 
Stephen,  a  Hellenist,  "  with  a   remarkable  depth  of  historical  per- 
spective," shocked  the  narrow  exclusiveness  of  the  orthodox  Jews 
bv  clear  intimations  that  the   temple  miarht  not  remain 

Theyalso*'  .  i-ii 

preached  the  the  center  of  the  national  worship,  but  that  the  prin- 
^'^''^'  ciple  expressed  by  Christ  to  the  Samaritan  woman  might 

be  an  accomplished  fact  in  the  history  of  the  favored  people  (John 
iv,  21-23).  His  powerful  preaching  precipitated  a  crisis,  and  the 
<lisciples  "  were  scattered  abroad  "  by  the  persecution  that  followed. 
Another  of  the  seven,  Philip,  exhibited  his  broad  catholicity  of 
spirit  by  preaching  to  the  Samaritans  and  to  the  Ethiopian  eunuch. 
His  baptism  of  the  latter  also  illustrates  the  nature  and  importance 
of  the  functions  of  the  diaconate.  Added  to  distribution  of  alms 
for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  the  work  of  preaching  the  Gos])el  and  the 
administration  of  baptism  are  here  connected  with  the  work  of  a 
deacon. 

The  dispersion  which  resulted  from  the  persecution  after  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  Stephen,  and  the  large  accessions  of  believers  through 
preaching  of  the  Gospel  in  other  parts  of  Judea,  in  Samaria  and  in 

Syria,  compelled  a  new  order  of  supervision.  Prior  to 
first    persecu-   this  scattering  abroad  the  distinction  between  a  simple 

congregation  of  believers  and  a  church  had  not  been  rec- 
ognised. It  was  but  natural  that  the  new  societies  should,  in  their  or- 
der and  management,  be  modeled  after  the  parent  church.  Moreover, 
no  proper  in  Jerusalem  and  the  adjacent  districts  there  seems  to  have 
church.  been  a  method  of  supervision  and  government  somewhat 

similar  to  that  which  later  obtained  in  the  cathedral  churches  of 
other  great  capitals,  and  in  the  suburban  societies.  No  sooner  does 
news  come  to  the  apostles  of  the  acceptance  of  the  Gospel  in  any 
j)art  than  a  delegation  is  sent  to  make  examination,  to  direct  the 
work,  and  confirm  the  believers  in  the  truth  (Acts  vii,  14,  seq.;  xi, 
22,  seq.). 

This  fact  assists  to  answer  the  question:   how  far  the  different 

'  In  this  view  Meander,  Baumgarteii,  Schaff,  Baur,  Rciian.  Lightfoot,  and  others 
substantiality  agree.  Bohmer  supposes  that  '-the  seven"  had  been  elders:  and 
witli  him  Ritschl  agrees:  Altkaih.  Kirche,  2te  Aufl.,  ss.  353,  seq.  Lange  holds  that 
from  "the  seven"  the  two  orders  of  deacons  and  of  elders  were  afterward  differ- 
entiated. V.  Apostolische  ZeitnUer,  Bd.  ii,  ss.  73,  539,  seq.  This  is  also  the  opinion  of 
DoUinger;   The  First  Age  of  the  Church,  vol.  ii,  p.  111. 


APOSTOLIC  CHURCH-ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS.  3:W 

societies  of  Jewish  diristians  were  tliencefurtli  unified  in  wliat 
may  properly  be  called  "the  Church."  A  careliil  study  of  all 
the  circumstances  attending  these  visitations  will  impress  us  that 
the  various  societies  were,  to  a  large  degree,  united  in  .,-h.'re  \vu.s  a 
spirit,  life,  doctrine,  and  government.  The  apostles  had  ""i*^"- 
an  oversight  and  care  of  these  as  well  as  of  the  mother  church  in 
Jerusalem.  This  is  manifest  from  their  sending  Barnabas  to  c«mi- 
tirm  the  disciples  at  Antioch  (Acts  xi,  22).  True,  no  definite  proof 
is  found  in  the  histcjry  that  this  union  was  legal,  formal,  or  ex- 
pressed through  the  appointment  of  officers,  or  by  the  adoption  of  a 
formal  constitution;  but  the  conduct  of  the  Apostles  during  their 
visitations  shows  that  by  virtue  of  their  own  j^ersonal  character, 
of  the  authority  derived  from  Christ  in  their  first  call  to  be  the 
leaders  of  his  Church,  and  of  a  common  spirit  that  animated  all 
believers,  there  was  a  unity  of  the  various  societies  into  The  ciiurfii 
a  virtual  Church.'  It  is  remarkable  that  the  historian  Qi-st  organize.!, 
.says  (Acts  ix,  31):  "So  the  Churc/i,  i]  eKKXrjoia,  throughout  all 
Judea  and  Galilee  and  Samaria,  had  peace,  being  editied;  and, 
walking  in  the  fear  of  the  Lord  and  in  the  comfort  of  the  Holy 
(ihost,  was  multiplied." ' 

The  second  stage  in  the  development  of  the  organization  of  the 
('hurch  is  further  marked  through  the  occupancy  by  james-bis  of- 
James  of  the  chief  place  at  Jerusalem.  While  the  ^'■*'- 
apostles  were  absent  upon  their  missionary  journeys,  proclaiming 
the  Gospel  of  the  kingdom,  or  visiting  the  new  communities  that 
had  believed,  he  became  their  mouthpiece  or  vicar.  I  lis  personal 
(character,  as  brother  of  the  Lord,  gave  to  his  leadershij)  dignity 
and  authority  which  were  generally  recognised  by  the  churches  of 
Samaria,  Judea,  Galilee,  the  Phenician  coasts,  and  by  the  congrega- 
tions of  the  Dispersion.  While  he  is  never  in  the  Scriptures  called 
a  bishop,  and  while  there  is  no  evidence  of  his  special  ordination  to 
this  office,  his  functions  seem  to  have  been  very  similar  similar  to  ih." 
to  those  of  the  bishops  of  the  following  century;  he  is,  later  bishoi.. 
therefore,  sometimes  recognised  as  the  first  bishop  of  Jerusalem.^ 
At  other  times,  however,  he  appears  as  a  iiie!iil)er  of  a  council  with 

'Compare  Rotho:   Op.  cif.,  ss.  27S,  seq..  and  Loclilor:    0]i.  cit.,  ss.  Srt-Ol. 

■2  The  prcporitkrance  of  aulhoriry  i.i  certainly  in  favor  of  //  iKK/.tjain  rather  tlian 
ai  EKKX^aiat.     The  New  Version  adopts  the  former  as  tlie  true  text. 

'Rotlie:  Die  Anfange  dtn-  christlichen  Kirche,  8.  271.  Lijfhtfoot:  Tli'- Christinn 
Ministry,  m  Gom.  on  Phil.,  p.  197.  CnnninKliam:  The  Gruwlh  of  the  Church,  etc.. 
London,  1886,  p.  60.  "It  is  possible  his  position  may  have  'ndumbratcd '  the 
episcopate,  or  even  have  done  somethinjj  toward  pavipp  tlie  way  to  it."  '-But  it  is 
more  probable  that  he  owed  tliis  to  his  personal  churacler." 


•SU    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

the  apostles  and  presbyters,  of  commanding  influence,  but  with  no 
official  character.  • 

§  2.   Presbyters  aitd  Bishops. 
In  the  apostolic  Church  are  found  other  officers  called   indiffer- 
ently 7Tpeaj3vT£pot,  presbyters,  or  elders,  and  enioiconoi,  bishops,  or 
overseers.     This  office  pertained  to  local  congregations,  and  was  ex- 

^.  ,  ^  .  ^  tended  as  the  churches  multiplied  under  the  preaching 
First  pertained  ^  .  * 

to  local  socie-  of  the  apostles,  prophets,  and  evangelists.  In  distinc- 
"*^^'  tion  from  the  deacons,  both  "  presbyter  "  and  "overseer" 

were  terras  in  common  use  by  the  Jewish  church,  by  the  heathen 
municipalities,  and  by  the  religious  clubs,  which  were  numerous 
Presbyters  throughout  the  Roman  Empire.  While  the  record  is 
comniou       to   yilent,  it  is  nevertheless  probable  that  peculiar  exiaren- 

Jewish        iiud  1  o 

ciiristian  soci-  cies  of  the  Church  called  for  the  institution  of  the 
*'^^^^-  presbyters,  as  had  been  the  case  in  the  choice  of  "  the 

seven."  They  first  come  into  prominence  on  the  scattering  abroad 
of  the  disciples,  and  the  withdrawing  of  the  apostles  from  Jerusalem, 
in  consequence  of  the  persecution  following  the  death  of  Stephen. 
In  the  absence  of  apostolic  advisers,  a  body  of  presbyters  is  associ- 
ated with  James  to  give  direction  to  the  affairs  of  the  Church. 
The  manner  in  which  they  are  mentioned  in  Acts  xi,  30  (rovg  Trpea- 
fivrepovg)  indicates  a  class  of  officials  well  known  and  established, 
and  their  connection  with  the  reception  of  gifts  for  the  poor,  in  the 
opinion  of  some,  allies  their  duties  with  those  of  the  deacons.'' 
They  come  into  greater  prominence  in  Acts  xv,  2,  in  association 
with  the  apostles.  These,  with  the  "brethren,"  constitute  the  coun- 
cil to  which  Paul  and  Barnabas,  and  the  other  messengers  from  the 
society  at  Antioch,  refer  the  questions,  respecting  circumcision. 
They  unite  with  the  apostles  and  the  Church  (ovv  uXrj  t%j  kKKArjaia) 
in  sending  delegates  to  Antioch  and  other  churches, 
who  should  bear  the  decision  of  the  council  (Acts  xv, 
22,  23).  When  Paul  visits  Jerusalem  for  the  last  time,  he  be- 
takes himself  to  James,  the  president,  where  he  finds  all  the  elders 
assembled  (Acts  xxi,  18,  seq.). 

'Neither  Acts  xii,  \1,  nor  xv,  13-21,  fiirnislies  positive  proof  of  liio  presidency  of 
James,  miioh  less  of  a  distinctive!}'  episcopal  function.  Acts  xxi,  18,  seq.,  and  Gal.  i, 
19;  ii,  9,  point  somewhat  more  clearly  to  an  official  position.  Heg-esippus,  among  tlie 
very  earliest  of  tlie  v^^riters  of  the  second  century,  does  not  call  James  a  bishop,  but 
represents  him  as  sharing  with  the  apostles  the  government  of  the  Church  at  Jeru- 
salem. Eusebius:  Hist  Eccl,  ii,  23,  24.  v.  Lechler:  Das  aposMische  u.  das  nach- 
apnstolisclie  Ztilaltev,  3le  Aufl.,  s.  83.     Ritsclil:    Ojy.  ciL,  sp.  417,  seq. 

*This  is  one  ground  for  Ritschl's  opinion,  already  referred  to,  that  from  "the 
seven  "  and  their  functions  both  the  future  diaconate  and  elderate  were  differentiated. 
V.  Die  Entstehung  der  aUkatli.  Eirche,  s.  358. 


APOSTOLIC  CHURCH-ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS.  3:« 

The  i)resb3'ters  :ilre:uly  appear  as  tlu-  representatives  and  direefors 
of  the  society  at  Jerusalem.  Since  their  orij^inal  function  was  ehieHv 
oversight  or  government,  the  Jewish  Christian  congregatioTis  found 
in  the  Jewisli  synagogue  a  model  which  they  readily  adopted,  and 
the  Gentile  churches  found  in  the  tniaKonog  of  the  religious  olult^ 
an  officer  very  similar  in  authority  and  function.  It  was  his 
duty  to  care  for  the  general  order  and  preside  at  })uhlie  delibera- 
tions. Nevertheless,  it  is  manifest  from  various  passages  in  the  Acts, 
as  well  as  from  the  epistles,  that  the  whole  Church  j)articipate(i 
in  such  deliberations,  and  sanctioned  the  decisions.  In  The  entire  s.- 
the  various  Jewish  communities  of  the  Dispersion,  to  I'*";!  '","',.!'"" 

"  'In  the  dellber- 

which  the  apostles  first  betook  themselves  in  the  preach-  aUons. 
ing  of  the  Gospel,  "there  existed  a  governing  body  of  elders  whose 
functions  were  partly  administrative  and  partly  disciplinary.  With 
worship  and  with  teaching  they  appear  to  have  had  no  direct  con- 
cern. For  those  purposes,  so  far  as  they  required  officers,  another 
set  of  officers  existed.  In  other  words,  the  same  community  met, 
probably  in  the  same  place,  in  two  capacities  and  with  a  double 
organization.  On  the  Sabbath  there  was  an  assembly,  ^  double  func- 
presided  over  by  the  dpx'^'^^'^o.ycoyog  f)r  d();^<rTr;2^dy(«)yo/,  t'"»- 
for  the  purposes  of  prayer  and  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  and  ex- 
hortation; on  two  other  days  of  the  week  there  was  an  assembly, 
presided  over  by  the  yepovaidpxV?  or  dp;^;ovTe5'  or  TTQerriSvrepoi,  for 
the  ordinary  purposes  of  a  local  court.     Each  community,  whether 

assembling  for  the  one  class  of  purposes  or  the  other,   ^   ^         

*  ^  11  'Each     conjrre. 

appears  to  have  been  in  most  cases  independent.  .  .  .  Ration  inde- 
Consequently,  when  the  majority  of  the  members  of  a  '"'"  '"  ' 
Jewish  community  were  convinced  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  then- 
was  nothi)ig  to  interrupt  the  current  of  their  former  connnon  life. 
There  was  no  need  for  secession,  for  schism,  for  a  change  in  the  or- 
ganization. The  old  form  of  worship  and  the  old  modes  of  govern- 
ment could  still  go  on.  .  .  .  There  is  no  trace  of  a  break  in  the  con- 
tinuity; and  there  is  consequently  a  strong  presum])tioii,  which  sub- 
sequent history  confirms,  that  the  officers  who  continued  to  bear  the 
same  names  in  the  same  community  exercised  functions  closely 
analogous  to  those  which  they  had  exercised  before;  in  ^^^^^  pr,.j,byters 
other  words,  that  the  elders  of  the  Jewish  communities  oiiUei-s  of  nd- 
,.,,,,  ^,     .     .  fi       »i         II  f  4I        nilnlsirallon. 

which  had  become  Christian  were,  like  tlie  elders  ot  the 
Jewish  communities  which  remained  Jewish,  officers  of  administra- 
tion and  discipline."  ' 

The  fact  that  the  Jewish  Christians  regarded  themsi-lves  as  only 
a  sect  within  the  Jewish  church  cannot   be  too  much  emphasized. 
'  Ilatcli:    TIte  OnjanizaUon  of  the  Early  Chrislian  Churches,  pp.  59-61. 


336    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

They  only  recognised  Jesus  as  the  Messias,  and  were  awaiting  the 
Jewish  Christ-  time  when  all  should  receive  their  King,  and  Christ 

ians  a  sect  „]^qj^i,|  return  to  set  up  his  universal  reign.  The  more 
in  the  Jewish  ,.     n    i       i  ^ 

Church.  thorough  examination  of  all  the  hopes  and  expectations 

of  the  Jewish  Christian  societies,  prior  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, leads  to  the  belief  that  they  looked  upon  their  provisions  for  a 
special  service,  the  care  of  their  own  poor,  and  the  maintenance 
of  order  and  regularity  in  their  assemblies  as  something  merely 
temporary,  or  as  a  means  of  influencing  the  whole  chosen  people  to 
unite  themselves  with  the  new  kingdom  which  was  soon  to  be 
established,' 

The  function  of  this  body  of  Christian  presbyters  being  at  first 
like  that  of  the  Jewish  presbyters  in  the  synagogue,  they  must 
be  regarded  as  an  advisory  board,  whose  decisions  were  looked 
upon  with  respect,  and  whose  care  for  the  congregations  was 
The  early  type  oflicial.  Nor  is  there  evidence  that  each  ruled  over  a 
republican.  separate  congregation,  or  over  a  section  of  the  same  con- 
gregation, without  associates.  The  monarchical  type  of  government 
which  appeared  at  a  later  date  does  not  accord  with  the  genius  of 
Not  monarchi-  the  apostolic  age.  The  elders  constitute  rather  a  free 
<^ai.  deliberative  body,  which  more  resembles  the  meetings  of 

the  councils  in  the  republics  of  early  Greece.  While  no  evidence 
exists  that  they  or  any  other  class  monopolized  the  right  of  spiritual 
teaching  and  edification,  they  nevertheless  so  far  directed  it  that  it 
might  be  saved  from  confusion,  and  not  degenerate  into  license  or 
into  the  inculcation  of  false  doctrine.  Thus,  while  the  apostles  and 
evangelists  were  doing  their  work  for  the  whole  Church,  the  dea- 
cons and  the  body  of  presbyters  became  the  instrument  for  the 
government  of  local  societies,  and  for  the  regulation  of  its  teaching, 
its  worship,  and  its  charities.  The  ^dpiofia  SidaoKaXiag  being  of 
only  transient  utility,  the  more  permanent  and  regular  provision  was 
necessary. 

Nevertheless,  the  teaching  function  is  clearly  recognised  as  per- 
taining to  this  office.  Especially  after  the  rapid  spread  of  the  Gos- 
pel subsequent  to  the  death  of  Stephen,  when  the  apostles  were  no 
longer  able  to  superintend  the  work  in  person,  nor  give  direct  in- 
struction, the  need  of  special  and  careful  teaching  by  the  elders 
•.vas  felt  to  be  of  chief  importance.  Doubtless  the  customs  of  the 
synagogues  had  direct  influence  in  the  appointment  of  the  presby- 

'  Lcchler:  Op.  cif..  s.  93.  Tliis  author  snys  witli  reg-ard  to  the  seemins:  contradic- 
tion of  this  view  in  tlic  fact  of  the  fierce  opposition  of  the  Jews  to  the  Cliristians, 
"  The  sundering  of  tlie  band  binding  tliem  to  the  theocracy  was  at  first  regarded  as 
only  possible,  next  as  desirable,  and  finally  as  necessary."  ss.  93,  94. 


APOSTOLIC  CHURCH— ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS.  337 

ters  in  the  Cliristian  societies.  Just  as  there  was  no  distinct  line  of 
demarkation  between  the  ordinary  members  of  tlie  synagogue  court, 
whose  chief  function  was  oversight  and  watchcare,  and  tlie  learned 
members,  wise  men  and  scribes,  who,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  had 
come  to  form  a  pretty  well-defined  class,  but  each  did  that  for 
which  his  peculiar  ij^ifts  or  training  best  fitted  him,  so  in  Christian 
congregations,  chiefly  of  Jewish  origin,  there  was  no  sharp  distinc- 
tion between  the  teaching  and  governing  function,  but  a  large  lil)- 
erty  was  recognised,  only  that  it  be  exercised  in  obedience  to  that 
wise  law  of  spiritual  economy  inculcated  alike  by  both  the  foremost 
apostles:  "According  as  each  hath  received  a  gift,  ministering 
it  among  yourselves,  as  good  stewards  of  the  manifold  grace  of 
God."  "But  to  each  one  is  given  the  manifestation  of  the  Si)irit 
to  profit  withal,  .  .  .  but  all  these  worketh  the  one  and  the  same 
Spirit,  dividing  to  each  one  severally  even  as  he  will"  (1  Pet.  iv,, 
10,  seq.;  1  Cor.  xii,  7,  seq.). 

In  the  later  Pauline  writings,  especially  in  the  pastoral  epistles 
and  Ephesians,  church  otHcers  and  their  duties  are  more  fully 
treated  than  elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament.  The  language  of 
the  instructions  suggests  a  more  advanced  stage  of  church  ortran- 
ization  than  is  implied  in  the  writings  of  Peter  or  in  the  earlier 
epistles  of  Paul.  The  simple  associations  of  the  first  believers,  per- 
vaded by  a  common  spirit,  and  realizing  the  truest  idea  of  fellow- 
ship, are,  in  these  later  writings,  instructed  as  to  the  character  ami 
endowments  of  their  office-bearers  and  the  use  of  their  gifts.  The 
elders  are  here  represented  as  ovei'seers  of  the  Church,  and  com- 
bine therewith  the  teaching  function;  but  the  distinction  between 
a  body  of  so-called  "  ruling"  elders  and  of  "teaching"  elders  is 
not  clearly  made;  the  same  persons  are  represented  as  acting  in  this 
double  capacity  (Eph.  iv,  11;  1  Tim.  v,  17-10).  Nevertheless, 
among  the  special  (pialifications  for  this  office,  as  enumerated  by 
Paul,  is  "aptness  to  teach"  (1  Tim.  iii,  2;  iv,  13-lG;  2  Tim.  ii, 
2,24;  Tit.  i,  9,  seq.)\  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  this  function 
l)ecarae  increasingly  important  after  the  death  of  the  ajiostles  had 
deprived  the  Church  of  authoritative  living  teachers,  and  when  the 
prediction  of  Paid  respecting  heretical  doctrines  had  been  sadly  fnl- 
tilled  (Acts  xx,  29,  80). 

The  origin  of  the  presbyters  in  those  churches  which  were  com- 
posed chiefly  of  Gentile  converts  is  not  so  manifest.  It  has  licen 
suggested  that  it  was  sjiontaneous,  and  at  first  iiide-  preshytpr* 
pendent  of  Jewish  influence.  In  the  Gra'co-Roman  'n  (ii-ntile 
world  the  two  elements  peculiar  to  the  Jewish  system 
of  synagogical  government,  namely,  a  council  or  committee,  and 
22 


338    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

seniority,  were  widely  recognised.  "Ever^^  municipality  of  the 
empire  was  managed  by  its  curia  or  senate.  All  associations, 
political  or  religious,  with  which  the  empire  abounded  had  their 
committees  of  officers.  It  was,  therefore,  antecedently  probable, 
even  apart  from  Jewish  influence,  that  when  the  Gentiles  who  had 
embraced  Christianity  began  to  be  sufficiently  numerous  in  a  city  to 
require  some  kind  of  organization  that  organization  should  take  the 
prevailing  form;  that  it  should  be  not  wholly,  if  at  all,  monarchical, 
nor  wholly,  though  essentiall}^,  democratical,  but  that  there  should 
be  a  permanent  executive  consisting  of  a  plurality  of  persons.  .  .  . 
So  strong  was  this  idea  (respect  for  seniority)  that  the  terms  which 
were  relative  to  it  were  often  used  as  terms  of  respect  without  ref- 
erence to  age.  In  the  philosophical  schools  the  professor  was 
sometimes  called  6  7rpe(T/3i;repof."  ' 

It  must  not,  however,  be  forgotten  that,  during  the  missionary 
activity  of  Paul  and  his  associates  in  founding  the  churches  which 
afterward  were  very  largely  composed  of  Gentile  converts,  the  first 
believers,  constituting  the  germ  of  these  churches,  Avere  Jewish 
Christians,  to  whom  the  government  of  the  synagogue  was  entirely 
familiar.  When  it  is  further  considered  how  carefully  Paul,  in  his 
extensive  journeys,  provides  for  the  spiritual  oversight  of  the 
churches,  for  the  discipline,  and  for  the  general  administration  of 
their  affairs;  how  he  appoints  elders  in  the  churches  of  Pisidia  and 
Lycaonia,  in  Ephesus,  Thessalonica,  Philipjji,  Rome,  and  Colosste; 
how  he  declares  to  Titus  that  the  chief  reason  of  his  being  left  in 
Crete  was  to  "  set  in  order  the  things  that  are  wanting,  and  ordain 
elders  in  every  city  "  (Tit.  i,  5),  the  conclusion  is  almost  inevitable 
that  the  Jewish  synagogue  system  must  have  had  a  ver}^  marked 
influence  on  the  organization  of  the  Gentile  churches. 

§  3.  Essential  Identity  of  Bishoj^s  and  Preslryters. 

The  essential  identity  of  presbyters  and  bishops  in  the  apostolic 

age  is  a  matter  of  well-nigh  absolute  historic  demonstration.    "  They 

appear  always  as  a  plurality  or  as  a  college  in  one  and  the  same 

congregation,  even  in  smaller  cities,  as  Philippi.     The  same  officers 

of  the  church  of  Ephesus  are  alternately  called  presby- 

Arirumcnts.  i    i  •   i  i  j 

ters  and  bishops.  Paul  sends  greetings  to  the  bishops 
and  deacons  of  Philippi,  but  omits  the  presbyters  because  they  were 
included  in  the  first  term,  as  also  the  plural  indicates.  In  the  pas- 
s<-hars  sum-  toral  epistles,  when  Paul  intends  to  give  the  qualifica- 
'"''^'■y-  tions  for  all  church  officers,  he  again  mentions  only  two, 

bishops  and  deacons,  but  uses  the   term  presbyters  afterward   for 
'  Hatcli :    O}}.  cit ,  pp.  63,  G4. 


APOSTOLIC  CHURCH— ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS.  3;i0 

l)i.shops.  Peter  urges  tlie  presbyters  to  "  tend  the  tloek  of  (iod,  ami 
to  '  fulfill  the  office  of  bishops,'  with  disinterested  devotion  and  witli- 
out  lording  it  over  the  charge  allotted  to  them.  The  interchange 
of  terms  continued  in  use  to  the  close  of  the  first  century,  as  is  evi- 
dent from  the  epistles  of  Clement  of  Rome  (about  A.  D.  05),  and  still 
lingered  toward  the  close  of  the  second."  '  This  is  substantially 
the  opinion  of  the  most  thorough  students  of  the  apostolic  history.* 

The  reason  of  the  use  of  two  terms  for  persons  having  the  same 
'ssential  functions  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion,  ^v  h  y  two 
NVith  those  who  hold  to  the  diversity  of  the  ofHces  the  terms? 
;ise  of  two  terms  is  but  natural  and  necessary.  To  those  who  re- 
gard these  offices  as  identical,  in  the  apostolic  age,  the  reason  for 
this  double  designation  seems  important  to  discover. 

Two  general  suggestions  have  been  made :  1.  The  term  —QeaiivreQo^, 
presbyter,  has  been  claimed  to  be  of  Jewish  derivation,  :in<l  to  have 
been  used  at  first  only  by  Jewish-Christian   congrega- 

f  .   .  '  ,  i-11     •      •  1  V     i^    1        First  theory. 

tions.  In  communities  where  a  t  hristian  church  liad 
sprung  from  the  bosom  of  the  local  synagogue,  and  was,  therefore, 
chiefly  under  the  control  of  Jewish  tradition  and  thought,  the  term 
presbyter,  which  was  the  name  of  the  governing  body  of  the  syna- 
gogue, would  be  naturally  transferred  to  officers  of  similar  function 
in  the  Christian  societies.^  It  is  likewise  true  that  the  term  'bish- 
op,' kmoKOTTog,  is  used  to  designate  one  of  like  official  duty  in  the 
churches  of  almost  exclusively  Gentile  origin.  Nevertheless,  the 
term  presbyter  was  used  by  these  same  congregations,  and  at  a 
somewhat  later  date  it  was  applied  to  the  members  of  that  govern- 
ing body  over  which  the  bishop  presided.''     2.  A  second  theory  is 

'Schaff:  Historij  of  the  Christian  Church,  New  York,  1884.  vol.  i,  p.  40;i.  He 
cites  the  following:  Acts  xx,  17  and  28;  Phil,  i,  1  ;  I  Tim.  iii,  l-i;J:  v,  17-19; 
Tit.  i,  b-7  ;   1  Pet.  v,  1,  2;  Clem.  Rom. :  Ad.  Cor.,  cc.  42,  44. 

'^  V.  Among  others,  Neander:  Op.  cit.,  pp.  92,9.'?.  Rothe:  Anfuwie  chr  chriyflirhett 
Kirche,  a.  116,  etal.  Lightfoot:  Op.  cit,  pp.  95-99.  Banr:  Hist.  First  Three  CV»i- 
tmies.  Stanley:  Op.  cit.,  chap.  x.  Hatch:  Op.  cit..  Lects.  iii,  iv.  Dollinper:  TIk 
First  Age  of  the  Church,  vol.  ii,  pp.  110,  111.  Kraus:  Rtal-Encyclopmlin  der  Chri.yL 
Alterthiimer,  art.  "  Bi.schof."  Weizsiickor  :  Op.  cit.,  ss.  637-(?41.  AV.  snys  that  ilicy 
were  not  ab.soliitely  identical;  all  bishops  were  presbyters,  but  not  every  presbyter 
was  a  bishop.  Lechlcr:  Op.  cit.,  p.  577,  .ST7.  "The  elders, -pf(T,?rrf^o/,  are  not  men- 
tioned because  in  the  earliest  Christinn  period  'presbyter'  and  'hisliop'  were 
identical." 

'  Weizsacker :  Op.  rit..  s.  fi'28.  regards  this  tr-iiisfercrico  of  the  leadership  and  gov- 
ernment by  presbfters  from  the  Jewish  ehurch  to  the  Christian  at  .Icrnsalem  as 
by  no  means  self-evident,  "  Keineswegs  einc  selfverstiindliche  Sadie:''  hut  then- 
is  no  doubt  but  that  the  Jewish  Christian  societies  going  ont  from  Jcru.«alem.  as  well 
as  the  Jews  of  Iho  Diaspora,  had  a  presbyterial  constitution.  8.  629. 

n.ightfoot:    Op.  cit.,  194. 


:J40    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

that  the  bishop  of  the  Christian  Church  was  analogous  in  office 
and  function  to  that  of  the  president  of  the  heathen 
fraternities  or  clubs.  One  chief  duty  of  this  officer  was 
to  administer  the  funds  of  the  society,  and  to  be  a  medium  of  com- 
munication between  the  members  who  might  be  widely  separated. 
Christianity  was  established  just  at  a  time  when  poverty  was  wide- 
spread throughout  the  Roman  world,  and  when  government  and 
society  were  in  a  condition  of  fearful  strain.  What  the  state  could 
or  would  not  do  for  its  subjects  must  be  done  by  themselves  through 
association  for  mutual  succor  and  relief.  The  fraternities  were 
numerous  and  influential.  Their  professed  objects  were  various; 
but  into  most  of  them  there  entered  both  a  charitable  and  a  religious 
element.  To  administer  the  funds  of  these  organizations  became  a 
matter  of  primary  importance,  and  the  officer  charged  with  this  duty 
was  termed  an  episcopos.^ 

The  peculiar  environment  of  the  first  Christian  believers  compelled 
like  provision  for  the  exercise  of  systematic  charities.  Most  of  the 
early  disciples  were  of  the  poorer  class;  and  many  moi"e,  upon  pro- 
fession of  the  Christian  faith,  became  outcasts  from  their  families 
and  homes.  The  strict  moralit}^  of  the  Christian  teaching  and  the 
severity  of  discipline  comjjelled  the  abandonment  of  trades  which 
before  had  been  highly  lucrative,  and  thus  a  measure  of  sA'stematic 
aid  must  be  furnished  by  the  fraternity  of  believers.  The  widow, 
the  orphan,  and  the  stranger  journeying  in  foreign  parts  must  have 
issued  to  them  ceitificates  of  membership,  or  letters  of  commen- 
systematic  dation,*  on  whose  authority  they  were  admitted  to 
charities.  t]^g  sacred   mysteries,   and  received  assistance  and  en- 

couragement. The  importance  of  this  administration  cannot  be 
overrated,  and  it  was  therefore  entrusted  to  those  best  fitted  by  in- 
telligence and  unquestioned  integrity  to  superintend  the  work.  Ac- 
cording to  this  view  the  functions  of  the  early  Christian  bishop 
were  similar  to  that  of  the  episcojyos  of  the  contemporary  clubs  of 
the  heathen  world,  in  having  chiefly  to  care  for  the  funds  and  to 
administer  the  charities.^ 

'?;.  Hatch:  Op.  cit.'L^Q.t.  ii.  His  nrtriinient  from  the  opigrapliicai  evidence  is 
original  and  striking,  if  not  entirely  convincing.  Contra,  v.  Gore:  The  Church  and 
fhf!  Ministry,  Second  Edition,  London.  1882.  v.  also  Harnack :  Analekten,  in  his 
translation  of  Hatcli.  Hoinrici:  Erldiirung  der  Korinthierhricfr.  i,  Leipzig,  1879; 
ii,  Berlin,  1887.     Holtzmann  :   Die  Patnrnlhriefe,  Le'^pzicr.    1880. 

-  Tlie  custom  of  commendation  b}-  letters.  iTziarolai  avn-ariKai,  is  referred  to  in  Acts 
xviii,  27,  and  2  Cor.  iii,  1-5.  Tiio  «ame  practice,  dictated  alike  bv  affection  and  by 
common  prudence,  also  prevailed  among  the  ancient  secular  fraternities  and  among 
the  powcrfid  guilds  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

*  Hatch :   Op.  cit.,  Lect.  ii. 


APOSTOLIC  CHURCH— ITS  COMPOSITION  AND  OFFICERS.  341 

§  4.    Ocnenil  Conclusions. 

While  the  distinction  of  offices  and  functions  may  In-  asccitaincd 
in  a  most  e^cneral  way,  it  is  manifest  tliat  the  character  and  <liities  <.f 
these,  during  the  lifetime  of  the  apostles,  were  not  sharply  defined. 
The  peculiar  functions  of  the  deacons  are  at  one  time  assumed  liv 
the  presbyters,  at  another  by  the  iniaKonoi.  The  cir-  uuties  n.n 
cumstances  determine  the  behaviour  of  the  different  sharply ciednwi. 
officers.  In  the  aj)Ostolic  church  are  found  germs  of  every  order 
of  the  ministry,  and  indications  of  every  form  of  church  gov- 
ernment. From  these  were  to  come  such  forms  as  the  peculiar 
]»rovidential  environment  miglit  most  fully  develop.  At  first  only 
those  who  were  endowed  with  special  charisms  were  entrusted  with 
the  direction  and  government  of  the  Church.'  The  gift  correspond- 
ing to  this  function  was  the  ;^dpi(Tjua  rrjg  Kv(ieQvr}OEix)(;  (I  Cor.  xii,  2S). 

The  elders  were  charged  with  teaching,  the  preservation  of  the 
]»urity  of  doctrine,  the  direction  of  the  asseml)lies  of  the  societies, 
the    oversight    of    the    general     secular    affairs    of    the   ^^       ,     . 

*=  o  _  The     c'hari!>iiis 

churches,  the  care  of  souls,  the  warning  and  encourage-  at  unsi  tiie 
ment  of  individual  njembers,  etc.  Nevertheless,  Paul  P'''-^'^'''^'"''^"- 
in  his  letter  to  the  Corinthian  church,  in  which  ecclesiastical  order 
and  the  functions  of  rulers  are  discussed  at  length,  nowhere  rejire- 
sents  these  as  pertaining  to  an  office,  but  recognises  in  them  a  class 
of  duties  which  depend  upon  the  ])ossession  of  special  gifts  and 
charisms.'^  With  the  excejition  of  his  latest  epistles  to  the  Philip- 
pians,  to  Titus,  and  to  Timothy,  he  never  mentions  deacons,  ]»res- 
byters,  or  bishops.  Even  when  he  enumerates  the  teachers  given 
l>y  God  to  the  Church,  according  to  their  gradations  and  jieculi- 
arities,  the  names  of  deacons,  presbyters,  and  bishops  do  not  occur. 
In  so  important  a  church  as  Corinth  there  seems  to  have  been  in» 
bishop,*  and  it  may  be  reasonably  questioned  whether  in  any  other 
than  the  latest  e])istles  can  be  found  any  mcJition  of  the  office  in 
connection  with  the  Gentile  church.'  In  all  of  his  earlier  writings  he 
speaks  of  gifts  and  not  of  offices.  From  the  apostles  to  the  hum- 
blest ministers  the  ruling  thought  is  that  of  spiritual  t'Mdowmeiits. 
and  not  of  official  functions.*     So  manifest  is  this  in  the  early  ap(." 

'  Baiir:    Christenthum,  s.  241 :  Ritsclil :   Op.  rit.  r.  362. 

*  Liglitfoot:    Op.  cit,  p.  195. 

3  Weizsacker:  0/).  «■<..  s.  G.'l.S.    Biinscn ;    lijiuiliiia  u.  scini' Zfil,  s.  lO.I.     Linliifooi; 

Op.  cit.,  p.  205. 

n.ifrlitfoot:    Op.  cit.,  p.  198. 

'  DollinKer:  Tlie  First  Age  of  the  Chnrrh,  vol.  ii,  pp.  104,  lO.'i.  Rilsclil :  Ojh  cit., 
p.  1547.  Heinrioi:  Kirchengemeinde  Korinlh.s  u.  die  religioscn  Genossefv^dinften  der 
(riiecken  in  the  Zeitschrift  far  wissoischaftl.  Jheologif,  1876,  8,478. 


342    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

tolir  C'liurch  that  the  function  of  teaching  was  not  contined  to  the 
presbyters  or  bishops,  but  extended  to  tlie  hiity  as  well,  and  in  cases 
of  extreme  necessity  the  latter  could  administer  baptism  and  cele- 
brate the  eucharist,'  Even  in  the  writings  of  John  the  bishop  is 
still  a  minister  of  the  society  and  not  a  church  official,  and  there  is 
no  evidence  of  a  distinct  ordination  or  contirmation  to  a  distinctively 
episcopal  office. 

Aside  from  the  statements  found  in  the  New  Testament,  the  first 
ei)istle  of  Clement  of  Rome  to  the  Corinthians  is  about  the  only 
contemporary  authority.'*  In  this  letter  the  distinction  between 
No  distinction  bishops  and  presbyters  is  no  more  clear  than  in  the 
iaciemeut.  canonical  Scriptures,  and  these  offices  and  their  duties 
are  generally  noticed  as  synonymous.'  No  priestly  authority  or 
function  is  delegated  to  them.  They  are  in  the  strictest  sense  min- 
isters and  stewards  appointed  to  teach,  to  preach,  and  care  for 
the  discipline  and  charities  of  the  local  churches.  No  irresponsible 
or  sovereign  authority  is  attached  to  their  office,  but  the  bod}^  of 
believers  is  the  real  depositary  of  power.'' 

Nor  is  there  a  trace  of  the  subordination  of  one  bishop  to  another, 
any  more  than  in  the  apostolic  college  a  primacy,  aside  from  personal 
character  and  influence,  is  found.  While  in  the  pastoral  epistles 
(v.  1  Tim.  V,  17,  19,  20)  there  seems  to  be  a  slight  tendency  to 
centralization,  and  the  idea  of  a  special  office  is  somewhat  more 
clearly  developed,  it  may,  nevertheless,  be  regarded  as  historically 
certain  that  prior  to  the  destruction  of  Jeinisalem  the  officers  of  the 
Church  and  their  functions  were  not  fully  differentiated,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  a  great  diversity  of  practice  and  a  plastic  condition  of 
church  government  were  prevalent  throughout  the  empire. 

'Hatch:  Op.  cit,  pp.  117-119.  "In  regard  to  baptism  tliere  is  no  positive  evi- 
dence, but  there  is  the  argument  a /or^zo?7  which  arises  from  the  fact  that  even  in 
later  times  .  .  .  baptism  by  an  ordinary  member  of  tlie  church  was  lield  to  be 
valid,"  etc. 

'^Tlie  chronology  of  the  Aidaxr/  is  not  so  satisfactorily  determined  as  to  make  it 
a  strictly  original  autiiority  for  the  history  of  the  apostolic  churcli. 

^v.  cc.  42—44. 

■'Bannerman:  TJie  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Church,  Part  vi,  cliap.  iv,  seems  too 
strongly  to  insist  on  a  settled  and  fixed  ecclesiastical  S3'stem  in  the  ('orinthian  cliurch 
during  the  second  period  of  apostolic  Churcli  history.  Such  condition  of  this  church 
ill  a  distinctively  presbyterial  form  of  government  is  demonstrable  neither  from  the 
Pauline  epistles  nor  from  the  letter  of  Clement  of  Rome. 


THE   POST-APOSTOLIC   CONSTITUTION.  Ui 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE    POST-APOSTOLIC    CONSTITUTION    FROM    TIIK    DESTRUCTION    OF 
JERUSALEM  TO  IREN^US. 

§  1.  I/iJltieiice  of  the  Death  of  the  Apostles  <iiid  of  the  Destruction  of  Jcnisakm. 

Such  seems  to  have  been  the  condition  of  the  Church  and  of 
church  government  for  the  first  forty  years  after  the 

A  •  n-ii        1        1       <•     1  11  Importance   of 

Ascension.  1  he  death  of  the  apostles,  and  especially  the  the  destruction 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  were  most  moment-  "^  J'^'""s»'«'i'- 
ous  events  in  the  liistory  of  Christianity.'  They  were  scarcely  less 
transforming  to  the  Christian  than  to  the  Jewish  church.  If  the 
Jewish  polity  was  thoroughly  destroyed  and  the  hope  of  a  temporal 
supremacy  perished,  the  separation  of  Jewish-Christian  from  (icn- 
tile-Christian  churches,  which  had  before  been  so  prominent,  lar<a'Iy 
disappeared. 

During  their  lifetime  the  apostles  had  been  the  jealous  guard- 
ians of  the  purity  of  Christian  doctrine  and  the  defendeis  of  Chris- 
tian discipline.  There  had  been  a  general  acquiescence  in  this 
apostolic  authority,  and  the  extraordinary  spiritual  enlightenment 
conferred  upon  the  body  of  believers  had  measurably  saved  them 
from  the  destructive  influence  of  the  heresies  which  afterward 
threatened  not  only  the  unity  but  the  success  of  the  Cliurch.  The 
destruction  of  the  sacred  city  hastened  the  consummation  of  wliaf 
had  been  felt  by  all  parties  to  be  a  pressing  need;  namely,  the  ujiictii 
of  the  individual  societies  into  a  firm,  compact  organization  in  the 
Christian  Churcli.  Tins  event  emancipated  the  disci-  scattered  the 
pies  from  the  burdens  of  the  Jewish  ceremonial;  it  re-  apo^t'es- 
vealed  Christianity  to  the  pagan  world  as  an  independent  religion; 
it  completely  fused  the  hitherto  inharmonious  Jewish -Cliristian 
and  Gentile-Cliristian  elements;"  it  scattered  believers  still  nior  • 
widely  throughout  the  Roman  world. 

But  when  the  original  preachers  and  defenders  of  Christ's  gospd 
had  byen  removed,  the  heresies  which  were  lying  latent,  F.mnntipated 
or  had   been  checked   in  their  first  be<j:innin<;s  by  the      t'"*'    •'imrrh 

,.,,..  .  /.I  1    '  "  1        '  from  Jewish 

watchful  administration  ot  tlie  apostles,  soon  began  to      prejudices. 

'  For  a  strikiiiir  popular  statement  of  the  efifocts  and  llie  probabilities  see  Renau  ; 
Hibbert  Lectures,  Boston,  1880,  III  Conference. 
«  Rothe:    Op.  cit.,  ss.  340-343;  Ewald;  vii,  26. 


344    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

assert  tliemselves  more  vigorously,  and  to  draw  away  multitudes  from 
the  Cluircli.  The  lack  of  apostolic  guidance  was  now  felt  to  be  a 
most  serious  privation.  The  absence  of  an  authoritative  interpre- 
tation left  each  teacher  free  to  attach  to  the  Scriptures,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  instructions  of  the  apostles,  the  meaning  which  best 
accorded  with  his  own  peculiar  dogmas.  The  instinct  of  self- 
preservation  compelled  a  readjustment  of  ecclesiastical  supervision 
and  government.  From  the  closing  years  of  the  first  century 
new  j^rinciples  are  recognised,  and  influences  before  hardly  no- 
ticeable become  prominent.  While  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
apostles  there  had  been  a  ministry  of  Christ's  own  institution,  in 
the  second  century  the  distinction  between  clergy  and  laity  is 
more  manifest;  the  priestly  function,  which  before  had  pertained 
to  the  entire  body  of  believers, becomes  circumscribed;'  the  duties 
of  the  deacons  and  presbyters  are  more  clearly  defined;  the  exist- 
ence and  prerogatives  of  the  bishops  as  a  distinct  order  become  more 
„  ,         aenerally  recognised.     Admission  to  a  sacred  order  is 

Compellea      a    "  /  ° 

more  compact  now  gained  by  the  solemn  rite  of  consecration  or  ordi- 
organization.  ^.^^i^^,^  ^here  are  now  found  in  the  Church  ordines 
inajoi'es  and  ordines  ridnores,  each  having  a  more  clearly  defined 
function. 

Thus  in  the  brief  interval  between  the  death  of  the  apostles  and 
the  middle  of  the  second  century  the  idea  of  the  Church  had  under- 
gone important  transformations,  and  the  orders  and  duties  of  its 
officers  had  become  subjects  of  clearer  definition.  The  believers  on 
('hrist  passed  from  the  condition  of  individual  congregations  to 
that  of  an  organized  Church. 

§  3.   21ie  IgiKithtn  EpUcopacy  and  its  Effects. 

Ignatius  is  the  earliest  writer  who  develops  this  new  notion  of 
Functions  of  church  order  and  discipline.  He  defends  the  essential 
the  bishop.  unity  of  the  Church,  to  maintain  which  obedience  to 
the  doctrines  and  authority  of  the  bishops  is  necessary.  Look  to 
the  bishop  that   God  may  also  look  on   thee.''      Plainly  we  should 

'  The  idea  of  the  universal  priesthood  of  believers  did  not  wholly  disappear.  In- 
deed, it  is  rigorously  asserted  by  Irenteus  (Adv.  Hcer.,  iv,  8,  §  3).  The  Montauisis 
were  most  strenuous  in  their  advocacy  of  this  doctrine,  and  TertuUian  (De  Exhort. 
Cast.,  c.  7;  De  Bapt.,  17)  affirms  that  it  is  the  authority  of  the  Church  alone  tiiat 
lias  created  the  distinction  between  laity  and  clergj'.  Even  the  hig-h-churcii  Cyprian 
uses  expressions  whicli  suggest  tliat  the  body  of  believers  is  llie  true  source  of 
ecclesiastical  autliority  (ep.  41,  8).  The  mode  of  the  election  of  Athanasius,  Am- 
brose. Augustine,  and  otiiers  in  the  fourth  century  illustrates  the  power  of  the  laity. 

"  Ad  Polyc,  cc.  5,  6. 


THE    POST-APOSTOLIC    CONSTITUTION.  345 

regard  the  bishop  as  we  regard  the  Lurd  hiiusell'.'  lie  subject  to 
the  bishop  and  to  one  another,  as  Christ  to  the  Fatlier,  in  order 
that  there  may  be  unity  according  to  God  among  you.'  Without 
the  bishop  let  no  one  attempt  any  thing  in  tlie  Church.  Lit 
that  sacrament  be  accounted  valid  which  is  under  the  direction 
of  the  bishop  or  one  Avhom  he  has  appointed.  Without  the  bisliop 
it  is  not  permitted  either  to  baptize  or  to  celebrate  the  agape. ^ 
Where  the  bishop  is,  there  is  the  congregation,  as  where  Christ  is, 
there  is  the  catholic  Church.*  This  strong  characterization  of  the 
episcopacy  is  in  most  direct  contrast  with  the  spirit  of  tlie  New 
Testament  teaching.  Yet  it  is  likewise  to  be  observed  tliat  the 
episcopacy  of  Ignatius  is  strictly  congregational.  The  bishop  has 
no  authority  outside  of  and  beyond  his  individual  congregation,  in 
which  alone  he  is  the  vicar  of  Christ,  as  well  as  an  ecjual  to  every 
other  bishop  of  every  other  congregation:  no  trace  of  subordination 
or  primacy  appears  in  these  epistles. 

Nevertheless,  Ignatius  distinguishes  the  bishops  from  the  presby- 
ters, inasmuch  as  the  former  are  the  successors  of  Christ,  Distinction  in 
while  the  latter,  on  the  contrary,  are  the  vicars  of  the  orifqu. 
apostles.^  The  institution  of  the  bishops  is,  according  to  his  view,  not 
the  work  of  the  apostles,  but  a  commission,  hvroXfi,  or  grace,  %aptr, 
of  God,  while  the  presbyters  owe  their  origin  to  the  decree  or  sanc- 
tion, vofiog,  of  Jesus  Christ."  Inasmuch  as  the  episcopacy  connects 
the  individual  churches  with  the  Church  universal,  at  whose  head 
Christ  stands,  it  thereby  becomes  the  organ  of  church  unity.'  In 
nearly  all  these  letters  of  Ignatius  the  threatening  dangers  to  tlic 
Church  from  the  current  heresies  are  revealed.  Tliey  contain  warn- 
ings, exhortations  to  concord,  and  to  a  close  atKliation  with  the  bish- 
ops, the  presbyters,  and  the  deacons,  since  thus  alone  can  the  unity 
of  the  Church  be  best  maintained.*  Yet  Ignatius  plainly  teaches 
that  while  the  congregation  should  undertake  nothing  without  the 
bishop,  no  more  should  the  bishop  without  the  will  of  God.  Tlu' 
ordinances  of  the  bishop  are  valid  only  so  far  as  they  are  accordant 
with  the  divine   will.*      Nevertheless,  from  the  very  nature   and 

'  ad  Ephes.,  c.  6.  '  ud  Marjnes.,  c.  l."'..  '  ad  Snujrn.,  c,  S 

*  Ep.  ad  Philad..  c.  3,  7;  Smyrn..  c.  8,  9,  Hal.  v.  also  Baur:  Das  CfiriftenUium, 
etc.,  2te  Ausg.,  Tiibingen,  1860,  ss.  277-279. 

s  ad  Smyrn.,  c.  8 ;  od  Ephes.,  c.  2 :  ad  Puhjc.  c.  6.  *  nd  Magne.i.,  c.  2. 

I  ad  Philad.,  c.  3  ;  od  Sniym..  c.  8.  *  ad  Smyrn..  c.  8. 

9  Compare  especially  ad  Smyrn.,  c  8,  an<l  Rntlio:  Op.  rif..  s.  445;  Uhllioni: 
U'iber  die  Ignaiinvischen  Briefe,  ii.  Ilgem  ZeiLschn/t.  Bd.  21,  8.  28-2.  Rif^clil :  Ent^ir. 
hung  der  aUhdholischen  Kirche,  Bonn,  ISf)?,  s.  455;  iind  besl  of  all,  Ligliilbol:  Tht 
Apostolic  Fathers:  Part  ii,  St.  Ignatius  and  St.  Polycarp. 


34o     ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

dignity  of  the  episcopate,  it,  before  all  other  offices,  lays  claim  to 
obedience  on  the  part  of  the  societies.' 

§  3.  The  Clementine  Homilies. 
As  we  pass  from  the  Ignatian  epistles  to  the  pseudo-Clementine 
The  monarchi-  Homilies,  which  were  probably  written  from  fifteen  to 
cai  episcopacy,  twenty  years  later,  there  is  a  yet  stronger  claim  for  the 
dignity  and  authority  of  the  bishop's  office.  The  episcopacy  of 
these  writings  is  of  the  high  monarchical  type.  The  bishop  has 
power  to  bind  and  loose.  He  stands  in  the  place  of  Christ;'  the 
presbyters  and  deacons  are  subordinate  to  him. 

Here,  too,  the  episcopate  is  represented  as  the  suc- 
successors  of  cession  to  the  apostolate,  and  the  bishops  are  the 
tiie  apostles.  guardians  and  depositaries  of  the  apostolic  doctrine. 
As  usual  in  Ebionitic  writings,^  James  is  the  bishop  of  bishops, 

'  The  importance  of  tlie  testimony  of  Ignatius  is  manifest  from  the  protracted  con- 
troversy respecting  the  genuineness  and  integrity  of  his  writings.  Scarcely  less 
earnest  than  that  over  the  genuineness  and  aulliority  of  the  Gospel  by  Jolin,  the 
Ignatian  question  still  remains  an  open  one.  An  important  literature  has  resulted 
from  these  scholarly  researches.  There  are  three  versions  of  the  writings  of  Igna- 
tius, namely:  1.  The  longer  Greek  recension,  consisting  of  seven  epistles  and  eight 
additional  ones.  2.  The  shorter  Greek  recension,  referred  to  by  Eusebius,  consisting 
of  seven  epistles.  .3.  Tlie  Syriac  version,  discovered  in  a  monastic  library  in  the 
Libyan  desert  in  1839-1843,  containing  but  three  of  the  seven  epistles  of  the  shorter 
Greek  recension,  and  these  in  very  abbreviated  form.  Of  the  first  it  may  be  said 
that  the  added  eight  epistles  are  now  regarded  as  forgeries.  Respecting  the  second 
and  third  the  scholars  are  divided.  The  Tiibingeu  school  reject  the  entire  Ignatian 
literature  as  spurious;  another  class  accept  only  what  is  common  to  the  shorter 
Greek  and  to  the  Syriac  recensions ;  while  the  tendency  to-day  is  to  hold  to  the 
genuineness  of  the  shorter  Greek  recension  and  to  regard  the  Syriac  version  as  es- 
sentially an  extract  from  the  blder  Greek.  The  most  satisfactory  examinations  and 
defence  of  the  shorter  Greek  recension  are  Zahn :  Ignatius  von  Antiochien,  Gotha, 
1873;  also  his  IgnaUi  et  Folijcarpi  Epistulce  Martyr ia  Fragmenta,  in  the  Patrum 
Apostolicorum  Opera.  Fasciculus  ii,  Lipsiae,  1876;  Uhlhoin:  Article  "Ignatius,"  in 
2d  ed.  of  Herzog's  Real ■  Encykl. ;  and  Lightfoot:  The  Apostolic  Fathers:  Part 
ii,  St.  Ignatius  and  St.  Polycarp,  London,  1885.  Lightfoot  formerly  accepted  the 
Syriac  version,  but  in  this  later  work  regards  the  shorter  Greek  version  as  defen- 
sible. The  importance  of  this  controversy  appears  from  the  different  grounds  of 
the  bishop's  authority  in  the  two  later  recensions.  In  the  Syriac  versiou  his 
exercise  of  leadership  and  discipline  is  derived  solely  from  his  personal  worthiness; 
according  to  the  shorter  Greek  recension,  by  virtue  of  his  office  alone  the  bishop 
has  the  power  to  e.xercise  priestly  leaching  and  ruling  functions.  In  the  Greek 
recension  the  will  of  the  bishop  has  unconditional  validity,  while  in  the  Syriac  his 
will  must  harmonize  with  the  divine  will  in  order  to  claim  obedience. 

2  Ep.  ad  Jacob.,  c.  14,  hom.  iii,  62. 

*This  expression  is  here  used,  notwithstanding  the  opposing  views  of  able  critics. 
Like  much  of  the  early  Patristic  literature,  the  Ckmentines  have  given  rise  to  much 


THE   POST-APOSTOLIC   CONSTITUTION.  347 

6  tnioKOTroc,  rwv  eTTiaKoncjjv,^  to  whom  even  Peter  is  subordinate, 
and  Jerusalem  is  the  capital  of  Christendom.  In  the  pseudo- 
Clementines  is  first  met  the  expression,  "the  chair  or  seat  of  the 
bishop,"  Kadidpa  ~ov  iTnaKorrov,  which  denotes  the  high  dignity 
of  the  bishop  and  his  relation  to  the  presbyters,  so  changed  fnmi 
the  New  Testament  idea.  To  the  bishop  specially  belongs  the 
promulgation  of  doctrine,  w!i:h'  to  the  jjresbyters  is  assigned  the 
preaching  of  ethical  truths.'  The  duty  of  Church  discipline  is  so 
divided  that  the  bishop  and  the  presbyters  exercise  judicial  func- 
tions, while  the  deacons  are  charged  with  the  duty  of  careful 
scrutiny  of  the  conduct  of  the  members.  The  bishop  Arbiter  of  Uoo- 
exercises  rule  over  the  society  and  is  arbiter  of  doc-  trines. 
trine,  while  the  presbyters  are  his  assistants  in  the  maintenance 
of  moral  conduct.  The  care  for  the  poor  is  shared  by  the  bishop 
and  the  deacons.  In  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  the  purpose  of  the 
institution  of  the  episcopate  was  the  restoration  of  the  unity  of  the 
Church,  and  the  reconciliation  of  the  conflicting  parties.  This  recon- 
ciliation was  to  be  effected  by  the  triumph  of  the  Ebionite  party, 
whose  peculiar  views  of  the  episcopacy  became  at  last  predominant 
in  the  Christian  Church.'  The  conception  of  the  episcopacy  com- 
mon to  the  Ignatian  epistles  and  pseudo-Clementines  is  that  the 
bishop  is  the  vicar  of  God  and  Christ.  The  saine  substantial  unity 
existing  between  God  and  Christ  is  the  relation  which  exists 
between  the  bishop  and  Christ;  for  as  Christ  is  the  hypostatic  will 
of  God,  so  should  the  bishop  be  the  hypostatic  will  of  Christ.'' 

§  4.  77/1?  Shepherd  of  Ibrmn^  ami  Pitlycurp. 
The  Shepherd  of  Hernias  and  the  epistle  of  Polycarp,  Bishop  of 
Smyrna,  belong  to  a  date  intermediate  between  that  of  the  Ignatian 
epistles  and  the  pseudo-Clementines.  Tliese  are  important  as  illus- 
trations of  the  principle  that  not  only  the  episcopate  but  the  entire 
polity  of  the  Christian  Church  was  a  development  out  oi^„„(,„„„  ^. 
of  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  times.  In  the  "Shepherd"  twwn  lay  and 
mention  is  made  of  apostles,  bishops,  doctors,  and  dea- 
cons.    While  the  term  doctors   is  somewhat  obscure  in  import,  the 

varied  controversy  and  tlio  rosults  liavo  not  proved  entirely  sjiiisfiictory  to  iuiy 
parties.  Tlie  candid  statement  of  one  of  the  most  scholarly  <>f  these  investijfalors. 
after  a  criticism  of  the  different  opini-.ns,  seems  entirely  truthful.  "  UndoiibU-dly 
the  questions  of  the  Clementiiie'<  need  ev^n  yet  a  further  di-cussion."  f.  Ulhorn . 
Article  "  Clementinen."  in  Ilerzog's  /,'eal-Ennykloprulie,  Bd.  iii,  s.  286. 

'  Ep.  ad  Jacob.,  suprascriptio.  *  Ep.  adJaroh.,  llom.  iii,  65. 

'  V.  especially  Baiir:    Ur/tprnng  rf-»r  Episropats,  Tubingen,  ISliS,  sa.  122,  148,  et  al. 

*  V.  Baur:  Das  Chriatmthuin,  etc.,  s.  283. 


348    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

bishops  are  no  longer  identical  with  the  presbyters,  and  the  lay 
function  is  distinct  from  the  clerical.' 

Polycarp's  letter  falls  in  just  that  period  when  a  number  of  Phil- 
ippian  churches  had  preserved  their  autonomy,  and  hence  the  devel- 
opment of  the  monarchical  episcopacy  was  yet  incomplete.  There 
are  evidences  of  a  vigorous  organization,  and  the  officers  of  the 
Church  are  recognised  as  clothed  with  authority  to  exercise  theii- 
functions;  for  he  strongly  exhorts  the  believers  to  be  obedient  to 
the  presbyters  and  deacons  as  to  God  and  Christ,  cjg  deco  km  Xpiaru).'' 

From  the  manner  in  which  the  term  presbyter  is  here  used,  it  has 
been  argued  that  Polycarp  recognised  the  identity  of  bishops  and 
presbyters.'  By  some  this  passage  has  been  construed  to  teach  "the 
supreme  oversight  of  the  presbyters  in  all  matters  of  administra- 
tion," *  while  others  have  from  it  inferred  the  absence  of  bishops 
from  the  Philippian  church.^  Whatever  may  have  been  the  facts, 
it  seems  certain  that  in  the  teaching  respecting  the  exalted  position 
which  is  assigned  to  the  bishop  there  is  not  yet  found  the  concej>- 
tion  of  a  church  office  in  that  specific  sense  which  later  obtained. 
When,  therefore,  in  the  Ignatian  epistles  the  expression  is  met, 
"  where  the  bishop  is  found  there  is  the  congregation. 

No    catholic  ^      .        .  .  .       .  ^ 

Church  yet  even  as  where  Christ  is  there  is  the  catholic  Church,"" 
existing.  there  is  manifestly  wanting  to  the  idea  of  the  catholic 

Church  an  element  which  was  supplied  in  the  next  century,  namely, 
that  of  unified  doctrine.  In  the  absence  of  this  factor  there  could 
properly  be  no  officer  of  the  catholic  Church,  and  in  the  writings  of 
The  bishop  the  the  first  half  of  the  second  century  the  bishop  bears  only 
unifying  power,  t^g  character  of  a  ruler  of  the  congregation.  Never- 
theless, by  the  extension  of  this  office  over  all  congregations,  the 
episcopate  becomes  the  instrument  of  the  unification  of  the  Church. 
This  was  to  be  effected  both  by  correspondence  between  the  soci- 
eties, and  by  conferences  or  synods  of  the  bishops  themselves.  The 
first  was  only  in  imitation  of  the  custom  of  the  apostles,  and  was  a 
most  natural  means  of  fostering  the  spirit  of  unity  and  of  conserv- 
ing a  common  doctrine.     The  catholicity  of  the  Church  was  further 

promoted  by  givino:  certificates  of  Church  membershi]» 
Church  letters.    ^  t      .  ,  ,  , 

or  commendation,  ypd/Xjuara  rervrroiixeva,  to  those  who 

were  travelling  into  foreign  parts,  by  means  of  which  the  bearer 

was  admitted  to  the  sacraments  and   privileges  in  other  societies. 

The}'^  were  also  proofs,  ypdjifiara  kolvmvlkcl,  of  the  agreement  and 

fellowship  of  the  bishop  who  gave,  with   him  who  received  them. 

■  Pastor;  Vis.  iii,  5,  6.  2  j^^i^f   (,^i  pj^^i     ^   5 

*  V.  especially  Ritsclil:    Op.  ciL,  s.  402;   Hase:  KirchmgeschicMe.  s.  42. 

*  Hatch:    Op.  cit.,  p.  67.  s  Bunsen:  Ignatius,  s.  109. 


THE    POST-APOSTOLIC    CONSTITUTION.  ;!4'.) 

Added  to  all  this  was  the  custom  of  each  society  to  inform  every 
other  of  all  im})ortaiit  affairs  of  its  communion,  and  of  each  hisho[( 
to  publish  to  every  other  bishoj)  the  fact  of  his  election  and  conse- 
cration, that  he  might  in  turn  receive  the  assurance  of  their  approval 
and  cooperation. 

It  has  already  been  seen  that  the  a|)ostolic  Church  recognise<]  no 
priestly  function  or  authoritv  on  the  part  of  its  minis-  „  _,  . 
ters  of  any  kind  or  grade.  The  New  Testament  teach-  msfa  by  the 
ing  that  the  whole  body  of  believers  are  priests  unto  "'"'" 
(iod,  and  that  one  alone,  Christ,  is  the  Ilighpriest,  making  offering 
of  himself  for  the  sins  of  the  world,  is  clear  and  unquestioned 
(I  Tim.  ii,  5;  Heb,  iii,  1;  v,  10;  ix,  11,  et  ul.).  This  continued  until 
after  the  destruction  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  That  epoch- 
making  event  marks  the  introduction  into  the  Christian  Church  of 
two  new  ideas  which  were  familiar  alike  to  Judaism  and  to  the 
Gentile-Christian  churches;  namely,  the  idea  of  an  offering  or  sacri- 
fice, and  the  idea  of  a  priesthood.  These  correlative  notions  were 
not  foreign  to  the  Gentile-Christian  congregations.  They  had  been 
converted  from  a  religious  system  which  was  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  thought  and  practice  of  sacrifice,  and  of  a  priesthood 
whose  functions  included  the  care  of  the  offerings.  The  smoking 
or  garlanded  altar,  the  procession  leading  the  victims,  njse  of  sacer- 
and  the  officiating  priests,  were  most  familiar  sights  in  •i'>t:'iis'»- 
every  province  of  the  Roman  Empire.  True,  this  priestly  runction 
in  the  Churcli  was  not  that  strong  and  conqilete  sacerdotalism 
which  was  victorious  in  the  following  century;  but  the  references 
to  the  priestly  office  of  the  bishop  are  now  more  frequent.  While 
not  exclusive  or  absolute,  it  is  evident  that  even  the  partial  and 
limited  recognition  of  the  priestly  office  of  the  bishop  may  be 
regarded  as  among  the  most  im{)ortant  facts  in  the  history  of 
Church  government  and  worship  in  the  second  century.  The  effect 
was  to  limit  the  spiritual  authority  of  the  presbyter.  While  he 
might  baptize,  yet  the  complete  endowment  of  faith  ri'sfed  witli 
the  bishop;  the  bringing  of  the  eucharistic  offering  was  only  by  ej/is- 
copal  sanction;  the  institution  of  the  clergy  by  ordination,  and  the 
confirmation  of  the  baptized,  were  the  exclusive  jirerogatives  of  the 
l)ishops.  They  were  entrusted  with  the  oversight  of  the  ^^^  ^^^^^ 
clergy;  they  were  the  shephenls  of  the  Hock,  who  were 
to  teach  the  ignorant,  lift  up  the  fallen,  an.l  punish  the  incorrigible. 

The  presbyters  wei'e  the  governitig  Ixxly  <»r  council;  teaching  was 
at  first  not  their  necessary  or  even  usual  function.  The  Clcmentme 
writings  make  a  distinction  between  doctrine  and  morals— the  lushop 
teaching  the   former,   the    presbyters    enforcing    the    lattir.      The 


350    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

archaic  document,  Aidax?)  rcbv  dojdsKa  'ArroaTO/MV,  "  The  Teaching  of 
tlie  Twelve  Apostles,"  Avhich  seems  to  be  firmly  placed  in  the  fii-st, 
or  early  part  of  the  second  century  (95-130),  speaks  of  a  more  simple 
condition  of  things.  Yet  the  representations  of  the  functions  of 
Church  officers  are  not  in  contradiction  with  those  already  de- 
sGribed.     The  aijostles  and  prophets  are  only  itinerant 

The   view   of  ^  /       ^  \ 

"The  Teach-  preachers  who  are  to  tarry  but  a  day  or  two  in  a  place, 
'"^-  to  receive  sustenance,  but  not  money,  except  for  gen- 

eral charities.  The  genuineness  of  the  apostle's  teaching  function  is 
to  be  judged  by  his  conformity  to  his  own  doctrines.'  The  Church  is 
instructed  to  appoint  for  itself  ^  bishops  and  deacons  Avorthy  of  the 
Lord,  men  meek  and  not  avaricious,  and  sincere  (aXrjdeXq)  and  tried. 
Such  are  worthy  of  honour  for  their  works'  sake. 

§  5.    Tlie  Form  of  Oovernment. 

The  ecclesiastical  government  which  generally  prevailed  by  the 

middle  of  the  second  century  was  that  of  the  indepen- 

A    conRrega-  ,  *'  ^ 

tionai  episco-  dent  congregation,  governed  by  a  college  of  presbyters, 
P^*^^"  whose  president  was  the  bishop,  and  whose  servants  or 

ministers  were  the  deacons.  Each  congregation  had,  therefore,  its 
separate  bishop,  its  own  governing  body,  its  ministering  servants, 
and  its  private  members.  At  each  gathering  (H^ery  element  of  this 
congregation  was  theoretically  present,^  and  the  whole  body  were  the 
depositary  of  power  and  authoritative  government.  The  presence 
of  a  bishop  in  each  congregation  explains  how  at  first  the  teaching 
power  of  the  presbyter  was  limited,  and  the  celebration  of  the  sacra- 
ments of  baptism  and  of  the  eucharist  was  practically  confined  to  the 
bishops,  although  the  presbyter  had  from  the  first  the  right  to  bap- 
tize, and  probably,  also,  the  authority  to  celebrate  the  eucharist.* 

The  change  of  opinion  respecting  the  endowments  required  in  an 
office-bearer  is  important  to  mention.     As  before  said,  in  the  apos- 

'  V.  Chap,  xi,  "But  not  everj'  one  who  speaketh  in  the  spirit  is  a  prophet,  but  only 
if  he  have  the  ways  of  the  Lord.  .  .  .  And  every  prophet  who  teacliclh  the  trutli,  if 
he  do  not  that  which  he  teacheth,  is  a  false  propliet." 

"^  V.  Chap.  XV.  The  expression  x^'^P'^'''^'^^'^'^'^  ^^'^  eavrolc  kTriaKOKovq.  etc.,  is  vari- 
ously translated.  If  tliis  writing-  is  earlier  than  the  middle  of  tlie  second  century,  the 
term  ;t;e«po-oi'£(j,  in  ap:reement  wilii  its  general  meaning  in  the  New  Testament,  in 
Josephus,  and  in  the  Ignatian  epistles,  should  be  translated  "  appoint."  But  if  it  is 
believed  to  belong  to  the  third  century,  the  word  would  naturally  follow  the  changed 
moaning  in  the  "Apostolic  Canons"  and  in  the  ''Apostolic  Constitutions,"  and  be 
translated  "ordain  by  laying  on  of  liands." 

=*  V.  Hatch:    Op.  cit,  p.  79. 

■*  This  certainly  is  tlie  view  maintained  a  little  later  by  TertuUiau  in  the  Mouta- 
nistic  controversy. 


THE   POST-AP(JST()LIC   CONSTITUTION'.  :r,l 

tolic  Churcli  incn  held  ottii-o  aiil  piTforiiUMl  diities  Ijy  virtue  of 
certain  spiritual  gifts,  or  cliari -iiis.  Tiie  l)o<ly  of  Ix-lievers  hon- 
oured and  obeyed  them  because  of  these  gifts,  whiili  were  believed 
to  be  bestowed  by  the  Spirit  for  definite  i>urposes.  About  the 
middle  of  the  third  century,  liowever,  the  office  is  no  longer  tenable 
by  virtue  of  these  charisms  alone,  but  rather  the  charisni 

.  »,.,..  The  charlsm  a 

18  a  natural  consequence  or  the  niduction  into  oHice.  n-suit  of  iim 
Ordination  comes  not  in  consequence  of  the  spiritual  "'^''"''" 
gift,  but  the  gift  is  imparted  in  the  act  of  ordination.  This  radical 
change  in  the  conception  of  ordinati(jn  was  a  consequence  of  the 
prevalent  idea  of  a  priesthood.'  The  clergy  has  assumed  the  pre- 
rogative of  mediation  between  God  and  man,  and  has  become  the 
channel  of  salvation  through  the  dispensation  of  the  sacraments.' 

Another  important  change  noticed  near  the  close  of  the  second  or 
the  beginning  of  the  third  century  is  in  the  method  of  xi,e  thoice  of 
the  election  of  bishops.  Previously  the  bishop  had  been  bishops, 
chosen  by  the  people  and  api>r()ved  by  the  presbyters;'  now  the 
neighbouring  bishops,  in  connection  with  the  }n'esbytery,  nominated 
the  candidate  and  the  people  gave  their  assent;  but  even  this  degen- 
erated into  a  mere  right  of  protest  against  those  who  were  regarded 
as  improper  candidates.''  A  like  change  is  observed  in  the  method 
of  ordination.  In  the  first  century  this  was  performed  by  the  apos- 
tles or  their  representatives,  associated  with  the  presbyters  of  the 
congregation  over  which  the  bishop  was  to  preside;  but  in  the  sec- 
ond century  the  episcopate,  as  the  depositary  of  si)iritual  gifts,  was 
summoned  to  the  consecration  of  the  individual  bishops.  The  ear- 
lier participation  of  the  presbyters  in  this  ordination  was  gradually 
lost  in  all  the  churches  except  the  Alexandrian. 

The  diocesan  episcopate  was  certainly  a  matter  of  development. 
The  question  of  its  origin  has  been  much  debated.  It  tik- <>pi.scopaoy 
can  with  confidence  be  said  that  no  other  than  a  congre-  "  <i"v.-i.>pnient. 
gational  episcopacy  is  met  before  the  middle  of  the  second  i-entury. 
A  society  embracing  but  a  single  city  is  the  realm  of  the  authority 
of  the  early  bishop,  and  he  was  so  tiioroughly  identilied  with  this 
single  congregation  that  his  removal  to  another  could  bi-  allowed 
only  in  rare  and  exceptional  cases. 

To  the  question.  What  was  the  relation  of  the  bishops  and  their 

'  Ritschl:    Op.  ciL,  s.  39-1,  e(  al. 

*  Gieselor:  Kirchengeschirhte,  4te  .Vun.,  Bd.  i,  ss.  228-'2.•^^.  lla^rcnbncli:  Dojmen- 
geschichte,  5te  Aufl.,  s.  157. 

'  Even  Cyprian  rccosnises  this  rijr'it.  "Plobs  ips«  mrtxim.im  linbet  potcstAm  vol 
clegendi  dignos  sacerdotes.  vel  indignos  rcciisandi."— Kp.  08.  v.  Rliciiiwald:  Die 
hirchliche  Archmlogie,  s.  31.  *  Kp-  67,  cc.  4,  5. 


353    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

congregations  or  dioceses  to  each  other?  it  may  be  answered:  In 
the  second  century  these  possessed  and  maintained  a  gen- 

Ilelations       of  '  •     i  i  t>  i  •  i  i       '    i 

i.jshops  to  each   era!  autonomy  or  independence,     but  this  could  not  be 

""'•'''•  absolute.     This  has  already  been  noticed  in  the  case  of 

nomination  and  ordination.  The  severe  pressure  of  foes  from  with- 
out, and  the  threats  of  heretical  teachers  from  within,  compelled 
a  closer  union  of  the  various  congregations  for  mutual  protection 
against  both  these  dangers.  This  resulted  in  a  kind  of  synodical 
or  confederated  authority,  by  which  the  purity  of  doctrine  and  life 
might  be  guarded  and  the  heretical  and  incorrigible  be  exscinded. 
While  the  essential  autonomy  of  the  congregations  had  not  been 
infringed,  the  synodical  authority  was  justified  on  the  ground  of 
Bishop  of  defence  against  a  common  danger.  In  this  college  the 
Kome.  Bishop  of   Romc   had  already,  in   the  second  century, 

assumed  special  prominence,  so  that  it  became  a  recognised  prin- 
ciple that  the  individual  bishops  should  be  in  harmony  Avith  the 
Bishop  of  Rome  on  all  questions  of  doctrine  and  discipline.  At 
the  close  of  the  century,  Victor  "  was  the  first  who  advanced  those 
claims  to  universal  dominion  which  his  successors  in  later  ages  have 
always  consistently  and  often  successfully  maintained."  ' 

The  changes  which  the  presbyterate  underwent  during  the  first 

centurv  are  most  interesting  and  important  to  notice. 
Cliange    in  .  .  . 

picsbyterial  The  gradual  increase  in  the  prerogatives  of  the  bishops 
power.  necessarily  diminished  the  authority  and  dignity  of  the 

presbyterial  body.  Its  former  significance  had  been  lost.  More- 
<^ver,  the  deacons  had  claimed  many  privileges  which  before  had 
belonged  to  the  presbyters.  Not  until  near  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century  were  their  prerogatives  regained,  when  the  deacons 
were  placed  in  strict  subordination  to  the  presbyters.  The  distinc- 
tion which  was  afterward  so  prominent  is  already  beginning  to  as- 
sert itself.  While  presbyters,  as  well  as  bishops,  administer  the 
ordinances  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  they  do  it  by  a  differ- 
ent authority.  The  bishop  acts  upon  an  original  and  independent 
authority;  the  presbyter  upon  authority  derived  from  the  sanction 
or  permission  of  the  bishop.  So  with  preaching,  reconciliation  of 
])enitents,  confirmation  of  neophytes,  consecration  of  churches,  etc. 
The  right  to  ordain  seems  to  have  been  very  rarel}'',  if  ever,  con- 
ceded to  the  presbyters  in  the  second  century.'' 

'  Liglitfoot:    O}-).  cit.  p.  224. 

^  Biusliam:  AntlquUies  of  the  Christian  Church.,  bk.  ii,  chap.  iii.  The  e.xceptions 
iirqred  by  others  in  the  practice  of  the  Alexandrian  Church  are  nndexstood  l)y  Bins:- 
hani  to  refer  to  election,  and  not  to  ordination.  This  view,  liowever,  has  been  trravely 
questioned,  and  is  by  some  regarded  untenable. 


CHURCH  CONSTITUTION— niEN.^US  TO  CONSTANTINE.    353 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE  CHURCH  CONSTITUTION  FROM  IRRN^US  TO  THK  ACCESSION  OF 

CONSTANTINE. 

§  1.    The  Theory  of  Irenmis. 

The  circumstances  of  tlic  Cliurch  toward  the  close  of  the  second 
century  were  peculiar.  Fearful  persecutions  had  visited  some  of  tlie 
jjrovinces,  and  some  of  the  most  prominent  leaders  had  sealed  their 
faith  by  a  martyr's  death.  Its  internal  state  was  no  more  assuring. 
The  prediction  of  Paul  that  after  his  departure  "  shall 

'  .  *  Peculiar  condl- 

i^rievous  wolves  enter  in  among  you,  not  sparing  the  tions  of  the 
Hock  "  (Acts  XX,  29),  had  been  fulfilled,  and  his  exhorta-  '^'^"'■'■''• 
tion  to  Timothy  "  to  shun  profane  and  vain  babblings,  for  they  wilT 
increase  unto  more  ungodliness"  (2  Tim.  ii,  16),  had  alread}'-  been 
shown  to  be  urgently  needed.  Teachers  had  arisen  who,  by  wrench- 
ing the  Scriptures  from  their  natural  and  appropriate  meaning,  had 
constructed  systems  no  less  fantastic  and  paradoxical  than  they  were- 
disturbing  to  Christian  faith  and  corrupting  to  Christian  morals. 
The  system  of  allegorical  interpretation  which,  through  the  school  of 
E^hilo,  was  powerful  at  Alexandria,  had  become  wide-  q.,,e  onostir 
spread  through  the  influence  of  the  Gnostic  teachers,  thnats. 
Whether  this  phenomenal  manifestation  is  best  accounted  for  from 
the  syncretism  of  Jewish  and  Christian  thought  with  (ireek  specu- 
lation,' or  whether,  like  the  orthodox  societies  themselves,  the 
Gnostics,  by  consulting  the  Greek  mysteries,  sought  a  practical 
end, ^  the  danger  which  they  brought  to  the  very  life  of  Christianity 
was  real  and  fearful.  While  each  party  recognised  the  fact  that 
Christianity  had  originated  with  Christ  and  was  pronudgated  by 
his  apostles,  and  also  that  they  had  left  certain  authoritative  teach- 
ings which  must  be  heeded,  nevertheless  each  laid  claim  to  personal 
freedom  in  the  inten)retation  of  this  teachin<r,  and  was 

>  1        <•    .r  ,1     •  1      1-  1  •  Divisions. 

ready  to  attach  to  the  words  of  Christ  and  ol  Ins  apos- 
tles the  meaning  which  was  most  accordant  with   its  own  opinions. 
Thus  was  the  Church  of  Christ  no  longer  an  organism,  such  as 
had  been  so  vividly  portrayed  by  Paul  (1   Cor.    xii,   12-27;  Kph. 

'v.  Joel:   Blicke  in  die  Rdii/ion.iffeschichfe,  Efrurms  If.  Die  Gnosis.  Rreslau,  1880. 
^  V.  Weingarten:  in  Von  Sybel's  Ilistoriche  Zcitschrift,  Bd.  xlv.  1881. 
23 


354    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

iv,  25),  knit  together  by  faith  in  one  common  doctrine  and  com- 
pacted by  ii  common  life,  but  the  teaching  of  Gnosticism  plainly 
resolved  Christian  doctrine  into  a  confused  conglomeration  of 
human  opinions,  and  Church  government  and  ordinances  into  mat- 
ters of  individual  caprice.  Hegesippus  vividly  pictures  the  condi- 
Testimony  of  tion  of  things.  From  these  (the  various  Gnostic  sects) 
Hegesippus,  sprang  the  false  Christs  and  false  prophets  and  false 
apostles  who  divided  the  unity  of  the  Church  by  the  introduction 
of  corrupt  doctrines  against  God  and  against  his  Christ.' 

Irenjieus,  also,  is  powerful  in  his  portraitures,  and  unsparing  in 
irenseus's  testi-  ^^^^  denunciation  of  false  teachers.  His  apprehension 
mony.  for  the  safet}'  of  the  Church  is  conspicuous  throughout 

his  entire  treatise.^  All  the  energies  of  his  vigorous  nature  seem 
enlisted  in  this  effort  to  throttle  the  foes  who  were  threatening  the 
life  of  the  Church,  and  to  settle  its  doctrine  upon  firm  foundations. 

What,  then,  is  the  principle  which  Irenaeus  recognised  and  main- 
The  principle  tained  in  the  controversy  with  the  Gnostic  sects  ?  and 
of  irena?us.  what  influence  did  this  exert  upon  the  constitution  of 
the  Church  ?  The  answer  to  the  first  is  easily  found  in  the  writings 
of  Irenaeus  himself,  and  is  so  often  reitei'ated  that  we  cannot  be  in 
doubt  respecting  it.  In  the  midst  of  the  conflict  of  opinions  aris- 
ing from  the  freedom  of  individual  interpretation  of  the  Script- 
ures, he  maintained  that  the  supreme  and  only  standard  of  Christ- 
ian teaching  was  that  which  was  given  by  the  apostles  to  the 
churches  in  their  day.  This  teaching  of  the  different  apostles  was 
essentially  harmonious,  and  was  authoritative  throughout  the  Christ- 
ian world  during  their  lifetime.  "We  have  learned  from  none 
others  the  plan  of  our  salvation  than  from  those  through 
apostolic  teach-  whom  the  Gospel  has  come  down  to  us,  which  they  did 
'""■  at  one  time  proclaim  in  public,  and,  at  a  later  period, 

by  the  will  of  God,  handed  down  to  us  in  the  Scriptures,  to  be  '  the 
ground  and  pillar  of  our  faith'  (1  Tim.  iii,  15).  .  .  .  For,  after 
our  Lord  rose  from  the  dead,  they  (the  apostles)  were  invested  with 
power  from  on  high,  when  the  Holy  Spirit  came  down,  were  filled 
from  above  and  had  perfect  knowledge;  they  departed  to  the  ends  of 
the  earth  preaching  the  glad  tidings  of  good  things  from  God  to  us, 
and  proclaiming  the  peace  of  heaven  to  men,  who  indeed  do  all  equally 
and  individually  possess  the  Gospel  of  God.''  It  is  within  the 
poAver  of  all,  therefore,  in  every  church,  who  may  wish  to  see  the 
truth,  to  contemplate  clearly  the  tradition  of   the  apostles  raani- 

'  Kiisebiiis:  Hist.  EccJes.,  iv,  22. 

^Adversus  flm-eses:  Last  edition  hy  Harve}',  Cambridge,  1857,  2  vols. 

*  Adversus  Hcereses,  iii,  1,  1. 


CHURCH  CONSTITUTION-IREN^US  TO  CONSTANTINE.    355 

fested  throuijfliout  tlic  whole  world."  '  lint  to  wliom  <li(l  tlu'  apustli'N 
commit  this  only  and  autlioritativc  doctrine,  and  by  what  means  lias 
it  been  handed  down  to  Irenjeus's  time  uncontaminated  by  error 
and  in  all  its  inte<,n-ity,  so  that  himself  and  his  adversaries  alike  <-an 
rest  in   it   as   the  word  of  Christ  V     To  the  bishops  of  tlie  cliurches 

wdiich  were  founded  by  the  apostles;  and  by  them  it  has  The      hist s 

been  liandcd  down  in  an  unbroken  line  of  succession  to   '!'*^    dt-posita- 

riesor  iijKKStolic 

his  day.  He  then  appeals  to  Rome,  the  best  known  and  ti-achHiK. 
most  inrtiuMitial  Church  of  the  time,  whose  episcopal  succession  he 
traces  with  greatest  care.  lie  also  mentions  the  well  known  church 
of  Smyrna,  which  had  had  a  succession  of  most  illustrious  men 
whose  teacliings  had  been  lieard  by  tliose  with  wliom  a  regular  suc- 
Irenoeus  and  many  of  his  contemporaries  had  conversed."   cession. 

This  teaching  is,  then,  the  one  unchanging  rule  of  faitli,  mjuhi 
Jidei,  preserved  by  an  infallible  tradition,  through  an  unbroken 
succession  of  bishops  from  the  apostles.  Trenanis  maintains  that 
the  e[)iscopacy  is  the  true  depositary  of  the  apostolic  tradition, 
and  that  this  tradition  is  the  sure  ground  of  doctrinal  unity  and 
authoi'itative  teaching  in  the  Catholic  Church.*  Hence  we  find  that 
attempts  were  now  made  to  construct  lists  of  bisliops  in  compilation  of 
the  various  churches,  especially  in  Rome,  in  order  to  es-  "s^- 
tablish  this  continuity."  To  confirm  this  historic  argument  was 
added  the  statement  that  to  guard  the  bishops  against  error  they 
were  endowed  with  a  special  gift.  "  Wherefore  it  is  incumbent  to 
obey  the  presbyters  in  the  Church,  .  ,  .  wlio,  together  with  the  succes- 
sion of  the  episcopate,  have  received  the  certain  gift  of  truth,  char- 
isma veritatis,  according  to  the  good  pleasure  of  the  Father."* 
"  Where,  therefore,  the  gifts,  charUynatu,  of  the  Lord  have  been 
placed,  there  it  behooves  us  to  learn  the  truth,  from  those  who  ])ossess 
the  succession  of  the  Church  which  is  from  the  apostles,"  etc'  Such, 
then,  is  the  principle  which  he  defended.      Witli  him  both  Hegcsip- 

'  Id.,  iii,  3,  1.  "  III,  iii.  :i,  3.  4  :   iii.  4.  1  :  iii,  5,  \.  d  nl. 

'Id.,  iv,  26,  1,  2;   v,  20,  2.       . 

*  These  catalogues  are  divided  into  two  general  classes,  characterized  in  a  broad 
and  general  way  as  the  Greek  and  tlie  Latin.  The  first  includes  liio  lists  which  are 
found  in  the  second  century,  largely  iliose  of  TIcgesippns  and  Irena?ns:  and  in  the 
fourtli  and  following  centuries,  those  of  I'^usebius  and  his  successors.  The  second 
class  embraces  tlic  lists  of  Augustine.  Optatns  of  Milcvc,  of  the  Cnlahgui  IJlMTiaims, 
Catalogus  Fllicianus,  the  Libet-  PonlificaUs,  and  the  various  early  A/nrli/rnloyie-^. 
These  catalogues  are  not  in  agreement  respecting  the  succession  of  the  cnrly 
Roman  bishops,  nbout  which  there  is  great  uncertainty.  Nor  arc  the  modern  critics 
of  these  catalogues,  as  Dnchenc,  Harnack,  Waitz,  Lipsiua,  and  others,  any  moro  i<i 
accord  on  this  very  difficult  problem. 

5Id.,iv,  26,  2.  Md.,  iv.  26.  5. 


350    ARCHx^OLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

pus  and  Tertullian  are  in  substantial  agreement.*  The  manifest 
others  in  effect  of  such  a  theory  upon  the  constitution  and  govern- 
asjreement.  ment  of  the  Church  was  to  magnify  the  relative  import- 
ance and  authority  of  the  bishops.  They  to  whom  were  entrusted 
truths  so  invaluable,  and  upon  whom  were  bestowed  such  extraordi- 
nary gifts,  must  be  reckoned  among  elect  ministers,  whose  persons 
were  of  superior  sanctity  and  whose  words  were  of  the  nature  of  di- 
vine messages.  "  The  supremacy  of  the  bishop  and  unity  of  doctrine 
were  conceived  as  going  hand  in  hand,  .  .  .  the  bishop's  seat  was 
conceived  as  being  what  St.  Augustine  calls  it,  the  'cathedra  uni- 
tatis; '  and  round  the  episcopal  office  revolved  the  whole  vast  sys- 
tem not  only  of  Christian  administration  and  Christian  organization, 
but  also  of  Christian  doctrine." ''  The  earlier  opinion,  that  the 
Church,  as  such,  had  been  the  heir  of  the  truth  and  doctrine  of  the 
apostles  in  so  far  as  it  retained  the  presence  and  power  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  maintained  its  hold  on  many  minds,  and  even  Irenjeus 
and  Tertullian  in  their  earlier  writings  are  imbued  with  this  thought. 
But  in  his  later  writings  Tertullian  teaches  that  the  bishop  holds  his 
office  by  virtue  of  inheritance  from  the  apostles,  and  both  Calixtns 
and  his  opponent,  Hippolytus,  insist  upon  their  succession  from  the 
apostles  by  vii'tue  of  which  alone  the}'  have  preserved  Christianity 
in  its  original  purity.' 

§  2.    The  Infiuence  of  Gyjirian. 

In  the  third  century  the  constitution  of  tlie  Church  was  further 
developed  by  the  labors  and  writings  of  Cyprian,  who  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  foremost  exponent  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  episcopal 
sentiment  of  his  age.  The  principle  of  the  unity  of  doctrine  and  of 
authoritative  teaching  is  pushed  still  farther  than  by  Irenjeus, 
Hegesippus,  and  Tertullian'.  With  Cyprian  the  unity  of  the  Church 
is  absolutely  identified  with  that  of  the  e])isco})ate.  The 
Church  identi-  principle  of  the  episcopacy  is  not  only  the  a])ostolic  suc- 
^^''  cession,  but  much  more  the  bestowment  upon  the  bishops 

of  the  Holy  Ghost;  so  that  the  unity  of  the  Church  is  secured  by  a 
double  means,  namely,  a  direct  and  unbroken  succession  from  the 
a])ost]es  and  the  communication  to  all  bishops  alike  of  a  common 
With  unity  of  Spirit.  Where  this  spirit  is  vouchsafed,  there  the  unity 
episcopacy.  of  the  Church  must  necessarily  be  secured,  for  in  its 
presence  diverse  opinions  and  teachings  must  be  impossible.    "  There 

'  Tertullinn :  de  jircEncr.  Haer.,  c.  21.      Cnmmiinicamus  cum  ecclesiis  apostolieis, 
quod  nulla  doctrina  diversn,  hoc  est  testimonium  veritatis. 

-Hatch:    Op.  ciL,  pp  98,  99.     B;uir  :    Christenthum,  etc.,  ss.  284,  285. 

*v.  Harnack:  Lehrbuch  der  Dogineivjeschichte,  Freiburg,  18S6,  Bd.  i,  ss.  295-97. 


CHURCH  CONSTITUTION— IREN^US  TO  CONSTANTINE.     357 

is  one  God,  and  Christ  is  oiio,  and  there  is  one  Church,  and  one 
chair  founded  upon  the  rock  by  the  word  of  the  Lonl.  Another 
altar  cannot  be  constituted,  or  a  new  priesthood  made  except  the 
one  altar  and  the  one  priesthood." '  Each  bishop  must  be  of  tlie 
same  mind  as  every  other  bishop;  in  the  episcopate  no  in<livi<lual 
exists  for  himself,  but  is  only  a  member  of  a  wider  or«^anic  wIikK-. 
"And  this  unity  we  ought  tirmly  to  hold  and  assert,  especially  those 
of  us  who  are  bishops  who  preside  in  the  Church,  that  we  may 
also  prove  the  episcopate  itself  to  be  one  and  undivided.  .  .  .  Tlie 
episcopate  is  one,  each  part  of  which  is  held  by  each  one  f«r  tlie 
whole."*  But  in  the  development  of  the  idea  of  unity  Cyprian 
passes  beyond  his  predecessors  in  that  he  regards  this  which  pro- 
unity  as  proceeding  from  one  determinate  point — the  l^^^l^  'y'/"  ^^ 
chair  of  St.  Peter.  While  the  other  apostles  \vere  of  Pt"*r. 
like  honor  and  authority  with  Peter  himself,  nevertheless  to  Peter 
Christ  first  gave  power  to  institute  and  show  forth  this  unity 
to  the  world.*  The  chair  of  St.  Peter  is  the  foremost  Church 
whence  priestly  unity  is  derived,*  and  the  same  unifying  j)ower 
must  be  recognised  as  in  every  one  who  has  occupied  the  same  chair. 
Outside  the  one  Church  the  sacraments  are  unavailing,  although 
administered  by  the  regular  formula  and  in  proper  mode.  "  For  as, 
in  that  baptism  of  the  world,  in  which  its  ancient  ini(piity  was 
]>urged  away,  he  who  was  not  in  the  ark  of  Noah  could  not  be 
saved  by  water,  so  can  he  neither  appear  to  be  saved  by  baptism 
who  has  not  been  baptized  in  the  Church  which  is  established  in 
the  unity  of  the  Lord  according  to  the  sacrament  of  the  <Mie  ark."  ' 
With  the  idea  of  apostolic  succession  is  connected  the  rule  of 
faith  as  a  mark  and  proof  of  the  Catholic  Church.  To  the  doctrine 
of  an  authoritative  subjective  knowledge,  Gnosis,  enjoined  by  a 
chosen  few,  Cyprian  stoutly  opposes  the  objective  norm  Power  of  tm- 
of  faith.  Tradition  is  now  elevated  to  a  place  of  abso-  diuon. 
lute  authority.  The  bishops  are  the  guardians  of  Churcli  unity. 
Although  the  term  Catholic  Church,  rj  KaOoXiKi]  kKuXT^nia,  had  been 
first  used  by  Ignatius,"  and  is  found  in  Tertullian  and  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  yet  it  was  used  in  a  sense  <piite  different  from  that 
found  in  Cyprian.  Not  until  his  time  can  we  properly  speak  of  a 
Catholic  Church;  since  now  for  the  first  time  is  seen  the  distinction 
between  the  acts  of  a  minister  of  the  congregation  and  the  duties  i.l 

I  Rp    39   c.  5.  *  r)f  uniMe  ecclesur,  c.  5. 

^  De  unit,  eccles..  c.  4;    Kp.  7:?.  c.  11.  Unilo  uiiitatis  ori^iiicm  institiiit  el  oslondit 

■*Kp.  54,  c.  14.     Catiiedra  Petri  est  ecclosia  priiieipnli9  imde  iinitjis  sacerdotalis 
c.xorta  est. 

*Ep.  73,  c.  11.  *ad  5/nyr».,  c.  8. 


358    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

an  officer  of  the  Church  Catholic.  The  society  or  congregation  is 
properly  the  logical  antecedent,  the  necessary  condition  of  an  office 
therein.  But,  contrariwise,  when  the  office  and  the  officer  are  held 
to  be  the  logical  antecedent,  and  the  congregation  can  only  there 
be  found  where  the  office  and  the  officer  are  already  existent,  then 
first  can  there  strictly  be  said  to  be  an  office  and  an  officer  of  the 
Church  Universal.  So  that  in  the  third  century  the  bishop  is  no 
longer,  as  before,  regarded  as  the  representative  of  a  specific  con- 
gregation or  society,  but  of  the  universal  Church;  this  last  term 
being  inclusive  of  all  the  congregations,  as  the  genus  in- 
louger  lucai,  cludes  under  it  all  its  species.  According  to  this  view 
but  general.  ^j^^  congregation  and  its  entire  officiary  would  have 
ecclesiastical  validity  only  through  the  bishop.  Nevertheless,  since 
there  now  exists  a  complete  harmony  of  the  mind  and  will  of  Christ 
with  the  collected  body  of  bishops,  every  expression  of  the  will  of 
every  bishop  in  this  totality  of  the  e^^iscopate  must  harmonize  with 
the  divine  will.  Only  thus  can  any  bishop  assume  to  exercise  direc- 
tion or  authority  in  the  Church  of  Christ.  For  the  assumption  of 
a  prerogative  so  arrogant,  a  special  charism  is  imparted  in  the  rite 
of  ordination.  To  the  Montanistic  view,  that  the  Holy  Spirit  re- 
veals added  truth  to  each  individual,  was  opposed  the  teaching 
that  the  Spirit  and  the  Church  are  inseparably  connected.  The 
Church  finds  the  fact  of  its  existence  and  unfolding  in  the  Spirit, 
and  the  Spirit  finds  the  organ  and  means  of  his  manifestation  in  the 
Church.  To  the  vague  and  arbitrary  claim  that  each  man  was  spe- 
cially enlightened,  and  was,  therefore,  prepared  to  teach  new  truth, 
was  opposed  the  consensus  of  teaching  of  the  one  holy  Catholic 
Church  which  had  been  saved  from  erroi*  by  the  Holy  Spirit.' 

By  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  ordination  the  mind  and  will 
By  ordination  of  the  bishop  are  brought  into  harmony  with  the  mind 
is  this  effected,  and  will  of  Christ,  and  he  receives  thereby  authority 
not  only  to  teach  but  to  bind  and  loose;-  thus  becoming  the  source 
of  all  valid  Church  discipline  and  government.  The  bishops  are 
the  successoi^s  of  the  apostles,  and,  therefore,  by  virtue  of  a  vica- 
rious ordination,  have  the  power  to  remit  sins.^  Every  truly  ecclesi- 
astical act  is  of  the  nature  of  a  divine  law,  since  it  is  suggested  and 
dictated  by  the  Spirit  vouchsafed  to  the  bishop  in  the  rite  of  ordi- 
nation.   "  No  bishop,  no  Church,"  is  the  real  teaching  of  this  father/ 

'  Baur:  Das  Christenthum,  etc.,  ss.  296,  297. 
'  V.  Ritsclil :    Op.  cit,  s.  582 ;  Baur  r    Op.  ciL,  ss.  296-300. 

'  Ep.  74  (75),  c.  16.     With  Cyprian  schism  and  iieresy  are  absolutely  identical. 
*  V.  Ep.  66,  c.  8.    Scire  debes,  episcopam  in  ecclesia  et  ecelesiam  in  episcopo,  et  si 
qui  cum  episcopo  non  sit,  iu  ecclesia  uou  esse. 


CHURCH  CONSTITUTION— ntEN.EUS  TO  CONSTANTIXE.    35ft 

The  various  bishops  exercise  but  one  office  in  common;  notwilli- 
standing  the  division  into  dioceses,  they  represent  the  unity  and 
totality  of  the  Church.' 

§  3.  The  Sacerdotal  Principle. 
The  sacerdotal  character  of  the  ei)iscopacy,  as  we  have  before  in- 
timated, had  been  mildly  asserted  prior  to  the  third  cen-  G,owiiiof  sac- 
tury.  Yet  probably  not  even  Irenaeus  can  be  claimed  t-ruoiaiisin. 
as  teaching  more  than  a  moral  priesthood,  and  this  not  limited  to 
any  single  order  in  the  Church.  Nor  can  the  frequent  references  of 
Tertullian  '■'  to  a  sacerdotal  office  be  understood  as  pertaining  to  the 
clergy  alone,  much  less  to  the  bishops.  Indeed,  this  able  presbyter 
is  positive  in  his  assertions  that  a  Church  may  exist  without  the 
presence  of  the  clergy,  and  that  in  their  absence  laymen  may  bap- 
tize and  celebrate  the  eucharist  by  virtue  of  their  being  members  of 
Christ's  universal  Church,  all  of  whose  members  have  become 
"  kings  and  priests  unto  the  Lord."  '  Quite  similar  views  are  held 
by  Origen.  At  most  his  sacerdotalisni  goes  no  further  than  in  sup- 
posing that  the  priestly  character  and  function  of  the  clergy  are  not 
an  original  and  necessary  endowment  of  this  order,  but  rather  it  Is 
derived  from  the  congregation,  which,  for  the  time  being  and    foi- 

purposes  of  ecclesiastical    order,  has  delegated   to  the    .     „ 
r     1  '  -^    _  At  first  tilt- 

bishops  its  own  indefeasible  right.     The  office-bearers  priesthood    ..r 

of  the  Church  represent  in  themselves  the  character  and  '^'"'  c  i  erfrv 

.  .        comes  from  th« 

religious  privileges  of  the  entire  body  of  believers;  the  priesthood  of 
priesthood  of  the  ministry  is  regarded  as  siiringing  from   "le    entire 

*^  .;  p>  1         o      o  Church. 

the  priesthood  of  the  whole    body."  * 

But  by  Cyprian  a  new  and  most  important  phase  of  the  sacerdotal 

question  is  developed.    From  his  time  the  bishop  is  truly  , 

^  ^  .       ,  ,  ,    .       .      Cyprian  svlew. 

the  priest,  and  the  separation  between  clergy  and  laity  is 

real  and  significant.    All  the  duties  and  prerogatives  that  pertained  to 

'  V.  de  unitate  ecclesice,  c.  5.  Episeopatus  iinus  est  cuius  a  singulis  in  solidiuii  par.<j 
tenetiir. 

*  De  Exhort.  Cast.,  c.  7 ;  de  Baptismo,  c.  17 ;  de  Frcescr.  Iheres.,  c.  41,  e/  al. 

3  "  The  sacerdotal  conception  of  the  ministry  is  not  found  in  Ignatius,  in  Clement 
of  Rome,  or  Clement  of  Alexandria,  in  Jusliu,  or  in  Irenicus,  or  in  any  otlier  eoclesi- 
astical  writer  prior  to  Tertullian."     v.  Fisher:    The  Ikginnirvis  of  Christianity,  p.  b'iX 

•*  Iti  this  there  was  a  very  close  parallelism  to  the  priestly  notion  (compare  Kxnd. 
xix,  6;  Lev.  xx,  26;  Deut.  xxxi,  19,  with  1  Pet.  ii,  5  and  9;  Rev.  i.  C:  v,  10)  a.s  it 
was  originally  conceived  iu  the  Jewisii  Church,  v.  Biihr:  Symholik  if.  inasaisclieH 
Oultu-%  Bd.  ii,  S3.  11-22.  "Was  das  Volk  im  weiten,  grossen  Kreise,  das  ist  der 
Prieslersiand  im  kleinern,  engern,  besonderorn  Kreise:  in  ihm  coneentrirt  sich  dem- 
nach  die  religiose  Wurde  dns  gosammten  Volkes:  allea  was  dieses  zukomtiit  ist  ihm 
in  hoherem  Grade  und  darnm  audi  in  vollerein  Masse  eigeu."  3.  13. 


360    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

the  Aaronic  priesthood  he  devolves  upon  the  Christian  ministry,  and 
all  the  threats  of  punishment  and  disaster  uttered  against  the  Jews 
for  their  disobedience  to  their  priests  Cyprian  likewise  makes  to  apply 
to  all  who  are  disobedient  to  the  ministers  of  the  Christian  Church." 
The  effect  of  this  triumph  of  the  sacerdotal  principle  will  appear 
when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  sacraments,  their  nature  and  import. 
Whether  this  result  was  due  to  the  influence  of  Jewish- 

Wasitof  Jew-  .  ,.    /-,         m         i  i  •  -n 

ish  or  pagan  or-  Christian  or  of  Gentile  churches  is  still  a  matter  oi 
igin?  debate.     Lightfoot  decides  for  the  latter:  "  Indeed,  the 

hold  of  the  Levitical  priesthood  on  the  mind  of  the  pious  Jew  must 
have  been  materially  weakened  at  the  Christian  era  by  the  develop- 
ment of  the  synagogue  organization  on  the  one  hand  and  by  the 
ever-growing  influence  of  the  learned  and  literary  classes,  the  scribes 
and  rabbis,  on  the  other.  The  points  on  which  the  Judaizers  of  the 
apostolic  age  insist  are  the  rite  of  circumcision,  the  distinction  of 
meats,  the  observance  of  the  Sabbaths,  and  the  like.  The  necessit}^ 
of  a  priesthood  was  not,  or  at  least  is  not,  known  to  have  been  a 
Lightfoofs  part  of  their  programme.  .  .  .  But,  indeed,  the  over- 
opinion,  whelming  argument  against  ascribing  the  growth  of 
sacerdotal  views  to  Jewish  influence  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  a 
singular  absence  of  distinct  sacerdotalism  during  the  first  century 
and  a  half,  where  alone  on  any  showing  Judaism  was  powerful 
enough  to  impress  itself  on  the  belief  of  the  Church  at  large. 

"  It  is  therefore  to  Gentile  feeling  that  this  development  must  be 
ascribed.  For  the  heathen,  familiar  with  the  auguries,  lustrations, 
sacrifices,  and  depending  on  the  intervention  of  some  priest  for  all 
the  manifold  religious  rites  of  the  state,  the  club,  and  the  famil}^, 
the  sacerdotal  functions  must  have  occupied  a  far  larger  space  in 
the  affairs  of  every-day  life  than  for  the  Jew  of  the  dispersion,  who, 
of  necessity,  dispensed  and  had  no  scruple  in  dispensing  with  priest- 
ly ministrations  from  one  year's  end  to  the  other.  With  this  pre- 
sumption drawn  from  probability  the  evidence  of  fact  accords."  ^ 

We  have  before  said  (v.  p.  343)  that  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
was  powerful  in  modifying  the  prevailing  Jewish  sacerdotal  notion ; 
yet  Lightfoot's  reasons  are  very  important.  It  is  probably  true  that 
neither  branch  of  the  early  Church  was  unfavourable  to  this  thought, 
after  the  warm  religious  feeling  of  the  apostolic  Church  had  some- 
what subsided.  One  sure  result  of  a  spiritual  declension  is  to  dimin- 
ish the  feeling  of  individual  worth  and  responsibility,  to  magnify 
forms,  and  delegate  to  others  duties  which  were  before  regarded  as 
personal. 

Moreover,  the  reasons  already  given  for  a  more  thorougli  and 
'  Ep.  54,  64,  68.  «  Op.  at.,  p.  260. 


CHURCH  CONSTITUTION-IREN.EUS  TO  CONSTANTINE.    361 

compact  ecclesiastical  orji^anization  after  the  middle  of  the  second 
century  would  apply  with  ecpial  force  to  the  (piestion  of  the  <>ri<rin 
of  sacerdotalism  in  the  Christian  Cliurch.  A  centre  of  or<ranizatioii 
would  soon  carry  with  it  peculiar  prerogatives,  and  unity  of  doctrine 
and  government  would  imply  an  authority  to  interpret  and  enforce 
this  unity.  This  official  class  would  naturally  seek  for  all  possible 
sanctions  for  the  exercise  of  such  extraordinary  powers,  and  to  re- 
gard these  as  divinely  bestowed  was  entirely  consonant  with  the 
historical  development  of  Judaism  and  of  the  heathen  religions. 

In  answering  the  question  of  the  source  of  this  principle,  it  is 
however,  of  first  importance  to  study  the  oi)inions  of  the  Christian 
fathers  themselves.  It  might  be  expected  that  in  the  varied  an«l 
extensive  writings  of  men  by  whom  the  sacerdotal  notion  was  first 
sanctioned  and  defended  the  references  to  a  (rentile  origiji  might 
be  frequent.  Thoroughly  conversant  with  heathen  customs  and  n  - 
ligious  rites,  as  well  as  with  profane  literature  and  civil  law,  and 
converted  to  Christianity  in  mature  life,  Tertullian  and  Cy})rian 
were  the  men  best  acquainted  with  the  origin  of  the  priestly  notion, 
and  with  the  source  of  the  change  which  |)assed  upon  the  ecclesias- 
tical polity  from  the  close  of  the  second  to  the  middle  of  the  third 
(!entury.  Yet  in  the  writings  of  neither  of  these  eminent  fathers  is 
there  an  intimation  that  the  sacerdotal  principle  was  suggested  bv 
Gentile  customs.  On  the  contrary,  they  uniforndy  derive  their  no- 
tions of  the  character,  and  enforce  the  authority,  of  the  clergy  bv 
examples  from  the  Jewish  Church  and  from  the  prerogaiives  of  the 
Aaronic  priesthood.'  From  these  considerations  it  may  ])e  fairlv 
inferred  that  in  the  Jewish  economy,  as  well  as  in  the  religious  cus- 
toms with  which  the  Gentile  converts  were  entirely  familiar,  the 
sacerdotal  principle  in  the  Church  of  the  third  century  found  its 
origin  and  sanction. 

§  4.    The  Apostolic  Constitutions. 

Another  class  of  writings  illustrating  the  nature  and  develoji- 
ment  of  the  early  Church  government  are  the  "Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions."^ The  first  six  books,  ])robabIy  belonging  to  the  latter  half 
of  the  third  century,  are  plainly  Jewish-Christian  in  their  spirit  :\\\\\ 
teaching.  A  strong  likeness  to  the  ])seudo-Clenu'ntin('  homilies  i^ 
everywhere  noticeable.  The  episcopate  is  very  strongly  empha- 
sized.    The  bishoj)  is  the  vicar  of  the  unseen  Lord  CMirist,  and  is  lo 

'  V.  for  Cyprian,  ep.  61,  c.  4;   ep.  G7,  c.  3  ;  op.  72,  c.  8,  et  al. 

*  V.  edition  of  P.  A.  LagHrdc,  Leipzifr.  1802;  also  the  criiicnl  di.scnssions  .md  esti- 
mates of  Drey:  Neue  Untosnchungen  uhfr  die  Conslitnt.  u.  Kanones  d.  Apitsklii,l<xo\\\- 
geu,  1832;  and  Bickell:   Geschkhte  d.  Kirdienredits,  Giessen,  1843. 


363    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

exercise  leadership  and  watch-care  until  the  Lord  shall  come  again.' 
The  Church  is  regarded  as  a  divine  state,  in  which  the 
A  divine  state.  1^^^^]-^^^  exercises  the  highest  functions  of  judge,  prophet, 
and  priest.  His  judicial  power  in  civil  matters  is  supreme.^  By 
virtue  of  com})lete  knowledge  conferred  by  the  Holy  Spirit  he  be- 
comes the  infallible  prophet  and  teacher;  to  him,  as  high-priest,  ex- 
clusively belongs  the  right  to  arrange  the  services  of  divine  wor- 
ship,and  to  be  the  spiritual  director  of  the  flock.'  With  him  rests  the 
original  authoritative  rule  of  faith  as  given  by  the  apostles.  These 
writings  give  minutest  directions  respecting  ordination.  This  must 
ordination,  ^e  conferred  by  three  bishops  at  least;  only  in  case  of 
how  effected,  extreme  need  is  the  work  of  two  regarded  as  canonical. 
The  act  of  ordination  does  not,  however,  as  in  the  opinion  of  Cypri- 
an, confer  upon  the  candidate  special  spiritual  gifts.*  The  sacerdo- 
tal character  of  the  episcopacy  is  even  more  pronounced  than  in  the 
writings  of  Cyprian.  In  these  writings  the  constitution  of  the 
Church  and  the  character  of  its  government  are  those  of  a  thor- 
oughly unified,  closely  compacted,  and  widely  recognised  organiza- 
tion, in  which  are  found  nearly  all  the  germs  of  the  powerful  hier- 
archy whose  influence  was  so  controlling  for  nearly  a  thousand  years. 
Thus  in  the  process  of  two  and  a  half  centuries  the  constitution  of 
the  Church  underwent  several  important  changes.  The  origin  and 
cause  of  these  are  at  times  veiled  in  deep  obscurity.  The  great 
paucity  of  evidence,  both  documentar}^  and  monumental,  the  doubt 
attaching  to  the  genuineness  and  integrit}^  of  some  of  the  writings 
which  have  survived,  and  the  great  difficulties  of  their  interpreta- 
tion give  occasion  for  the  honest  maintenance  of  different  theories. 
Affected  by  Its  But  a  careful  examination  of  the  history  justifies  the 
environment,  conclusion  that  these  changes  were  effected  more  by 
the  peculiar  influences  incident  to  the  propagation  of  a  new  relig- 
ion than  to  either  a  directly  divine  institution  or  to  a  set  purpose 
on  the  part  of  the  Church  leaders.  The  ecclesiastical  organization 
which  we  find  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  is  but  a  nat- 
ural outcome  of  the  peculiar  forces  which  pressed  upon  the  Church 
Church  govern-  ^^'^"^  within  and  from  without.  A  compact  unity  of 
inent  a  devei-  both  doctrine  and  discipline  for  self-defence  comported 
opment.  Avith  the  idea  of  an  office  and  officer  who  should  thoi- 

oughly  embody  that  unity  in  himself,  and  who  should  be  prepared 
for  the  high  responsibility  of  maintaining  this  unity  through  direct 
inspiration  of  knowledge  and  purity  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

'  Const.,  ii,  20.         Hd,,  ii,  11,  45-53.         Hd.,  ii,  27,  33  ;  iii,  10.         Hd.,  viii,  4,  5. 


OFFICES  AND  OFFICERS  OF  POST-APOSTOLIC  CIIURCJIJ.    :ji]:i 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  OFFICES  AND  OFFICERS  OF  THE  POST-APOSTOLIC  CHURCH. 
§1.    Origin  of  Ejjiscopncy. 

From  this  examination   it  will  appear  less  surprising  that  dif- 
ferent opinions  have   been  entertained  respecting  the 
origin    01    the    episcopac3\        Ihree    general    theories 
have  been  urged  with  great  ability  by  their  respective  advocates: 

1.  Ej)iscopacy  is  of  apostolic  origin.      The   apostles  chose  and 
ordained  men  to  be  their  true  and  lawful  successors  as 
teacliers  and  governors  of  the  Christian  Church.     These 

men  were  clothed  with  like  authority  and  endowed  with  like  spirit- 
ual gifts  as  the  apostles  themselves  in  order  to  preserve  intact 
the  teachings  and  si)irit  of  C'lirist,  who  instituted  the  apostolate. 
The  advocates '  of  this  theory  urge  the  following  considerations  : 
\.)  The  position  of  James,  who  stood  at  the  head  of  the  Chun-h 
of  Jerusalem.  2.)  The  office  of  the  assistants  and  delegates  of 
the  apostles,  as  Timothy,  Titus,  Silas,  Epaphroditus,  Luke,  etc.,  who 
in  a  measure  represented  the  apostles  in  si)ecific  cases.  3.)  The 
angels  of  the  seven  Asiatic  churches,  who,  it  is  claimed,  were  of  the 
rank  of  bishop.  4.)  The  testimony  of  Ignatius  presn])poses  the 
episcopate  as  already  in  existence.  5.)  The  statement  of  (Mejnent 
of  Alexandria  that  John  instituted  bishops  after  his  ri'tiii-ii  from 
I'atmos;  also  the  accounts  of  Irenanis,  Tertullian,  Eusebiiis,  and 
Jerome  that  the  same  apostle  nominated  and  ordained  Polycarp  as 
bishop  of  Smyrna.  6.)  The  traditions  of  the  churches  of  Antioch 
and  Rome,  which  trace  their  line  of  bishops  back  to  apostolic  insti- 
tution and  keep  the  record  of  an  unbroken  succession.  7.)  The 
almost  universal  and  uncontested  spread  of  the  episcopate  in  the 
second  century,  which  it  is  conceded  by  all  cannot  be  satisfactorily 
explained  without  the  presumption  of  at  least  the  indirect  sanction 
of  the  apostles.' 

2.  It  originated  in  the  so  calleil  household  societies  or  congrega- 

'  This  is  the  view  of  tlie  Greek  Church,  and  is  embraced  by  most  of  tlio  Roman 
Catholics  and  the  Iligli  An>!;licans.  It  is  also  advocated  by  Bunsen,  Rollie,  Thiersch, 
and  a  few  other  Protestant  scholars. 

-Abridged  from  Schaff:  Op.  ciL,  vol.  ii,  pp.  135-139.  Rotho  is  the  most  able 
modern  defender  of  this  theory. 


364    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

tions.  The  following  considerations  are  urged  by  this  school:  1.)  It 
is  well  known  that  in  the  more  important  cities  single 
eory.  £^j^^j^pg  gathered  in  the  house  of  a  well  known  disciple, 
and  thus  were  formed  the  so  called  family  societies  or  churches 
(eKicXrjaia  kut'  oIkov).  2.)  The  foremost  person  among  the  disciples 
thus  banded  together  was  called  to  extend  his  patronage  or  pro- 
tection to  the  society  thus  formed.  This  family  patronage  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures,'  as  well  as  in  the  letters  of  Ignatius.*  It 
seems  to  have  been  quite  generally  recognised  at  Rome,  and  there 
are  clear  intimations  of  its  prevalence  at  Corinth. °  Afterward, 
when  these  family  churches,  over  each  of  w^hich  such  patron  presided, 
were  united  into  one  congregation,  a  college  of  presbyters  or  patrons 
would  thus  be  formed,  to  whose  president  was  given  the  title  of 
bishop,  k-niaKOTToq.     In  this  manner  the  episcopate  originated.* 

3.  A  third  theory  has  been  well  formulated  as  follows:  "The 
episcopate  was  formed  not  out  of  the  apostolic  order  by 
localization,  but  out  of  the  presbyterial  by  elevation;  and 
the  title,  which  originally  was  common  to  all,  came  at  length  to  be 
appropriated  to  the  chief  among  them."  ^  In  other  words,  the  episco- 
pate, as  a  distinct  office,  w^as  of  post-apostolic  origin,  was  not  a  dis- 
tinctively divine  institution,  and  therefoi'e  not  an  office  necessary 
to  the  existence  of  the  Christian  Church.  It  was  the  result  of 
peculiar  circumstances,  a  development  from  the  needs  which  the 
early  Church  felt  for  unification  of  government  and  docti-ine, 
and  for  the  more  careful  oversight  and  administration  of  its 
charities.  The  facts  urged  by  the  advocates  of  this  theory  are: 
1.)  The  almost  universally  conceded  identity  of  bishops  and  pres- 
byters in  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament.  2.)  This  identity  of 
terms  continues  to  the  close  of  the  first  centur^^,  and  even  into  the 
second;  at  least  there  is  no  clearly  conceived  difference,  and  they 
seem  to  be  used  interchangeably  or  very  loosely.  3.)  From  the  first 
century  down  to  tlie  beginning  of  the  third  it  was  the  custom  of 
the  influential  Church  of  Alexandria  to  recognise  twelve  presbyters. 
From  this  number  the  body  elected  and  consecrated  a  president,  to 
whom  they  gave  the  title  of  bishop.  They  then  elected  one  to  take 
his  place  in  the  presbyterial  body.     It  is  also  probable  that  to  the 

'  Rom.  xvi,  14,  15  ;   1  Cor.  xvi,  19. 

'  Ad  Ephes.,  c.  5,  6,  8,  13,  20  ;  ad  Smyrn.,  c.  1,  2,  7,  8,  et  al. 

M  Cor.  i,  16;  xvi,  15,  19. 

*For  the  influence  of  these  house  or  fnmily  societies  upon  tlie  development  of 
ecclesiastical  architecture,  v.  bk.  i,  eh.  vi.  This  is  substantially  tlie  theory  of  Baur. 
Kisi,  Weingarteu,  Heiurici,  Hase,  and  others,  v.  especially  Baur  :  ijber  den  Urspruny 
des  Episcopats,  ss.  85,  90,  107,  et  al. 

^Lightfoot:    Op.  cit,  p.  196. 


OFFICES  AND  OFFICERS  OF  POST-APOSTOLIC  CHURCH.    -Mr, 

end  of  the  second  century  the  I)isli()j)  of  Alexandria  was  tlie  ojiiv 
bishop  in  all  Egypt,'  4.)  Jerome  distinctly  attirms  that  the  Church 
was  originally  governed  by  a  body  of  i)resbyters,  and  that  the 
bishop  was  elected  at  a  later  period  to  secure  unity  of  doctrine  and 
government.  In  other  words,  it  was  a  prudential  measure  and  not 
a  divine  institution. 

§  2.    The  Presbi/ters,   Deacons,  Deaconesses,  etc. 

The  eflfect  of  tiie  efforts  of  Irenjcus  and  TertuUian  to  secure  a  unified 
and  authoritative  doctrine,  reyula  Jidei,  and  of  Cyprian,  Calixtus,  and 
Ilegesippus  to  realize  the  idea  of  "a  holy  Catholic  Church,"  througli 
the  sui)ervision  of  bishops  who  should  exercise  their  prerogatives 
by  virtue  of  an  unbroken  succession  from  the  apostles,  Duties  and  pn- 
necessarily  conferred  upon  the  episcopal  office  a  dignity  rogaiivts. 
and  an  importance  before  unknown.  The  difference  between  them 
and  the  body  of  presbyters  and  the  deacons  became  more  dis- 
tinct, and  the  duties  and  prerogatives  of  each  were  more  sharply 
defined  and  carefully  guarded.  The  division  of  the  Church  intt> 
clergy  and  laity  became  more  positive  than  before.  The  clergy  are 
MOW  ])riests  to  serve  at  the  altar,  to  minister  for  the  j)eople.  liut 
l)oth  clergy  and  laity  are  alike  subject  to  the  authority  of  the 
bishop.     Cyprian  had  also  the  energy  to  enforce  these  provisions. 

The  rights  which  all  members  of  the  Church  had  enjoyed  in  the 
first  and  early  part  of  the  second  century  were,  umler  Irena'us  and 
Cyprian,  largely  ignored,  and  in  the  times  after  Cyprian  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  Church  more  and  more  disallowed  the  claims   ,,.,,. 

Limitation     of 

of  the  laity  to  a  participation  in  government.  These  rights  of  the 
privileges  of  private  members  were  curtailed  to  almost  '""^' 
the  same  degree  as  the  influence  of  the  bishops  increased.^  The 
laity  could  be  present  at  the  assemblies  of  the  church,  and  could 
approve  any  decision  which  had  been  reached  liy  the  presbyterial 
council.  But  this  was  oidy  a  matter  of  form,  and  their  faihire  to 
approve  was  not  of  the  nature  of  a  veto,  since  the  prevailing  theory 
was  that  the  presbyterial  council  was  under  the  special  guidance  of 
the  Holy  Si)irit,  and  hence  that  its  conclusions  were  not  to  be  set 
aside.  The  presbyters  now  perform  their  duties  l)y  virtui'  of  being 
a  constituent  part  of  the  presbytery.  In  this  association  with  the 
liishop  they  are  sometimes  called  co-presbyters.  In  one  of  Cyprian's 
letters'  they  are  represented  as  united  with  the  bisliop  in  jtriestly 

'  The  rapid  growtii  of  the  diocesan  principle  is,  liowever,  seen  in  tlie  fact  that  by 
the  middle  of  the  tliird  century  Kjrypt  hud  more  than  a  score  of  bisliops. 
«Otto  Ritschl:    Cyprian  von  Carthago,  etc.,  Gottingcii,  1885,  ss.  211,  'J12. 
*  Ep.  Gl,  3.    Episcopo  sacerdotale  honore  conjundi. 


3GG    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

honor.  This  has  been  cited  by  some  to  show  his  belief  in  the 
equality  of  bishops  and  presbyters.  But  this  view  does  not  com- 
port with  the  general  teaching  and  conduct  of  Cyprian,  nor  is  it 
in  accord  with  the  spirit  of  the  "  Apostolic  Constitutions."  Rather 
must  this  and  other  someMhat  similar  expressions  indicate  the 
priestly  character  of  the  presbyters  by  virtue  of  their  prerogative 
to  bring  the  offering  in  the  eucharist.  This  is  made  more  clear 
from  the  advice  given  in  case  of  lapsed  or  heretical  presbyters 
Functions  of  who  souglit  readmission  into  the  Church.  They  were 
presbyters.  to  be  received  as  private  members.'  The  presbyters 
were  to  officiate  at  the  altar  in  the  absence  of  the  bishop,  and  they 
with  the  deacons  were  to  care  for  the  interests  of  the  Church. - 

In  case  the  Church  was  so  widely  scattered  that  its  members 
could  not  assemble  in  one  place,  the  presbyters  were  accustomed 
to  celebrate  the  eucharist  in  the  distant  districts.  The  priestly 
power  was  not  held  by  virtue  of  their  office  as  presbyters,  but 
because  they  were  the  agents  and  representatives  of  the  bishops. 
The  original  functions  of  the  presbyters  as  rulers  were  now  en- 
larged, and  what  had  at  first  been  regarded  with  a  degree  of 
jealousy  became  at  the  close  of  the  third  century  ordinary  and 
unquestioned."  In  Cyprian's  day  the  presbj^ters  had  an  advisory 
voice  in  the  council.  The  preliminary  examinations  and  the  first 
bringing  of  causes  before  the  council  were  left  to  their  decision. 
In  the  third  century  a  special  class  of  presbyters,  presbyteri  doc- 
tores,  is  met,  whose  duties  have  given  rise  to  considerable  debate. 
It  seems  most  probable,  however,  that  they  were  merely  teachers  of 
the  catechumens  and  of  those  who  returned  from  the  heretical 
sects,  as  at  an  earlier  period  they  instructed  those  who  passed  from 
heathendom  to  Christianity. 

The  office  and  duties  of  the  deacons  underwent  like  transforma- 
changesinthe  tions.  From  ministers  for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  and 
functions  ot  the  companions  and  advisers  of  the  bishop  in  the  admin- 
istration of  public  charities,  by  the  growth  of  the  sacer- 
dotal notion  they  came  to  be  regarded  as  subordinate  to  bishops 
and  presbyters,  sustaining  in  the  Christian  economy  the  same  rela- 
tion as  did  the  Levites  to  the  priests  under  the  Mosaic. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  Church  in  numbers  and  the  multiplica- 

Noionperover-  *^^^  ^^  ^^^  charities  made  direct  oversight  b}^  the  dea- 

seers  of  ciiari-   cons  impracticable.     They  could  no   longer  personally 

^^'  inspect  the  individual  cases  of  want  and  report  them  to 

the  bishop.     Moreover,  the  founding  of  asylums,  orphanages,  guest- 

'  Kp.  72,  2.  2]5p  5^  2. 

Mlatcli:    Op.  cit.,  pp.  77,  78;  0.  Ritsclil:    Op.  cit..  s.  232. 


OFFICES  AND  OFFICERS  OF  POST-APOSTOLIC  CHURCH.     :5(]7 

houses,  etc.,  each  maiia<>:e(l  by  its  aiiitropriatc  board,  materially  mod- 
ified the  original  liuictions  of  tiic  deacons,  and  ri'duced  them  for  thi- 
most  part  to  the  position  of  subordinate  ministers  of  public  wor- 
ship. Nevertheless,  they  were  conceived  as  sustaining  even  cIosim- 
relations  to  the  bishops  than  the  presbyters  themselves.  When, 
tlierefore,  they  were  constituted  a  college  under  a  i)resi(U'nt,  known 
as  the  archdeacon,  this  officer  became  intimately  associated  with  the 
bishop  in  the  administration  of  affairs.' 

In  the  time  of  C3q)rian  tlie  deacons  manifestly  bore  the  consecrated 
elements  to  the  confessors  who  were  languishing  in  prisons,  and  also 
aided  the  bishop  in  the  administration  of  baptism  and  of  the  eucharist. 
In  fine,  they  seem  now  to  have  corrie  to  be  ministrants  to  the  other 
orders  in  the  Church.'  Thus  they  are  permitted  to  read  the  Gospel 
lesson  at  the  communion  service;  ^  they  care  for  the  furniture  of  the 
altar  in  those  churches  where  the  inferior  officers  were  forbidden  by 
the  canons  of  the  councils  to  come  into  the  sanctuarium;  they  re- 
ceive the  offerings  of  the  people  and  present  them  to  the  minister  at 
the  altar.     They  are  allowed  to  baptize  by  the  i)ermis- 

1       .  /.     1        1-1  1         •     •  ■  1  1  May  baptize. 

sion  and  authority  of  the  bishoj),  but  it  is  evident  that 

this  Avas  differently  regarded  in  different  churches,  some  granting 

and  others  denying  this  function  to  the  deacons.* 

After  the  Church  had  accepted  the  sacerdotal  idea  of  the  ministiy 
the  right  of  the  deacons  to  consecrate  the  eucharist  was  ^^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^i^^ 
for  the  most  part  denied.  Since  the  eucharist  was  of  the  brate  the  en- 
nature  of  a  sacrifice,  none  but  a  priest  could  lawfully  offer  '''""s'- 
it;  and  the  priestly  character  of  the  deacons  was  not  generally  recog- 
nised.^ B}^  the  authority  of  the  bishop  they  were  permitted  to  preacli, 
and  in  some  instances  to  read  homilies  or  sermons  which  had  been  ju-e- 
pared  by  distinguished  ministers.  They  were  the  especial  <,  ,.^,  ,,.r. 
servants  of  the  bishops,  often  accompanying  them  as  vants  of  the 
secretaries  in  their  diocesan  visits,  and  on  extraordinary  '"'*''"i'** 
occasions  became  their  representatives  in  the  general  councils,  where, 
as  deputies  or  proxies,  they  were  permitted  to  vote  on  all  <piestions 
there  determined.  The  disciplinary  function  of  these  officers  is 
referred  to  elsewhere.     The  age  at  which  candidates 

*^  \\  hen  cllRlble. 

were   eligible  to   the   office  was    usually    twenty -five. 

This  was  afterward  fixed  by  the  decisions  of  co»iiu-iIs   and  l»y  the 

edicts  of  emperors.     Their  number  greatly  varied  in  different  piov- 

'  Hatch  :    Op.  cit,  pp.  53,  54.  '  v.  Ritsclil:    Op.  cit..  p.  2:!:i. 

8  Constit.  Apost.,  1.  2,  c.  57. 

4  Tertiillian,  Jerome,  and  C\'prian  clearly  recognise  this  rigiit;  ihe  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions and  Epiphanins  as  clearly  deny  it. 
'  Constit.  Apost.,  I.  8,  c.  28. 


mS    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

iiices  of  the  empire,  and  in  different  periods  of  the  history  of  tlie 

Church.     In  some  instances  thei'e  is  a  very  strict  adherence  to  tlie 

original  number  seven.  In  the  influential  Church  of 
The      number    -^^  °         ,  .  ,         ,  .  ,      .  ,         . 

seven    contin-   Rome  this  number  long   continued;  in  other  important 

"''d.  churches  their  number  seems  to  have   increased  as  the 

necessities  of  worship  and  administration   required;  in  St.  Sophia 

and  three  other  churches  of  Constantinople  Justinian  allowed  one 

hundred. 

The  archdeacon  was  president  of  the  body  or  college  of  deacons. 

The    archdea-   The  method  of  liis  appointment  is  not  always  clear. 

con-  Probably  it  was  not  uniform.    He  appears  to  have  been 

nominated  by  the  bishop  and  elected  by  his  fellow  deacons.     While 

the  language  of  some  canons  clearly  makes  it  the  duty  of 

How  elected.         ,      ,  .  ,  •       i  •  i   -i  i  ,- 

the  bishop  to  appoint  his  own  archdeacon, the  manner  or 

such  appointment  is  not  indicated.  Since  this  officer  Avas  most  inti- 
mately connected  Avith  the  bishop,  and  was,  next  to  him,  the  most 
important  in  the  Church,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  councils  should 
jealoush'  guard  the  selection.  In  all  the  distinctive  functions  of  his 
office  the  bishop  relied  directly  and  immediatel3'upon  the  archdeacon. 
Hence,  in  case  of  the  death  of  a  bishop  the  archdeacon,  rather  than  one 
of  the  presbyters,  Avas  usually  appointed  his  successor.' 

His  importance.  i         i  '  i  .       ^  i  .  i         i 

ihere  has  been  much  controversy  respecting  the  char- 
acter, office,  and  functions  of  the  deaconesses  in  the  ancient  Church. 
The  deacon-  That  an  order  of  Avomen  whose  duties  somewhat  corre- 
^■'^'^s-  sponded  to  those  of  the  deacons  existed  in  the  early 

Church  is  unquestioned.  But  as  to  the  grounds  of  eligibility,  the 
question  of  ordination,  the  scope  of  duties,  etc.,  widely  different 
opinions  haA^e  obtained.  It  is  probable  that  women  of  somewhat 
advanced  years,  Avidows  aa'Iio  had  borne  children,  were  usually 
chosen;  yet  it  is  as  certain  that  young  unmarried  Avoraen  were 
sometimes  appointed.     Piety,  discretion,  and  experience 

Qualifications.  .  ^^  ,        ■     -,■  ^  ^  ... 

were  in  any  case  the  indispensable  prerequisites  in  can- 
didates. During  the  first  tAvo  centuries  the  Church  more  carefully 
heeded  the  advice  of  Paul  that  the  deaconess  should  have  been  the 
Avife  of  one  husband,^  also  that  the  Church  should  admit  to  this 
office  only  those  Avho  had  been  thoroughly  tested  by  previous  trusts, 
having  used  hospitality  to  strangers,  washed  the  saints'  feet,  relieved 
the  afflicted,   diligently  followed  every  good  work,   etc.    (1  Tim, 

'  V.  Bingham:  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church,  bk.  ii,  chap.  xxi. 

-  The  teaching  of  Paul  in  this  passage  is  not  plain.  Whether  it  is  to  be  taken  in 
its  literal  meaning,  or  whether  he  meant  to  exclude  only  tiiose  who.  after  divorce 
from  the  first  liusband,  married  a  second  time,  is  not  clear.  The  latter  interpreta- 
tion best  accords  with  the  spirit  of  the  Xew  Testament  teaching. 


OFFICES  AND  OFFICERS  OF  POST-APOSTOLIC  CHURCH.     369 

V,  10);  but  at  a  later  period  there  was  more  laxit}',  and  younger 
and  inexperienced  women  were  admitted.     The  question  of  their 
ordination  has  been  much  debated.    They  wore  inducted   Their   ordina- 
into  their  office  by  the   imposition   of  hands;  of  this  '*"n. 
there  is  abundant  proof.    This  would  not  necessarily  imply  the  riglit 
to  fulfill  the  sacred  functions  of  the  ministry.     While  some  of  the 
Montanists   allowed    women    to   be  bishops   and    i)resbyters,  their 
|)raetice  was  strongly  opposed  as  unscriptural,  and  TertuUian  '  con- 
demns the  allowing  of  women  to  baptize  as  contrary  to   ^id  not  bap- 
the  apostolic  teaching.     Yet  it  may  well  be  doubted  "z«- 
whether  this  was  the  earlier  view  of  the  Church,  before  the  sacerdo- 
tal character  of  the  ministry  had  come  to  be  generally  recognised." 
The  need  of  such  helpers  arose  from  the  customs  and  usages  of 
the  ancient  world,  which  forbade  the  intimate  association 

J.  ^,  ....  ...  „i  •  Their  duties. 

ot  tlie  sexes  m  public  assemblies,      ihey  were  to  instruct 
the   female   catechumens,  to  assist  in  the  baptism  of  women,  to 
anoint  with  holy  oil,*   to  minister  to  the  confessors  who  were  lan- 
guishing in  prison,  to  care  for  the  women  who  were  in-  sickness  or 
distress,  and  sometimes  were  doorkeepers  in  the  churches.* 

§  3.    Chorepiscopi,  Metropolitans,  or  Primates,  and  Patriarchs. 

The  centralization  of  power  and  the  unification  of  the  govern- 
ment under  the  Roman  emperors  exerted  a  very  marked  influence 
upon  the  administration  of  the  Christian  Church.  The  facts  that 
Italy  thereby  lost  its  peculiar  privileges,  and  that  the  freemen 
throughout  the  vast  empire  had  equal  rights  as  Roman  citizens, 
were  the  necessary  antecedents  to  the  complete  unification  of  church 
administration  when  Christianity  was  adopted  as  the  state  religion. 
To  secure  a  vigorous  government  in  Ital}'^,  Augustus  had  divided  it 
into  eleven  regions;  and  Constantine  extended  this  principle  to  the 
entire  empire,  by  forming  four  pretorian  prefectures;  namely,  of 
Gaul,  of  Italy,  of  Illyricum,  and  of  the  East.  Each  of  these  was 
divided  into  dioceses,  and  these  again  into  provinces. 

In  the  fourth  century  the  Christian  Church  accepted  tliese  divi- 
sions of  the  empire  as  useful  in  its  own  government;  and  it  is  note- 
worthy that  sometimes  the  ecclesiastical  divisions  long  oiitlived 
the  political,  and  became  of  extreme  importance  in  tracing  the  civil 

'  De  Baptismo,  c.  17. 

■^  The  Monianisls  were  the  Puritans  of  tlicir  ajre.  Their  protests  against  hurtful 
i-inovations  of  doctrine  and  government  were  vigorous  and  ofien  just;  hoiire  their 
recognition  of  the  rights  of  women  to  minister  in  sacred  things  must  liave  l)eiii  be- 
lieved to  be  in  accordance  witli  apostolic  usage. 

=■  Const.  Apost.,  1.  3,  c.  15.  *  Const.  Apost.,  I.  2,  c.  57. 

24 


370    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

history.'  Tlie  patriarchates  of  the  Church  corresponded  quite 
closely  to  the  political  prefectures,  only  departing  from  them  terri- 
torially to  the  degree  that  they  might  group  together  peoples  of 
like  race  and  language.  In  the  course  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies the  patriarchal  sj^stem  became  quite  clearl}^  defined;  giving 
the  patriarchate  of  Rome,  of  Constantinople,  of  Antioch,  of  Alex- 
andria, and,  a  little  later,  of  Jerusalem — the  last  being  taken  from 
that  of  Antioch.  The  name  patriarch  was  at  first  confined  to  the 
ecclesiastic  having  jurisdiction  over  one  of  these  patriarchates;  but 
at  a  later  period  this  title  was  more  loosely  used,  sometimes,  as 
in  the  case  of  Rome,  being  extended  to  embrace  all  Italy,  Gaul, 
Britain,  and  most  of  the  Teutonic  peoples,  while  in  other  cases  it 
was  applied  to  such  as  had  under  their  supervision  a  simple  see. 

Under  the  patriarchs  were  metropolitans,  each  of  whom  had  jur- 
isdiction in  a  diocese,  whose  capital  city  was  also  the  ecclesiastical 
metropolis.  These  provinces  were  in  turn  divided  into  episcopal 
sees  or  districts,  over  which  bishops  had  jurisdiction.  The  extent 
and  importance  of  these  dioceses  and  districts  gi'eatly  fluctuated — 
in  southern  Europe  and  in  the  lands  adjacent  to  the  Mediterranean 
being  small  in  area,  while  in  northern  Europe,  and  in  the  outl^dng 
lands  where  missionary  labours  had  resulted  in  founding  churches, 
a  district  often  included  an  entire  tribe  or  principality. 

Thus  the  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  the  empire  were  suggested  by, 
and  corresponded  quite  closely  to,  the  political.  "As  in  every  metrop- 
olis or  chief  city  of  each  province  there  was  a  superior  magistrate 
above  the  magistrates  of  every  single  city,  so,  likewise,  in  the  same 
metropolis  there  was  a  bishop,  whose  powei'  extended  over  the 
whole  province,  where  he  was  called  the  metropolitan,  or  primate, 
as  being  the  principal  bishop  of  the  province.  ...  In  like  manner, 
as  the  state  had  a  vicarins  in  everj^  capital  city  of  each  civil  dio- 
cese, so  the  Church  in  process  of  time  came  to  have  exarchs,  or 
patriarchs,  in  many,  if  not  in  all,  the  capital  cities  of  the  empire.'" 
This  dependence  of  the  ecclesiastical  divisions  upon  the  political 
is  further  shown  from  the  fact  that  as  the  latter  were  changed  the 
former  experienced  like  change;  and  when  the  question  of  primacy 
between  two  churches  in  the  same  province  or  district  arose,  it  w\as 
settled  by  ascertaining  Avhich  the  state  regarded  as  the  metropolis, 
and  conforming  the  Church  thereto.  Thus,  cities  which  at  one 
period  were  no  more  than  single  sees  afterward  became  seats  of 
metropolitans  and  patriarchs,  while  a  former   metropolis  sank  to 

'v.  Freeman:  The  Historical  Geograplnj  of  Euro2ie,  second  edition,  London,  1882. 
cliap.  vii. 

'  V.  Bing-ham:  Antiquities  of  the  Church,  bk.  ix,  chap,  i,  p.  342. 


OFFICES  AND  OFFICERS  OF  POST-APOSTOLIC  CHURCH.    Ml 

the  condition  of  a  rneiv   st'i-.'     Tlif   relations   ;in<l   duties  of   these 
several  ecclesiastical  officers  will  now  more  clearly  appear. 

The  existence  of  Christian  societies  in  the  villajj^es  and  nira!  dis- 
tricts more  or  less  remote  from  the  city,  which  was  the  occasion  <>:  in 
special  diocese  of  the  bishop,  rendered  it  necessary  that  sutution. 
a  s))ecial  officer  should  be  appointed  for  their  immediate  oversi<;ht. 
These  were  called  chorepiscopl,  Trjr  ;^a)paf  tmaKOTToi,'  or  bishops  of 
the  country.  They  were  tlie  assistants  of  the  bishops  in  adminis- 
tration. Whether  they  were  simple  presbyters  or  had  presbyters  or 
received  episcopal  ordination  lias  divided  the  oj)inion  of  bisiiopsv 
archaeologists.  Probably  both  at  times  officiated  in  this  capacity; 
either  presbyters  directly  a[)pointed,  or  bishoi)s  who  had  been 
rejected  by  their  dioceses,  or  had  been  received  agaiji  from  the 
number  of  those  who  had  belonged  to  a  schismatic  party."  'hey 
first  appear  toward  the  close  of  the  third  century  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  are  first  recognised  by  the  Councils  of  Ancyra  and  Neo- 
Cirsarea  in  A.  D.  814,  and  by  the  Council  of  Nice  in  A.  D.  ."^25. 
They  continued  in  the  Eastern  Church  until  about  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, and  in  the  Latin  Church  until  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century. 
Thev  exercised,  at  times,  most  of  the  functions  of  the 

^^x        .1  -111-  Funciiims. 

bishops  themselves,      \\  e  nnd   some  councus  clothing 

them  with  authority  to  ordain  all  inferior  officers  in  their  churches, 

sometimes  even  without  the  permission  of  the  city  bishop;  but  in 

most  instances  consultation  with  the  bishop  of  the  city  church  was 

(expected,    and    special   leave   obtained.      The}^   had    authority    t«» 

confirm;    to   give   letters   of   dismission    and   commendation  to  the 

clergy    who   were   about  to    remove    to   other   parts;    to  conduct 

public  divine  service  in  the  chief  church  in  the  presence 

of  the  bishop,  or  by  his  permission  or  request.      1  iiey 

are  found  in  the  councils,  casting  their  votes  on  all  (piestions  there 

'  Bingham  jrives  the  approximate  notitia  of  the  Church  at  the  close  of  tlie  fourth 
century.  In  the  patriarchate  of  Antiocli,  correspond! nfr  closely  with  the  civil  iwtitUi, 
were  fifteen  provinces,  with  the  snoie  numlmr  of  metropolitans.  In  the  patriarchnto 
of  Alexandria  (liiocese  of  Ep:ypt)  there  were  six  metropolitans;  in  tlie  exarchate  of 
Kphesus,  ten  metropolitans;  in  the  exarcliate  of  C.-esarea,  eleven:  in  the  exarchate 
of  Heraclea  (afterward  Constititinople),  six;  in  the  exarchate  of  Thessalonica,  six; 
in  the  exarchate  of  Milan,  seven;  in  tiie  patriarchate  of  Rome,  ten;  in  the  exarchate 
ofSirmium,  six;  in  tiic  exarchate  of  Cartilage,  six:  in  thedioce.se  of  Spain,  seven; 
in  the  diocese  of  Gaul,  sevcnU-en;  in  tlie  diocese  of  Britain,  five  province'*,  with  cap- 
itals at  York,  London,  and  Cacrleon.  In  his  final  index  he  gives  a  list  of  185  prov- 
inces or  metropolitan  districts,  and  1.560  episcopal  sees.  Yet  it  is  prol)ablo  that 
such  lists  are  far  from  perfect. 

*  This  seems  the  more  probable  derivation. 

3  Such  instances  are  mentioned  by  Socrates:  Hist.  Ecd.,  1.  4,  c.  7 ;  and  were  dis- 
tinctly provided  for  by  conciliary  action,     v.  Canon  8  of  the  Council  of  Nice. 


372    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

decided,'  and  exercising  every  right  pertaining  to  the  episcopal 
members  of  the  synods  or  councils. 

The  i)rimate,  or  metropolitan,'  sustained  a  like  relation  to  the 
hishops  of  a  province  as  did  the  bishop  of  a  city  to  the 
Primates.  chorepiscopi  of  his  country  churches.     The  time  of  the 

introduction  of  this  office  is  not  certain.  Like  most  other  ecclesias- 
tical provisions  it  was  probably  created  to  meet  a  felt  need  in  the 
government  and  oversight  of  the  churches.  While  some  find  its 
Time  of  origin  beginning  in  the  prerogatives  exercised  by  Titus  and 
uncertain.  Timothy  in  the  early  Church,  others  as  strenuously  deny 
its  apostolic  origin,  and  place  its  beginning  as  late  as  the  third  cen- 
tury. The  Council  of  Nicpea  clearly  recognises  the  office  as  of  long- 
standing, and  treated  it  as  a  venerable  institution.  Cyprian  men- 
tions^ that  the  bishop  of  Carthage  presided  over  all  the  other 
African  bishops,  and  issued  to  them  mandates.  Whether  this  was 
indeed  the  exercise  of  metropolitan  power,  or  simply  has  reference 
to  the  fact  of  presidency  in  the  councils,  is  not  very  clear.  Never- 
theless, by  the  fourth  century  the  metropolitan  office  is  fully  recog- 
nised, and  is  regulated  in  its  functions  and  privileges  by  the  canons 
of  councils. 

They  were  elected  and  ordained  by  the  bishops  of  their  province. 
How  appoint-  Their  functions  were  different  at  different  stages  of 
ed.  the  history  of  the  Church.    Their  most  important  duties 

and  prerogatives  were  to  preside  at  the  provincial  councils;  to  pro- 
vide for  and  ordain  the  bishop  to  a  vacant  see;  to  decide  questions 
between  the  various  bishops,  or  between  individual  bishops  and  their 
flocks;  to  assemble  synods  for  the  examination  of  doc- 
trine and  the  enforcement  of  discipline;  to  publish  to 
the  churches  of  their  provinces  the  conciliary  decrees,  or  the  edicts 
of  the  emperor,  by  which  doctrine  and  discipline  were  to  be  incul- 
cated; to  issue  letters  of  commendation  to  the  bishops  of  theii" 
districts,  since  these  were  not  permitted  to  journey  abroad  without 
such  letters;  to  hear  appeals  of  presbyters  or  deacons  who  had  been 
deposed  by  the  bishop  of  a  diocese.'' 

The  patriarchs  were  evidently  a  class  of  highest  dignity  and  au- 

,  '  Tlie  subscriptions  of  the  Council  of  Niciea  clearly  prove  the  presence  of  clior- 
episcopi  from  several  provinces,  also  the  subscriptions  of  the  councils  of  Neocffisarea 
and  Epliesu.«. 

^  The  distinction  between  the  metropohtan  and  archbishop  is  not  easy  to  describe. 
That  iliey  were  synonymous  has  been  held  by  some  higli  autliorities,  and  denied  by 
others.  Sometimes  tliey  seem  to  be  almost  identical,  at  other  periods  of  the  history 
a  plain  distinction  ia  made.     v.  August! :    Op.  cit.,  bd.  i,  ss.  201,  202. 

*  Ep.  42,  ad  Cornelian ;  Ep.  40  and  45. 

■•  r.  Bingiiam-:.  Antiquities  of  the  Ghurch,  bk.  ii,  ch.  xiv. 


OFFICES  AND  OFFICERS  OF  POST-APOSTOLIC  CHURCH.    373 

tliority.     During  the  fourtli  century  the  office  Itecame  (juite  \vi<U'ly 
recognised,   and    was  contirnied    by   the   general   coun- 
cils of  Constantinople  A.  D.  381,  Ephesus  A.  D.  431,        ''''^rtaahs. 
and   Chalcedon  A.  D.  551.      The   patriarch  sustained  to  the  met- 
ropolitans   relations   similar  to  those  which  the  latter   ^^Qj-g    gradu- 
held    to  tlie   bishops  of  sees;  hence  he   was    ordained   ""y- 
by  his  metropolitans,  and   in  turn  ordained  them.      lie  presided 
at  diocesan  councils,  heard  appeals  of  bishops  from  the  decisions  of 
the  metropolitans,  communicated  to  them  the  imj)erial 
edicts  or  conciliary  decrees,  censured  the  metropolitans 
in  case  of  remissness,  etc.     Each  })atriarch  was  regarded  as  supreme 
in   his  own  patriarchate  until   Rome  and  Constantinoi)le   rose   to 
superior  dignity  and  laid  claim  to  superior  authority. 

§  4.    The  Sub-orders  of  the  Clergy. 

The  shifting  conditions  of  the  post-apostolic  Church  necessitated 
changes  in  its  constitution  and  di8ci))line.  Whenever  the  needs 
were  urgent,  the  Church  exerted  lierself  to  satisfy  them.  The  prin- 
ciples of  Christian  prudence  and  reasonable  adjustment,  providential 
rather  than  that  of  divine  institution,  here  governed.  indications. 
As  the  functions  of  the  chief  officers  varied  according  to  provi- 
dential indications,  so  the  wants  of  the  societies  led  to  the  institu- 
tion of  inferior  offices  which  were  believed  to  contribute  to  the 
convenience  or  effectiveness  of  church  activities,  discipline,  or  life. 
The  theory  that  the  ordbies  miiiores,  especially  the  lectores,  origin- 
ated by  a  differentiation  of  the  duties  of  the  diaconate '  cannot  be 
regarded  as  resting  on  firm  historical  foundations.  This  prudential 
principle  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  sub-officers  are  not  met  with  until 
the  third  century,  wlien  the  organization  of  the  cliurches  had  be- 
come more  complete,  and  then  only  in  local  societies  whose  circum- 
stances are  peculiar.  It  is  doubtful  whether  they  appear  in  the 
(Jreek  Church  before  the  fourth  century.  The  most  important  of 
these  inferior  officers  are: 

1.  The  sub-deacons,*  wliose  duty  it  was  to  assist  the  deacons,  espi'- 
ciallv  in  those  important  churches  where  the  original 

•^  '■  .  ,         r„,  .  J.       Sub-deacons, 

number  seven   had   been  continued.       1  lie  ])rovince  ot 

these  sub-officers  was  jealously  guarded,  so  that  many  of  the  duties 

of  the  deacons  were  not  permitted  to  thciM.     Whil*'  ordained,^  they 

'  V.  Schcrer:  Ilandbwh  dcs  Kirch enrechl.%  Griiiz,  1 886,  bd.  i,  s.  317.  Contra,  v.  Hiir- 
iiack:  ijberden  UrsprwKj  ilts  Lector^xlfSUiuUhr  andtrm  nitdcren  Wet/ien,  Gicsscn,  1886. 

"  It  is  believed  that  AtliiiiiasiiiH  is  tlie  first  Greek  writer  wlio  mentions  tiiem. 

'  They  are  supposed  to  be  first  distinctly  referred  to  by  Cyprian,  Epist.  8.  i20.  23, 
29,  etc. 


374    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

were  not  clothed  with  authority  to  aid  in  administering  the  sacra- 
ments, nor  in  any  ease  to  preach,  but  their  functions  were  largely 
manual,  sometimes  menial. 

■2.  'J'he  acolyths,   aKoXovdoi,  were  at  first  confined  to  the  Latin 
Church;  no  Greek  writer  earlier  than  Justinian  makes 
Acolyths.  mention  of  them.     The  meaning  of  the  term  would  sug- 

gest that  they  were  general  servants,  but  the  reception  of  a  candle- 
stick Avith  a  taper  in  it,  and  an  empty  pitcher  in  which 
to  bring  wine,  on  the  occasion  of  their  installation,  point 
to  the  lighting  of  the  churches  and  the  care  of  the  wine  for  the 
eucharist  as  their  chief  duties. 

3.  The  casting  out  of  devils  by  prayer  and  by  special  gift  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  mentioned  in   the  apostolic  age.      Christ  says  the 
devils  shall  be  subject  to  his  apostles;  yet  a  wider  circle 
of  exorcists  is  implied  in  the  references  which  are  met 
in  the  first  and  second  centuries.     As  a  distinct  class  of  otticers  they 
first  appear  in  the  third  century.    From  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  ' 
we  should  infer  that  their  origin  must  have  been  of  a  later  date;  yet 
the  more  just  opinion  is  that  in  the  third  century  they  were  recog- 
nised as  having  a  distinct  function  in  the  Church.     This 
function  was  to  offer  special  prayer  over  the  demoniacs, 
who  were  kept  for  the  most  part  in  the  church,  to  minister  to  their 
physical  needs  and  to  effect  a  restoration. 

Other  inferior  officers  who  appeared  from  the  third  century  are 
the  readers,  lectores,  who  read  the  Scriptures  from  the  reading  desk, 
not  the  altar;  the  door-keepers,  ostiarii,  who  had  charge  of  the 
entrances,  in  order  to  permit  no  unworthy  person  to  come  into  the 
place  of  worship;  the  ^mgQvs,  2)80.1111  istm,''  wdio  cared  for  the  sing- 
ing of  the  Church  and  the  training  of  the  choirs  for  the  antiphonal 
service;  the  catechists,  w'ho  were  to  instruct  the  catechumens  in 
the  first  principles  of  religion,  thus  fitting  them  for  baptism.  This 
instruction  could  not,  however,  be  conducted  in  the  public  congre- 
gation. 

>  1.  viii,  c.  26. 

-  It  is  doubtful  whether  tliese  appear  as  a  distinct  class  before  the  fourth  century. 


SYNODS  AND  COUNCILS  AND  TilEIli  ALTIlOlilTV.         375 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SYNODS  AND  COUNCILS,  AND  THKIR  AUTHORITY. 

The  council  at  Jerusalem  was  the  first  assembly  of  the  "apos- 
tles, elders,  and  brethren,"  to  decide  upon  doctrines  xiie  syn.«i  of 
and  polity  which  were  to  be  accepted  by  the  Christian  Jerusalem, 
societies.  It  is  an  instructive  fact  that  in  this  first  council  are  the 
apostles  and  elders  ^cith  the  lohole  Church,  and  that  the  decisions  are 
sanctioned  by  the  entire  body  .  This  is  in  perfect  accord  with  the 
general  spirit  of  the  apostolic  age.  The  entire  body  of  believers 
were  to  be  guided  by  the  Holy  Spirit  into  all  truth,  and  they  were 
the  depositary  of  ecclesiastical  power.  Nevertheless,  the  meetings 
for  consultation  upon  matters  of  general  interest  were  in  harmony 
with  what  was  well  understood,  not  only  by  the  citizens  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire,  but  by  all  the  ancient  world.  The  Achaian,  Thessalian, 
^Etolian,  Amphictvonic,  and  other  councils  and  leaijues    ...     ^ 

} .         ■^  .  "^  After  the  anal- 

are  only  familiar  examples  of  the  custom  of  the  ancient  opy  of  civil 

cities  and  peoples  to  meet  for  consultation  on   interests    '^'*"*^^- 

common  to  all.    We  find  almost  precisely  the  same  terms — ])rovinces, 

dioceses,  metropolitans,  s^niods,  councils,  etc. — used  to  characterize 

these  assemblies  and  their  members. 

The  assertion  of  the  unity  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church  necessarily 
carried  with  it  unity  of  doctrine  and  government.  Ref-  Npcessary  to 
erence  has  already  been  made  to  the  intimate  relations  j][,'jty'^^o(  ihe 
which  existed  between  the  different  bishops,  and  the  church, 
means  used  to  maintain  these  relations  for  purposes  of  preserving 
the  unity  of  the  Church. 

Hence,  after  the  middle  of  the  second  century  the  assembly  of 
delegates  from  the  societies  of  a  province,  for  the  determination  and 
maintenance  of  the  most  important  questions,  is  quite  common. 
They  appear  in  Asia  Minor  and  Gaul.  These  gather-  provincial  »yn- 
ings,  called  provincial  synods,  became  quite  general  in  ^'^• 
the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  and  were  generally  lu'M  al 
stated  times.  With  respect  to  these,  as  to  other  matters  of  Church 
<''overnment,  there  w^as  a  gradual  decline  of  the  influence  and  rights 
of  the  laity,  and  a  growing  jtower  of  the  clergy.  The  D«'ciine  of  lay 
laity,  who  were  at  first  important  factors  of  the  syn-  «"""''•""«'• 
odical  assemblies,  were  of  little  influence   after  the  middle  of  the 


376    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

third  century;  and  by  the  beginning  of  the  fourth,  the  composition 
of  tlie  councils  was  restricted  to  the  three  orders  of  the  clergy. 
Anion o-  these  the  influence  of  the  presbyters  declined  more  and 
more,  and  the  authority  of  the  bishops  soon  became  exclusive  and 
supreme. 

A  further  attempt  at  preserving  the  unity  of  the  Church  is  the 
Metropolitan  extension  of  the  council  to  include  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
synods.  thorities  of  a  diocese  or  a  patriarchate.     Usually  these 

were  convoked  by  the  metropolitan  or  patriarch,  and  had  reference 
to  interests  touching  a  wider  district  or  territory.'  In  these  councils 
Tberepresenta-  the  principle  of  representation  seems  to  have  been  recog- 
tive  principle,  nised  to  a  considerable  extent,  since  the  third  Council 
of  Carthage,  A.  D.  398,  by  its  canons  provided  for  the  presence  of 
three  bishops  from  every  African  province  excepting  Tripoli,  which 
could  send  but  one  on  account  of  its  small  number  of  bishops. 

Of  still  greater  significance  were  the  oecumenical  or  general 
(Ecumenical  councils,  which  purposed  to  include  in  their  numbers 
councils.  representatives  from  the   widest  possible  areas  of  Chris- 

tendom. An  extraordinary  exigency  only  could  lead  to  the  assem- 
bly of  such  body;  a  widespread  agitation  as,  for  example,  that 
resulting  from  the  Arian  controversy,  or  some  general  interest,  was 
the  occasion  of  its  meeting. 

The  authority  to  convoke  the  councils  varied  with  the  times  and 
Who  assembled  the  character  of  the  council  itself.  When  it  was  of  a 
the  councils?  district,  the  bishop  assembled  the  elders,  deacons,  and 
people;  Avhen  of  a  diocese  or  province,  the  metropolitan  or  patri- 
arch; when  oecumenical,  it  was  usually  by  imperial  edict,  with  the 
advice  and  approval  of  the  chief  bishops.^  The  bishops'  or  metro- 
politans' circular  letters  for  summoning  the  council  went  under  the 
name  synodicce  or  tractorioe,;  those  of  the  emperors,  sacrce.  The 
bishop  presided  in  the  district  council,  the  metropolitan 

Who  presided?  ^  .        .    .       ,  ..,,.,,  ,     ^         ., 

or  patriarch  in  the  provincial,  while  the  general  councils 
were  under  the  nominal  control  of  the  emperor  or  his  representa- 
tive; but  the  presidents  proper,  Trpoedpoi,  were  usually  chosen  from 
the  most  influential  and  venerable  members.'     The  council  delib- 


'  V.  Bickell:    Op.  cit,  2"  Lief.,  cap.  14. 

'  The  delegates  to  an  oecumenical  council  sometimes  journeyed  at  the  public  ex- 
pense. V.  Eusebins:  De  Vita  Const,  iii,  6,  for  an  account  of  this  in  case  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Niosea. 

*  Eusebius,  Sozomen,  and  Socrates  agree  in  saying,  that  in  the  Council  of  Nicsea 
Hosius  of  Cordova,  Alexander  of  Alexandria,  Eustathius  of  Antiocli,  Macarius  of 
Jer\isalem,  and  Vitus  and  Vincontius,  the  vicars  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  were  tlie 
chief  presidents. 


SYNODS  AND  COUNCILS  AND  THEIR  AUTHORITY.         377 

erated  and  decided  respecting  matters  of  Church  government,  dis- 
cipline, doctrine,  and  worship.  At  the  same  time  it  subjects  con- 
constituted  a  court  before  which  the  ck-rgy  or  tlie  hiity  sidereu. 
could  bring  charges  against  the  bisho})s  or  others.  In  the  provin- 
cial councils  such  complaints  were  usually  lodged  with  the  arch- 
deacon of  the  metropolitan  church,  who,  in  turn,  brought  them  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  council. 

The  early  method  of  balloting  was  by  heads,  the  method  (jf  mo- 
tions not  having  been  introduced  until  late  in  the  Middle 
Ages.     Tlie  latter  was  regarded  as  justifiable  only  in  jj^';''"**  °^  ^"^ 
extraordinary  emergencies. 

In  case  of  ecumenical  councils  the  decrees  were  of  the  nature  of 
laws,  which  the  emperors  enforced.     Thus  Constantine 

Til        t      •   •  /.lAx  .in  -vT.  ,  ,.  Enforcement  of 

regarded  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Nice  as  obliga-  conciiiary  Ueci- 
tory  on  the  subjects  of  the  empire,  and  hence  punished  ^"'°^" 
non-subscription  by  exile.  Like  action  was  taken  by  Theodosius 
the  Great  respecting  the  decrees  of  the  Constantinopolitan  council, 
by  Theodosius  II.  respecting  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Ephc- 
SU8,  and  by  Marcian  regarding  those  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
in  A.  D.  451. 

In  matters  of  discipline,  it  seems  that  the  decisions  of  the 
councils  were  not  unalterable.  In  respect  to  articles  was  their deci- 
of  faith,  the  principle  holding  seemed  to  be  that  it  Avas  ^'^^  binding? 
not  the  prerogative  of  a  council  to  enlarge  or  extend  the  boun- 
daries of  faith,  but  to  confirm,  establish,  and  make  more  clear 
by  definition  what  had  been  the  doctrine  of  the  general  Church. 
The  decisions  might  be  abrogated,  even  with  regard  to  doctrines. 
Not  until  near  the  close  of  the  period  of  which  we  treat  did  con- 
ciliary  decisions  assume  an  authority  almost  equal  to  Scripture. 
Augustine,  Gregory  the  Great,  and  other  champions  r.rowinp  au- 
of  the  Church,  while  not  yielding  the  supreme  author-  ^,•',",',1.^  "^^(-d- 
ity  of  the  Scriptures,  nevertheless  placed  much  stress  sions. 
upon  the  decrees  of  councils  as  expressive  of  the  opinion  of 
good  men  whom  God  had  promised  to  "  lead  into  all  truth."  So 
that  in  early  times  the  provincial  councils  imposed  their  decisions 
upon  those  within  their  jurisdiction  as  of  the  highest  prudential 
worth,  and  the  general  councils  were  believed  to  have  formulated 
doctrine  under  such  favorable  circumstances  that  the  decisions 
were  looked  upon  as  of  great  moral  and  religious  value.  Hence 
we  find  that  the  Church  generally  accepted  the  decisions  of  the 
first  six  oecumenical  councils,  and  was  at  times  inclined  to  re- 
gard them  as  of  almost  equal  authority  with  the  Scriptures  them- 
selves. 


378    AltCH^OLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

CHURCH     DISCIPLINE. 
§    1.    Reasons   and   Degrees  of  Punislimoit . 

The  Church  was  regarded  as  a  body  of  believers  on  Jesus  Christ, 
bound  together  by  a  fellowship  most  sacred,  for  the  promotion  of 
holiness  and  the  perfection  of  character  (1  Pet.  ii,  9,  10).  Its 
relations  and  duties  were  voluntarily  assumed;  its  obligations  were 
enforced  by  moral,  not  by  physical,  sanctions. 

The  object  of  Church  discipline,  exercised  as  it  was  only  upon 

,    members  of  its  own  communion,  was  to  preserve  puritv 
Designof  .  .  .         '^  ,    '■ 

Church  disci-    of  doctrine  and   life.'     The   apostolic   Church  imposed 

'''"^®'  but  one  condition  of  membership — faith  in  Jesus  as  the 

risen  Lord,  and  baptism  into  the  name  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Ghost.  Nevertheless,  this  Church  had  the  clear  sanction  of  an 
apostle  for  maintaining  sound  discipline  (1  Cor.  v;  2  Cor.  ii;  Col. 
ii,  5;  Clement.  Rom.,  £^.  i,  ad  Cor.,  c.  44);  and  the  apostolic 
fathers  are  explicit  in  the  inculcation  of  ecclesiastical  order.  From 
the  earliest  years  of  Christianity  two  parties  existed  in  the  Church, 
whose  views  of  discipline  were  oppugnant  and  wellnigh  irrecon- 
cilable. One  looked  upon  a  fixed  and  definite  ecclesiastical  order 
as  the  necessary  condition  of  the  successful  extension  of  Christi- 
anity; the  other  regarded  these  outward  institutions  as  limitations 
of  the  free  spirit  of  the  Gospel,  and  emphasized  the  fact  that  the 
power  of  the  invisible  Church  is  her  spiritual  life,  and  not  her  for- 
mal organization.  These  two  parties  continued  in  the  Church, 
They  were  in  conflict  through  the  first  six  centuries.^ 

Catechumenical  training,  which  was  judged  to  be  a  necessary 
catechumeni-  condition  of  the  admission  of  Gentile  converts,  must 
lai'er^instftu-  ^®  regarded  as  a  provision  of  the  Church  after  she  had 
lion.  lost  the  glow  of  love  felt  by  the  first  disciples,  and  had 

experienced  the  contaminating  influences  of  association  with  a  de- 
praved heathenism.  Such  preparatory  training  was  deemed  a  wisely 
prudential  measure  to  guard  the  Church  against  the  influx  of  the 
worldly  and  unsaved. 

•  r.  Bickell:    Geschichtc  des  Kirchenrechtes,  2'*  Lief.,  ss.  62-71. 
'^  V.  Neander;  Antignosticus,  ss.  340,  341. 


CHURCH    DISCIPLINE.  379 

But  by  as  much  more  as  the  conditions  of  membership  were  more 
stringent,  by  so  much  more  did  the  guardians  of  the  Churcli  feel  the 
necessity  of  a  rigorous  discipline.  The  subscription  to  and  observ- 
ance of  the  one  rule  of  faith,  regula  Jidti,  which  was  t-,,^  reKuu 
common  to  all  the  churches,  was  the  sole  test  of  ortho-  "'^«'- 
doxy.  This  one  rule  was  expressed  in  the  articles  of  faith,  or  the 
creeds,  which  the  early  Church  had  formulated.  He  who  held  these 
in  an  honest  mind  and  i)ure  heart  was  a  wcjrthy  member  of  the 
Church;  he  who  denied  them,  or  whose  life  was  not  The  i.ne  stand- 
regulated  by  them,  was  heretical  or  unworthy.  The  ^ru. 
latter  were  to  be  exscinded  from  the  body  of  the  Church  in  order 
to  preserve  its  purity  and  peace. 

It  is  not  possible  to  determine  the  exact  time  when  the  right  and 
prerogative  of  discipline  came  to  be  almost  exclusively  exercised  by 
the  bishops,  nor  can  the  precise  behavior  of  the  Church  respecting  the 
punishment  of  offenders  during  the  first  one  hundred  and  tifty  years 
be  clearly  determined.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  the  church-  disci- 
deprivation  of  privileges  in  the  Church  had  no  reference  no"^s'of"c[vU 
to  the  rights  of  an  offender  as  a  subject  of  the  state.  righu>. 
Only  at  a  later  period,  in  cases  where  the  holding  and  use  of  the 
property  of  the  Church  was  in  question,  or  in  cases  of  pertinacious 
disturbers,  was  the  authority  of  the  civil  law  invoked.' 

Church  discipline  proper  had  respect  to  several  degrees  of  offence 
;uid  punishment.  The  Church  was,  therefore,  com))elled  to  discrim- 
inate between  the  characters  of  violators  of  its  laws,  sins  venial  and 
This  led  to  the  classification  of  sins  as  venial  and  mor-  mortal, 
tal.'  The  penalty  of  the  former  consisted  in  either  admonition  and 
temporary  suspension,  or  the  lesser  excommunication  A.inionitinn 
{d(poQioiJ,6g).  The  latter  consisted  in  withholding  from  "".'.'.unmuiii- 
those  under  the  ban  of  the  Church  its  special  privileges,  cation, 
as  partaking  of  the  eucharist,  etc.  Such  were  not,  however,  ex- 
cluded from  the  ordinary  ministrations  and  ])ublic  services. 

The  greater  excommunication  was  visited  upon  more  heinous 
offenders,  or  those,  generally,  who  were  guilty  of  mortal  ^^^  greater 
sins.  It  consisted  in  a  complete  exscinding  of  members  e.\<<>minuniru- 
from  the   body  of  the  Church,  and,  therefore,  from  all 

'  Reference  is  not  here  had  to  later  civil  enactments  for  the  punishment  of  here.-J.v 
and  sedition.  Conciliary  action  was  taken  ajrainst  sneli  prcsbj'tors,  or  bisliops,  as 
were  disturbers  of  the  peace  by  sotting  up  new  churches  in  opposition  to  the  rejr- 
ular  authorities.  Later,  the  civil  power  was  invoked  to  suppress  such  agitators. 
This  does  not.  however,  strictly  pertain  to  Cliurcli  discipline. 

''v.  Tertullian:  de  pudicilia,  c.  19.  Pt-rrata  mortalia  and  P,:ccnta  v-nuilia.  He- 
reckons  seven  mortal  sins:  heresy  and  .schism,  idolatry,  fraud,  denial  of  Christ,  blas- 
phemy, homicide,  and  fornication. 


380    ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

its  privileges  and  associations.  When  the  anathema  was  uttered, 
the  offender  was  regarded  as  one  to  be  shunned  by  all  the  faithful, 
and  absolutely  deprived  of  all  that  was  distinctive  of  the  Christian 
Church,  including  the  rites  of  Christian  burial.  This  penalty  was 
executed  against  both  sexes,  the  rich  and  poor,  the  subject  and  the 
ruler,'  alike;  in  this  regard  the  Christian  discipline  was  characteris- 
Notice  Riven  to  tically  rigid.  Notice  of  such  greater  excommunication 
other churciies.  ^yas  generally  given  to  other  churches,  and  they  were 
expected  to  concur  in  the  decision,  on  the  theory  of  the  unity  of 
the  Church,  and,  therefore,  for  the  sake  of  the  general  good.^  All 
were  forbidden  to  receive  such  excommunicate  persons;  and,  by  fre- 
quent conciliary  enactment,  any  bishop  thus  receiving  and  harbor- 
ing the  exscinded  should  himself  be  regarded  as  cut  off  from  the 
Church." 

The  general  Church  did  not  however  regard  the  effect  of  even 
^. ,      ,         ,   the  greater  excommunication  as  annulling  the  benefits 

Did  not  annul  °       .  .  '=' 

the  benefits  of  of  baptism;  SO  that  when  the  most  heinous  offenders 
baptism.  sought   readmission    into   the    Church   they   were   not 

required  to  be  rebaptized.  This  was  contrary  to  the  method  of 
the  Donatists,  who  often  received  excommunicate  persons  into  their 
fellowship  by  declaring  them  purified  by  a  rebaptism,  which  this 
sect  freely  practised. 

No  one  was  excommunicated  without  a  hearing  and  a  formal  con- 
Right  of  ap-  viction;  any  hasty  or  unwarranted  action  of  a  bishop 
P^*'-  was  liable  to  review  before  a  provincial  synod,  to  which 

the  aggrieved  pai'ty  had  the  right  of  appeal.  This  was  judged  of 
such  importance  that  canons  to  this  effect  were  enacted  by  various 
councils.'' 

§  2.  PeniteMtial  Discipline. 

While  the  persecutions  of  the  Church  were  not  continuous,  and 
never  absolutely  universal,  and  while  some  emperors,  as  Gallienus, 
showed  many  favors  to  the  Christians,  going  so  far  as  to  declare  to 
the  bishops  that  it  was  his  will  that  they  should  be  undisturbed  in 

'  The  well  known  example  of  the  action  of  Ambrose  toward  Theodosins  tlie  Great, 
as  related  by  Tlieodoret,  is  very  instructive,  not  only  as  illustrating  tlie  firmness  of  a 
Cliristian  bishop,  but  also  the  feelings  of  a  great  emperor  respecting  the  fearfuluess 
of  the  ban  of  the  Church. 

*  V.  Probst :  Kirchliche  Disdplin  in  den  drei  ersten  christlichen  JahvTiundertm. 
Tiibingen,  1873,  s.  402. 

^v.  Canons  2,  4,  and  5  of  the  Coinicil  of  Antioch;  Canon  2,  of  the  second  Council 
of  Carthage;  also  Canon  13  of  the  Canon.  Apost. 

*  V.  Canon  5,  Council  of  Nice :  Canons  8  and  10  of  the  second  Council  of  Carthage ; 
Canon  6  of  the  Council  of  Antioch,  et  al. 


CHURCH   DISCIPLINE.  381 

their  ministrations,  the  ban,  under  whieh  Christianity  as  a  reliyio 
Ulicita  rested,  was  not  lifted.  It  was  still  a  penal  offence  to  be  a 
Christian;  and  all  the  dangers  and  hardships  which  such  leyal  dis- 
ability implied  constantly  impended  over  the  Church.  It  is  not, 
therefore,  strange  that  during  the  sharp  visitations  of  persecution 
temptations  to  deny  Christ  and  to  offer  to  idols  were 
most  powerful.     TJiis  strain  was  especially  severe  dur-  *^   '^^^^ ' 

ing  the  Decian  persecutions,  when  multitudes  fell  away  from  the 
Church  through  the  malignity  and  subtle  devices  of  this  emperor 
and  his  successors  to  Gallienus.  The  provisions  of  the  early  Church 
for  the  return  of  the  lapsed  gave  rise  to  a  complicated  system  of 
penitential  discipline. 

The  rigorous  discipline  of  the  Xovatians  had  refused  readmission 
to  those  who  were  guilty  of  mortal  sins.  Only  in  the  hour  and  article 
of  death  could  they  hope  that  the  ban  of  the  Church  miglit  be 
removed.  Also  Cyprian,  in  the  earlier  portion  of  his  administration, 
had  been  inclined  to  use  great  severity  in  dealing  with  those  who 
had  lapsed  from  the  faith  (lapsi)  during  the  Decian  persecutions. 
i>ut  in  Rome  and  elsewhere  more  lenient  provisions  were  made  for 
their  return  to  the  Church  through  a  system  of  penance  which  must 
be  heartily  accepted  and  practised  by  the  offender.  The  reason  of 
this  imposition  was  that  the  Church  might  be  assured  of  the  sincere 
])enitence  and  reform  of  the  lapsed  who  was  seeking  admission. 

A  further  necessity  for  this  was  felt  by  the  Church  from  the  fact 
that  many  attempts  to  interfere  with  the  regular  discipline  of  the 
Church  had  been  made.  Especially  those  who  had  gained  peculiar 
sanctity  by  suffering  for  the  truth's  sake  abused  their  intluence  by 
granting  certificates  of  peace  or  reconciliation  without  confession 
or  the  assurance  of  penitence.  This  caused  great  discontent  on 
the  part  of  such  as  had  remained  steadfast,  and  discipline  was 
thus  seriously  threatened.  To  save  the  Church  from  disorder  and  to 
maintain  her  purity  four  orders  of  penitents  were  recognised  as  early, 
probably,  as  the  middle  of  the  third  century.  These  pour  orders  of 
were  known  among  the  Latins  as  Jlentes,  or  weepers;  penitenw. 
aucUentes,  or  hearers;  siihstrdtl,  or  kneelers;  and  coiiftisfc/ifc'i,  or 
co-standers.'  The  first  fell  ui)on  their  faces,  imploring  the  prayers 
of  the  Church  in  their  behalf,  and  that  they  might  be  admitted 
to   the  first  apartment  of   the  church.      Then   properly  their  pen- 

'  V.  St.  Basil :  Can.  22,  et  at.  Tlie  first  year  tliey  are  to  weep  before  tlio  gnte  of 
the  church;  the  second  year,  to  be  admitted  to  hearing;  the  tliird  year,  to  bending 
thekuee,  or  repentance;  the  third  year,  to  stand  with  tlie  faithful  at  prayers,  but 
not  partake  of  the  oblation.  To  the  same  efifect  are  the  teacliings  of  Ambrose  and 
other  fathers. 


382    ARCHJaOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 


1 


ance  began.  When  they  were  thus  admitted  to  become  hear- 
ers, permission  was  granted  them  to  listen  to  the  Scriptures  and 
the  sermon,  but  they  were  exchided  from  the  more  private  and 
sacred  portions  of  the  service.'  The  length  of  time  they  were  to 
continue  in  this  order  was  made  the  subject  of  repeated  conciliary 
action.*  This  depended  upon  the  nature  of  the  offence,  and  the 
character  of  the  offender.  The  third  order,  suhstrati,  or  genu- 
flectentes,  were  so  named  from  the  fact  that  they  Avere  permitted 
to  fall  on  their  knees,  and  remain  as  participants  in  the  common 
prayers,  and  to  hear  the  prayers  offered  for  them  by  the  congre- 
gation and  the  bishop.  While  the  hearers  were  restricted  to  the 
narthex  or  vestibule  of  the  church  building,  the  thii-d  order  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  interior,  near  the  ambo,  or  reading-desk.  The  fourth 
order  of  penitents,  the  consistentes,  or  co-standers,  were  allowed  "  to 
stand  with  the  faithful  at  the  altar,  and  join  in  the  common  prayers, 
and  see  the  oblation  offered;  but  yet  might  neither  make  their  own 
oblations,  nor  partake  of  the  eucharist  with  them." ' 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  the  Oriental  churches  ap- 
.  .    pointed  a  special  presbA'^ter   to  regulate  the  conduct  of 

tentiai  presfey-  penitential  discipline  [presbyter  j^oenitentiurius).  But 
'*''^'  on  account  of  the  continuous  restiveness  felt  by  the 

private  members,  in  their  more  public  life,  and  through  the  interfer- 
ence of  the  state,  this  special  office  was  abrogated  near  the  close  of 
the  fourth  century.  Likewise,  on  the  cessation  of  persecutions,  the 
T^   ,■       .  *.-     practice  of  orderly  penitential  discipline  fell  into  disuse, 

Decline  of  the    ^  .        •    ^  ^  . 

penitential  sys-  and  Cliurcli  life  became  more  free  and  unconstrained. 
'^™'  Also  in  the  West,  under  like  general  conditions  and  at 

about  the  same  time,  the  system  was  so  modified  that  only  for  more 
open  and  public  crimes  was  public  penance  imposed,  w^hile  for  other 
offences  a  private  confession  to  the  clergy  was  judged  sufficient.* 
From  this  came  gross  abuses  in  practice  (auricular  confession,  indul- 
gences, etc.)  and  dangerous  innovations  in  Christian  doctrine  (work 
righteousness,  etc.). 

The  readmission  to  the  Church,  after  the  period  of  penance,  was 
Ceremony  of  often  accompanied  Avith  much  imposing  ceremonial, 
readmission.  -jij^g  absolution  pronounced  by  the  early  Church  was 
not,  however,  judicial.  The  prerogative  of  pardon  l)eloiiged  to 
God  alone. 

'Note  the  proclamation  of  the  deacon,  '-.Ve  quis  audientium,  ne  quh  inMelium" 
etc.     Apost.  ConstiL,  1.  8,  c.  5. 

*  V.  Council  of  Nice,  Can.  11,  12,  and  canons  of  varion.s  other  councils. 
^  V.  Bin,a:hani:  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church,  bk.  xviii,  chap.  i. 

*  V.  Giiericke:  Lehrbicch  d.  ch.  kirch.  Archmologie,  Berlin,  1859,  s.  109. 


CHURCH   DISCIPLINE.  883 

As  there  were  stages  of  j)eiuteiitial  discipline,  so  were  there  vari- 
eties or  stages  of  absohitioii.  Biiigliain  '  has  arranged  Five  stages  of 
these  as  follows:  "  1.)  The  absolution  or  great  indul-  absolution, 
gence  of  baptism,  2.)  The  absolution  of  the  eucharist.  3.)  The 
absolution  of  the  word  and  doctrine.  4.)  The  absolution  of  imposi- 
tion of  hands  and  prayer.  5.)  The  absolution  of  reconcilement  to 
the  Church  and  her  communion  by  a  relaxation  of  her  censures. 
The  two  tii-st  may  be  called  sacramental  absolution;  the  third,  de- 
clarator}^ absolution;  the  fourth,  precatory  absolution;  the  fifth, 
judicial  absolution;  and  all  of  them  authoritative,  so  far  as  they  are 
done  by  the  ministerial  authority  and  commission  which  Christ  has 
given  to  his  Church,  to  reconcile  men  to  God  by  the  exercise  of  such 
acts  and  means  as  conduce  to  that  end  in  a  subordinate  and  minis- 
terial way,  according  to  his  appointment." 

The  earl}^  Church  was  careful  in  its  treatment  of  the  excommuni- 
cate. It  never  claimed  the  absolute  prerogative  of  par-  careoftheear- 
doii,  nor  arrogated  the  power  to  exclude  the  offender  ly  Church, 
from  final  salvation,  nor  to  limit  the  forgiving  mercy  of  God.  The 
acts  of  the  Church  were  purely  ministerial,  exercised  to  guard  its 
purity  of  doctrine  and  life.  The  original  system  of  RespectinR 
penance  had  no  respect  to  merit,  but  was  purely  penal,  pardon, 
disciplinary,  and  reformatory.^  Auricular  confession,  merit  of  good 
works,  and  indulgences  were  abuses  which  appeared  during  a  sub- 
sequent period  of  the  history  of  the  Church. 

§  3.  Discipline  of  the  Clergy. 
If  the  early  Church  was  stringent  in  its  discipline  of  the  laity,  its 
treatment  of  clerical  offences  was  still  more  severe.'     A   „         ,       . 

More  stringent 
distinction  was  made  between  the  discipline  of  the  cler-   than  lay  disci- 

gy  and  that  of  the  laity.     A  clergyman  might  be  excom-   "^  ""'' 

municated  from  his  office,  with  its  honours  and  emoluments,  and  yet 

be  permitted  to  enjoy  the  privileges  of  the  Church  conceded  to  the 

laity.     In  case  of  flagrant  crimes  the  excision  was,  how-   penalties    Jn- 

ever,   absolute.     The    penalties  suffered  by   the  clergy   f'*"'^*'^- 

generally  had  respect  to  their  means  of  support,  their  otHcc,  or  to 

their  persons,  in  case  of  corporal  punishment;  so  that  the  di'priva- 

tion  of  their  incomes  was  for  lesser  offences,  the  degratlation   from 

office   to    the    condition  of    laymen    for   more    heinous   pppoi,efi  piertrv 

crimes.    In  the  latter  case  the  deposed  clergy  were  rarely   mreiy  reinstat- 

reinstated;  hence  the  indelible  character  of  ordination 

could    not   have   been   the  governing   doctrine."      The   infrequent 

'  Op.  cit.:  bk.  xix,  pp.  1085,  seq.  ''  Probst:    Op.  cii.,  s.  401. 

*  Probst:    Op.  cit.,  s.  403.  "  Probst:   Op.  oil.,  ss.  407,  408. 


384    ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CONSTITUTION  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

infliction  of  corporal  punishment  was  generally  confined  to  the 
inferior  clergy;  but  in  criminal  causes  the  superior  clergy,  after 
degradation  from  their  office,  were  also  liable  to  the  same.' 

The  ancient  Church,  through  its  conciliary  canons,  exercised  a 
most  vigilant  oversight  over  its  clergy,  and  defined  with 

Ancient   disci- 

piine  whole-  great  clearness  the  offences  which  should  be  shunned, 
some.  ^^^^  ^j-^g  punishment  to  be  inflicted  upon  wilful  violators 

of  the  law.  Usually  these  provisions  were  eminently  wholesome 
and  just. 

'  Justin.  Novel,  123,  cap.  20.     Corporal  puuishmeut  seems  to  have  been  a  later 
infliction. 


BOOK  THIRD 


THE 

Sacraments  and  Worship  of  the  Early  Christian  Church. 


35 


THE    SACRAMENTS 


WORSHIP  OF  THE   EARLY   CHURCH 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  apostles  recognised  two  sacraments  as  instituted  by  Christ; 
they  celebrated  these  with  joy,  and  imposed  them  as  obligatory 
upon  all  who  would  be  disciples  of  the  new  faith.  The  deeper  sig- 
nificance of  the  Christian  sacraments  is  manifest,  although  existing 
forms  were  employed  for  teaching  their  profounder  truths.  What 
under  the  former  dispensation  was  a  type,  found  in  Christ  and  the 
sacraments  which  he  instituted  its  true  antitype;  the  prophecy  of 
good  things  to  come  was  herein  fulfilled;  the  circumcision  which 
was  outward  in  the  flesh  was  to  yield  to  the  true  circumcision  of  the 
heart,  in  the  spirit  and  not  in  the  letter  (Rom.  ii,  28,  29).  Christ, 
the  true  Passover,  was  to  be  sacrificed  once  for  all  for  men,  and 
henceforth  the  feast  was  to  be  kept  not  with  the  old  leaven,  neither 
with  the  leaven  of  malice  and  wickedness,  but  with  the  unleavened 
l)read  of  sincerity  and  truth  (1  Cor.  v,  7,  8). 

The  Eastern  Church  characterized  all  holy  or  incomprehensible 
truths  or  oflices  as  mysteries,  [ivar-qQia,  and  the  Latins,  in  their  trans- 
lations of  the  Scriptures,  generally  used  the  term  sacrament,  sa<Tii- 
mentuni,  as  the  appropriate  synonym.  Hence  the  Christian  fathers 
of  the  second  and  third  centuries  confound  the  sacraments  pniper 
with  all  sacred  rites  connected  with  the  institutions  of  the  Churcli. 
At  other  times  they  designate  each  step  or  stage  in  tlie  celebration 
of  baptism,  or  the  Lord's  Supper,  as  a  sacrament.  Hence  the  an- 
ointing with  oil  in  baptism,  and  the  act  of  confirmation,  are  often 
called  sacraments.  Cyprian  insists  upon  both  sacraments,  washing 
of  water  and  the  imposition  of  hands,  as  necessary  to  the  compU't*' 
sanctification  of    the    believer;  '     and     Optatus    speaks    in     similar 

'  Ep.  ad  Sleph. 


388        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

manner  of  washing,  anointing,  and  confirmation  as  three  sacraments. 
Probably,  however,  by  this  term  they  include  no  more  than  was 
implied  in  the  Greek  fivarrjpiov,  mystery.' 

The  Christian  writers  of  the  fourth  century  continue  to  attach  to 
the  term  a  very  vague  and  indefinite  meaning.  The  works  of  the 
great  theologians,  Ambrose,  Hilary,  and  Leo,  fail  to  define  with 
clearness,  to  agree  in  the  number  of  the  sacraments,  or  to  give  the 
rationale  of  their  opei-ation;  in  Augustine  is  first  met  an  attempt 
to  thus  define,  and  to  explain.  His  definition  would  allow  of  the 
recognition  of  an  indefinite  number,  since  he  did  not  limit  the  term 
to  that  which  had  the  express  sanction  and  command  of  Christ. 

Thus  the  number  of  sacraments  remained  undetermined  during 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  but  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per were  by  all  parties  considered  the  chief  and  indispensable.  It 
was  the  almost  universal  opinion  in  both  East  and  West  that  these 
were  necessary  to  salvation,  inasmuch  as  they  were  the  appointed 
means  of  grace;  nevertheless,  the  Church  did  not  deny  salvation 
to  those  who  by  extraordinary  devotion,  or  by  a  martyr's  death 
witnessed  for  Christ.  In  such  cases  the  "  baptism  of  blood  "  took 
the  place  of  water  baptism.  The  order  of  the  succession  of  the 
sacraments  was  generally  recognised.  Baptism  preceded  the  Lord's 
Su))per,  and  was  regarded  the  necessary  preparation  for  it. 

'  The  ante-Nicene  fathers  apply  the  term  mystery  to  all  which  is  in  any  wny  re- 
lated to  the  Godhead,  or  to  the  revelation  of  the  same.  They  include  in  this  the 
doctrine  of  revelation,  and  even  the  subject  of  s.ymbolism,  which  is  considered  mys- 
terious and  sacred.  This  nppears  especially  in  a  number  of  passages  of  Tertulliun 
and  Ireuseus.  The  following  from  Irenteus  may  illustrate  their  views:  "But  it  is 
more  suitaVjle  that  we,  directing  our  inquiries  after  this  fashion,  should  exercise  our- 
selves in  the  investigation  of  tlie  mystery  and  administration  of  tlie  living  God,  and 
should  increase  in  the  love  of  him  who  has  done,  and  still  does,  so  great  tilings  for 
us.  .  .  .  We  should  leave  things  of  that  nature  to  God.  who  created  us,  being  most 
properly  assured  that  the  Scriptures  are  indeed  perfect,  since  they  were  spoken  by 
the  Word  of  God  and  his  Spirit;  but  we,  inasmuch  as  we  are  inferior  to,  and  later  in 
existence  than,  the  Word  of  God  and  his  Spirit,  are  on  thnt  very  account  destitute 
of  the  knowledge  of  his  mysteries.  ...  If,  therefore,  even  wiih  respect  to  creation, 
there  are  some  things  which  belong  only  to  God,  .  .  .  what  ground  is  there  for  con;- 
plaint,  if  in  regard  to  those  things  which  we  investigate  in  the  Scriptures  (which  are 
throughout  spiritual),  we  are  able  by  the  grace  of  God  to  explain  some  of  them,  while 
we  must  leave  others  in  the  hands  of  God,"  etc.     Advers.  Htxres.,  ii,  28,  1-3. 


THE  SACRAMENT  OF   BAPTISM.  389 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   SACKAMKXT   oF   BAPTISM. 
^  1.   The  Ithn. 

The  acknowledgment  of  Jesus  as  theMessiah — the  sent  of  God — 
was  the  sole  article  of  belief  uniting  the  first  believers  in  a  distinct 
community-  Baptism  was  a  sign  and  seal  of  this  belief,  and  was, 
therefore,  into  the  name  of  Jesus,  thus  ratifying  the  union  of  the 
believer  with  him  as  the  Messiali.'  Probably  no  other 
formula  was  at  first  used,  since  this  name  was  believed 
to  imply  a  complete  divinity,  and  these  words  to  comprehend  all 
things  necessary  to  citizenship  in  the  kingdom  which  Christ  was  to 
establish.  But  the  full  fornuda  contained  in  the  commission  of  Christ 
was  soon  used,  and  afterward  was  regarded  as  essential  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  rite.^ 

The  baj)tism  which  Christ  instituted  was  different  in  spirit  and 
import  from  that  of  John  the  B.ijttist;  this  is  clearly  chrisfs  bap- 
recognised  by  John  himself  (Matt,  iii,  II;  Mark  i,  S;  tism peculiar. 
Luke  iii,  16;  John  i,  3:3);  and  is  also  evident  from  the  fact  that 
John's  disciples  had  "  not  even  heard  whether  there  be  a  Holy 
dhost"  (Acts  xix',  -2).  The  formula  "into  the  name  of  the  Father, 
and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  "  could  have  been  understood 
only  by  those  who  were  assured  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  after 
the  full  work  of  atonement  had  been  completed,  the  presence  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  had  been  felt,  and  the  fulfillment  of  Jesns's  promise 
liad  been  witnessed  upon  tlie  day  of  Feniecost.  So  that  whiK'  tlie 
baptism  of  John  was  complete  in  water,  kv  ixiari,  the  baptism  insti- 
tuted by  Christ  was  not  only  in  water,  but  in  the  Holy  S]»irit  and  in 
fire,  TTVEVfiart  dyiio  Kal  TrvQi.  Moreover,  the  baptism  institutctl  by 
Christ  was  to  be  a  permanent  institution,  and  was  of  the  nature  <»f 
an  indispensable  sacrament.* 

'  V.  Neaiider:  Plantimj  and  Training,  etc.     Ryland's  trnns..  p.  27. 

^  V.  Harnaok:  Dogmengesrhirhte,  Bd.  i.  H.  claimB  that  tliis  baptismal  confession 
was  first  recognised  as  an  apostolic  article  o(  faith  about  .\.  D.  150,  and  ilial  it  orig- 
inated in  Rome,  and  not  in  tlic  Kast. 

■'  Acts  ii,  38,  39:  i/iuv  yap  iariv  r'j  trrnyyiAiu  kqi  toI(  TiKvui(  v/^ur  koI  Trdaiv  ro't^  ur 
iinKpav  K.T.'k. 


390        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

The  submission  to  tlie  rite  implied,  on  the  part  of  the  subject,  a 
turninof  away  from  his  former  life,  an  acceptance  of  the 

What  was  im-  '^  "  ■  .  „        .         \.     , 

plied  in  the  Messiah,  and  a  renewal  and  purification  of  the  spirit. 
''"®''  The  dying  of  the  old  man  and  the  life  of  the  new,  the 

birth  to  righteousness  and  holiness  through  the  Holy  Spirit,  the 
burial  with  Christ,  and  the  resurrection  to  a  life  of  perpetual  devo- 
tion, are  prominent  thoughts  of  the  New  Testament  writers. 

The  Christian  fathers  of  the  second  and  following  centuries  in- 
cline more  to  the  thouo^ht  of  a  magical  power  of  the 

Opinions  re-  '^  .       , 

specting  its  water  in  baptism.  Justin  Martyr '  calls  it  the  water  of 
nature.  life,  v6o)Q  ^o)rjg;  TertuUian '   conveys  the  thought  that 

in  the  water  of  baptism  the  new  birth  takes  place;  Gregory  of  Nazi- 
anzen  ^  speaks  of  it  as  "  the  garment  of  immortality,  the  laver  of 
regeneration,"  etc.  By  some  of  the  fathers  the  necessity  of  bap- 
tism to  salvation  is  clearly  taught;  hence  the  characterization  of  the 
How  character-  ^'i^e  as  salus.*  Others  ^  emphasize  the  enlightening  effects 
^^^-  of  baptism;  hence  call  it  (jjcorionog,  illuminatio,  sacra- 

hientum  ilhiminationis,  lux  mentis,  etc.  These,  together  with  other 
terms  for  baptism  and  its  effects,  as  ;:^pt(5/ia,  unctio,  0(f)payig,  sigll- 
luin,  indalgentia,  ahsolutio,  gratia,  mors  peocatoruin,  etc.,  clearly 
indicate  the  high  worth  placed  upon  baptism  by  the  Christian 
fathers,  as  well  as  their  opinion  of  its  magical  effects. 

The  post-Nicene  fathers,  no  less  than  their  predecessors,  are  posi- 
tive in  their  opinions  relative  to  the  necessity  of  baptism  to  salva- 
tion, and  to  its  power  to  regenerate  the  subject.  Separate  treatises 
upon  its  nature,  efficacy,  and  necessity  were  prepared  by  Basil, 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  Augustine.  It  occu- 
pies a  prominent  place  in  the  theology  of  Augustine,  who  attempts 
to  harmonize  it  wdth  his  peculiar  views  of  original  sin  and  the 
enslavement  of  the  human  will.  With  other  prominent  fathers, 
he  plainly  teaches  the  necessity  of  baptism  to  salvation;  conse- 
quently,that  all  the  unbaptized  are  lost,  including  young  children.® 
He  also  regards  baptism  as  a  sacrament  of  regeneration,  through 
which  forgiveness  of  sin  is  attained,  and  as  the  channel  for  the 
communication  of  efficient  and  cooperating  grace.  Yet  with  most 
of  these  great  theologians  the  exercise  of  faith  is  regarded  as  the 
necessary  condition  of  the  efficient  operation  of  the  sacrament.  In 
opposition  to  Cyprian  and  some  of  the  Eastern  fathers,  Augustine 

1  Dialog,  c.  Tryp.  «  de  Bo  pi.,  c.  1.  *  0)-at.  40,  de  Bap. 

"  Augustine,  Basil,  Greg.  Nazianzen,  and  others. 

*  .Tiist.  Mar. :  Apol,  2 ;  Clem.  Alex. :  Pcedag.,  i,  6  ;  Greg.  Naz. :  Orat.  40,  de  Bap. ; 
Chrys. :  Horn.  13,  in  Heb. 

«  V.  Ep.  186,  c.  27 ;  and  de  Nujit.  et  Coucup..  i,  e.  28. 


THE   SACRAMENT   OF   BAPTISM.  391 

recognised  the  validity  of  heretical  baptism.'  Thin  remained  the 
prevalent  view  during  the  period  which  we  are  to  examine. 

§  2.  Subjects  of  Daptmn. 

The  command  of  Christ  in  the  great  commission  (Matt,  xxvii, 
19,  20;  Mark  xv,  lo,  16)  had  reference  to  an  indispensable  ordi- 
nance—  baptism.  This  is  generally  accepted.  The  discipling  of 
all  men  implied  a  missionary  activity  and  missionary  nuxlcs,  used 
originally  in  behalf  of  such  as  could  comprehend  the  conditions  of 
the  Gospel  message.  Thus  the  first  converts,  whose  First  subjects 
names  and  the  circumstances  of  whose  baptism  are  re-  "duit* 
corded  in  the  Scriptures,  were  of  adult  age.  That  infants  and 
young  children  were  baptized  during  the  apostolic  age  is  nowhrrr 
positively  affirmed  in  the  New  Testament.     The  mention  of   tlu- 

baptism  of  entire  households  furnishes  a   strong  i)re- 

^   ,     ,  .  ,    T      •  •  LI       ,  1     .  Presumptions, 

sumptive  argument,  but  is  not  decisive,     bo  the -relation 

of  circumcision  to  Christian  baptism,  the  universality  of  the  bene- 
fits of  Christ's  kingdom,  the  recognition  of  young  children  as  objects 
of  his  special  favour,  the  comprehensiveness  of  the  apostolic  com- 
mission, and  various  other  considerations,  are,  to  many,  proofs 
that  the  children  of  Christian  believers  were  regarded  by  the  apos- 
tolic Church  as  fit  subjects  for  baptism.  But  these,  in  the  absence 
of  clear,  unequivocal  Scripture  statement,  cannot  produce  universal 

conviction.     "  Christ  left  no  command  about  it;  it  was 

1  •      /^ii  I  1  .No  cominanil. 

one  or   those  many  tilings  his  Cliurcn  was  to  learn  in 
her  gradual  development  through  the  Paraclete  whom  he  had  given.'' ' 
The  apostolic  fathers  contain  no  positive  information      Apostolic  fa- 
relative   to  the  practice  of  the   Church   of  their  time      "^"^  ,^'J^"[ 
respecting  infant  baptism.       The  most  explicit  state-      baptism, 
ment  is  found  in  Justin  Martyr,  who  says:  "There  are  among  the 
Christians  of  this  day  many  of  both   sexes,  sixty  and   Justin's  state- 
seventy  years  old,   who   have  been   made  disciples  of  "'*'"'• 
Christ  from  their  infancy."'     Here  nothing  is  said  of  baptism;  it  is 
only  inferred.     Nor  does  Ireiueus  positively  atfirm  the  practice  of 
infant  baptism  in  his  day.     In  common  with  the  Christian  writers' 
of  the  second  century,  he  connects  the  necessity  of  ]»ap-   ,^„„.„,.^^,,g„. 
tism  with  the  taint  of  human  nature,      lie  argues  the 
universal  guilt  of  sin  and  the  need  of  a  universal  Saviour.     Christ  is 

'  de  Baptismo  contra  Donat.,  1.  vii. 

'  Dollinger:    The  First  Age  of  the  Church,  vol.  ii,  p.  IGU. 
^  Apol.y  i,  15. 

*  V.  Clem.  Rom.:   Fyp.  i,  mi  Cor.,  n.   17.     Hennas:   Pastor,   lib.   3,   simil.  9.     JuaL 
Mar. :  Dial,  aim  Tryph.,  c.  43. 


393        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

the  Saviour  who  came  to  save  all '  who  are  regenerated  by  God. 
But  this  regeneration  ordinarily  comes  through  baptism.  He  thus 
implies  that  baptism  was  administered  to  infants.''  So  also  with 
Tertullian.  While  no  positive  assertion  is  made  by  the  African 
presbyter  that  the  Church  practised  infant  baptism,  the  entire  force 
Tertuiiian's  of  ^^^  argument  presupposes  such  practice.'  For  if  he 
position.  labours  to  show  that  the  rite  should  be  postponed  to 

adult  age,  it  is  evident  that  the  custom  of  the  baptism  of  young 
children  was  prevalent.  Moreover,  in  his  opposition  he  does  not 
cite  apostolic  custom  against  infant  baptism,  which  is  almost  incon- 
ceivable if  the  apostolic  Church  had  been  averse  to  it.  Thus,  while 
no  positive  statement  relative  to  infant  baptism  is  met  in  *  the  Scrip- 
tures, or  in  the  writings  of  any  fathers  earlier  than  Irenaeus  and  Ter- 
tullian, by  the  end  of  the  second  century  mention  is  made  of  the 
,  .     baptism  of  children,  and  in  the  third,  of  infants.     But 

Not  general  in         ^^     _  '  .  .       ' 

the  fourth  cen-  even  in  the  fourth  the  practice  of  infant  baptism  is  not 
^'^^'  general,    since    eminent    fathers,    whose    parents    were 

Christians,  did  not  receive  baptism  till  adult  age.  It  was  then  gen- 
erally based  upon  the  teaching  of  Christ  (Matt,  xix,  14).  That  dur- 
ing the  third  century  the  children  of  Christian  parents  were  fre- 
quently baptized  is  established  by  much  unquestioned  testimony, 
origen's  testi-  Origen  is  especially  clear  in  his  statement  of  the  prevail- 
mony.  jj^g  practice,  and  insists  that  the   Church  inherited  it 

from  the  apostles  themselves.^  From  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury the  custom  of  the  Church  is  attested  b}'  the  unequivocal  testi- 

'  Adver.  Hones.,  1.  ii,  c.  22. 

*  V.  Adver.  Ilceres.,  lib.  ii,  cc.  22,  39.  v.  Powers:  Irenceus  and  Infant  Baptism,  in  the 
Am.  Pres.  and  Theol.  Review,  1857,  pp.  239-267.  TLis  writer  examines  the  teach- 
ings of  Ireiifeus  with  much  tlioroughness,  and  concludes  that  wherever  he  uses  the 
expression  "  regeneration  by  God,"  he  means  baptism.  This  was  also  the  opinion 
of  the  earlier  defenders  of  infant  baptism,  v.  Wall :  Hist,  of  Infant  Baptism,  Oxford, 
1872,  vol.  i,  pp.  44,  seq. 

^  de  Bapt.^c.  18.  v.  Hofling:  Das  Sacram.ent  der  Taufe,  Erlangen,  1846,  Bd.  i. 
ss.  104,  seq. 

*  "The  introduction  of  the  practice  of  psedobaptism  into  the  Church  is  hidden  iu 
Harnack's  obscurity.  If  it  owes  its  origin  to  the  indispensableness  of  the  same 
statement.  to  salvation,  this  is  an  argument  that  the  superstitious  view  of  bap- 
tism had  become  greatly  strengthened.  At  the  time  of  Irenseus  (ii,  22,  4)  and  Ter- 
tullian (de  Bapt.,  18)  it  was  already  widely  practised,  being  defended  from  the  com- 
mand of  Christ  (Matt,  xix,  14).  We  have  no  witness  for  this  practice  from  an  earlier 
date.  Tertullian  opposed  it  on  the  ground  that  a  conscious  faith  was  the  necessary 
condition  of  receiving  the  rite,  but  more  especially  because  of  its  tremendous  import. 
...  In  the  course  of  the  third  century  the  custom  was  prevalent  to  baptize  tiie 
children  of  Ciiristian  families."  Harnack:  Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengeschichte,  Frei- 
bnrg.  1886,  Bd.  i,  ss.  358,  359. 

*  V.  in  Luc.,  Horn.  14,  t.  2 ;  and  in  Rom.,  1.  5,  c.  6,  v.  9. 


THE    SACRAMENT   OF    liAPTIS.M.  333 

mony  of  competent  witnesses;  it  is  made  the  suhjeet  of  conciliary 
action,'    and    is    defended     bv    most    orthodox    writers 

,     , ,  ^  .         1  •    ■  ,.  ,  .      .  Infant  Uipiisini 

agamst  tJie  contrary  teachin<^s  ot  some  heretical  sects,  n.imnou  m  m.- 
While  the  opinions  of  the  Christian  teacliers  of  the  third  "'""^ '^«"'"'">- 
and  fourth  centuries  varied  with  rei,':u<l  to  the  expediency  of  baptiz- 
in<j^  infants  in  case  of  no  impendinLf  dantjer,  they  were  in  accord  on 
the  question  of  its  rightfulness  and  lawfulness  when  threatene<l 
with  death.  Gregory  Nazianzen  thought  it  advisable,  if  postponed  to 
in  good  health,  to  defer  the  baptism  of  cliildren  until  tltey  ""'  "''rJ>«^"''- 
were  about  three  years  old;  he  was,  however,  positive  in  maintain- 
ing the  right  and  duty  of  the  baptism  of  infants  in  case  of  danger 
of  death."  The  inscriptions  which  contain  distinct  dogmatic  teach- 
ing have  already  been  found  to  be  few.  Yet  a  number  have  been 
preserved  which  confirm  the  recorded  testimony,  already  referred 
to,  as  to  the  relation  of  children  to  baptism  and  church  membership. 
Children  of  tender  age  are  spoken  of  as  having  been  ba])tized,  an<l 
as  faithful  members  of  Christ's  Churcli.*  The  practice  of  infant 
baptism  Avas  usually  limited  to  the  case  of  children  born  of  Christ- 
ian parents;  nevertheless,  the  early  Church  was  gen-  Liberal pnutice 
erally  liberal  in  the  treatment  of  children  when  one  °'  ^^^  chunh. 
parent  was  a  Christian,  or  when  they  had  been  born  while  the 
parents  were  under  ban  of  excommunication,  or  when  the  religious 
status  of  the  parents  was  not  known.  In  all  these  cases  the  chil- 
dren were  held  to  be  fit  sul)jects  of  baptism.*  From  Baptism  of 
the  fourth  century  the  i)ropriety  of  the  baptism  of  ^^'I",,',''/",",^,'! 
infants  was  unquestioned,  and  the  practice  was  not  fouriiir>'iuiin-. 
unusual;  nevertheless,  adult  baptism  was  the  more  common  practic  «• 
for  the  first  six  centuries.' 

§  8.    Catechumeniad  Training  of  Adults  for  Baptism  and  Admission  to  the 

Church. 

During  the  warmth  of  zeal  in  the  apostolic  Cliiinh,  proftsscil 
believers  in   Jesus   and   his   resurrection   were   almost   imnuMliately 

'  V.  Cyprian,  Ep.  59  and  64,  where  the  bishop.  Fidns,  had  iiiqiiirod  whother  in- 
fants could  be  baptized  before  tliey  were  eight  days  old.  The  roinieii  of  Cartilage, 
A.  D.  252,  decided  that  infants  could  be  baptized  even  earlier  than  the  oighlli  day. 

*  V.  Orat.  40,  de  Buptismo. 

3  The  following  is  an  example:  HICTOC  EK  niCTWX  Zl2(M.Mor  KNOAAE 
KEIME  ZIICAC-  ETECIN  B-  MH-  A-  HME-  KE.  •' Kaithlnl,  ol  the  failliful,  I. 
Zosimns,  lie  here,  having  lived  two  years  one  month  and  twenty  five  days." 

'  V.  Bingham:    Op.  cil.,  bk.  x,  sees.  15-19,  and  nnthorities  tliere  given. 

*  "Ba[)tism  of  infants  is  allowed  no  less  by  present  custom  than  by  the  nncient 
canons  "  (of  the  Coptic  Church),  v.  Butler:  Ancimt  Coptic  Churches  of  Egypt,  vol.  ii, 
p.  262. 


394        S.\.CR.VMENT3  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

admitted  to  baptism.    This  is  evident  from  the  history  of  Pliilip  and 
the  Ethiopian  eunuch  (Acts  viii,  30-40),  Cornelius  (Acts 

Baptism  Imme-  ^^^      ,.      ,,  •-,.-,  ,~\  -t   j.i       t-h  •  i  ■ 

urate  on  profes-  X,  47,  48),  Ljdia  (Acts  XVI,  14,  15),  and  the  Fhilippian 
siojiof  faitti.  jailer  (Acts  xvi,  32,  33).  It  seems  to  have  been  the  method 
of  John  Baptist  in  his  ministry  (Matt,  iii,  5,  6;  John  iii,  23,  et  al); 
nevertheless,  even  his  baptism  was  conditioned  on  repentance  and 
reformation  of  life  (Matt,  iii,  7-10;  Luke  iii,  7-10).  So  also  in  the 
later  history  of  the  Church,  during  the  attempts  to  Christianize  the 
pagan  peoples,  whole  tribes  were  sometimes  baptized  almost  imme- 
diatel}',  at  their  own  request  or  that  of  their  chiefs.'  But  from  the 
second  century  the  general  practice  of  the  Church  was  essentially 
modified,  especially  in  the  case  of  converts  from  heathenism.  In 
order  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  Church  and  save  it  from  scandal. 
Special  train-  ^^  ^^'^^  believed  necessary  to  use  greater  caution  in  receiv- 
ing necessary  j^g  members,  and  by  a  course  of  careful  preliminary 
Gentile  con-  training  to  become  assured  of  their  sincerity,  and  of 
verts.  their  acceptance  of  the  Christian   doctrine;  thus  men 

were  appointed  to  the  special  duty  of  preparing  candidates  for  bap- 
tism. The  nature  and  duration  of  the  instruction  varied  with  cir- 
cumstances, fi'om  a  few  days  to  two  or  three  years.  It  is  believed 
that  this  had  chief  reference  to  persons  of  Gentile  origin. 

The  gradual  admission  of  the  candidate  to  the  Church  services, 
his  instruction  in  the  exoteric  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  his  ad- 
vancement through  successive  stages  of  discipline,  were  regarded  as 
preparatory  to  his  initiation  into  the  mysteries  of  the  society.^  Bap- 
tism was  this  initiatory  rite;  and  to  reveal  its  process  and  effects  to 
those  who  were  still  in  catechumenical  training  was  regarded  a  deep 
impiety. 

§  4.    The  Ministi-ants. 

It  is  certain  that  the  words  of  Christ's  last  commission  were  more 
Tiie  riffht  to  especiall}^  addressed  to  the  eleven  apostles.  But  that 
an''ert'o'*t*h"e  ^'^^  ^'^^^  ^^  baptism  was  performed  by  others  than  the 
apostles.  twelve  and  Paul  is  plain  from  the  example  of  Philip, 

one  of  the  first  deacons  (Acts  viii,  12,  38).  Nevertheless,  during 
the  second  century,  when  the  episcopal  authority  had  come  to  be 
A  function  of  ^videly  recognised,  baptism  was  regarded  as  an  especial 
the  bishop.  function  of  the  bishop.  The  presbyters  and  deacons 
performed  the   rite,  but   with  express    permission  of  the  bishop. 

'  n.  Socrates:  Eccles.  Hist.,  bk.  vii,  c.  xxx,  where  the  baptism  of  the  Burgnndians 
is  described  as  taking  place  on  the  eighth  day,  after  a  fast  and  instruction  of  seven 
days.     Tliis  wns  early  in  the  fifth  century. 

"  It  is  easy  to  trace  parallelisms  between  the  practice  of  the  Christian  Church  and 
that  of  tlie  contemporary  social,  political,  and  religious  clubs. 


THE   SACRAMENT   OF   BAPTISM.  395 

The  duty  pertained  to  the  episcopal  office,  and  could  be  discharged 
by  the  bishop  and  by  those  only  to  whom  his  riirjit  was  dcle<rate<l. 
This  was  the  theory  prevalent  in  tlie  orthodox  churches,  both  East 
and  West,  during  the  first  six  centuries.  However,  in  in  cases  of  ex- 
cases  of  extreme  necessity,  not  only  presbyters  and  dea-   ^reme  necessu 

,     ,      ,       ,  ,  1         /•       I  /•  1     1        ly  others  could 

cons,  but  also  laymen  and  even  heretics,'  performed  the  aiminister  the 
rite,  and  such  baptism  was  regarded  valid  by  most  ec-  '^''*^'- 
clesiastical  authorities.  It  was  so  recognised  on  account  of  the 
prevalent  view  that  baptism  was  necessary  to  admission  to  the 
Church  and  to  salvation.  The  service  of  an  irregular  administratf>r 
was  justified  only  on  the  ground  of  extreme  exigenc}-,  as  in  the  case 
of  impending  death  or  the  compelled  absence  of  the  bishop.' 

§  5.    TJte  Mode  of  Baptism. 

In  the  various  instances  of  baptism  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  mode  of  its  administration  is  in  no  case  de-  ^^  .  . 

'  _  _  _  Christ  made 

scribed.  It  is  manifest,  however,  that  (-hrist,  in  so  far  use  of  known 
as  possible,  made  use  of  ordinances  and  methods  with  """  *^*' 
which  the  men  of  his  time  were  already  familiar.  The  genuine 
spirit  of  the  old  religion  was  not  to  be  superseded  by  that  of  the 
new,  since  it  was  essentially  the  same  under  both,  but  it  Avas  to  be 
revived,  quickened,  and  perfected.  When,  therefore,  in  the  great 
commission  to  his  apostles  Christ  used  the  words  "disciple,"  or 
"  make  disciples,"  jtia^T/reuaare,  these  conveyed  no  new  notion,  but 
one  with  which  they  were  entirely  familiar.  The  great  rabbis  of  the 
rival  sects  were  ever  zealous  to  make  disciples,  uadnTaf., 

,         ,  .  Analogies. 

and  the  thought  of  gaining  adherents  to  tlie  doctrines 
of  their  own  Master  and  Lord  was  consonant  with  the  feelings  of 
the  apostles,  and  in  harmony  with  prevalent  methcxls.  So  also  with 
baptism.  The  command  to  baptize,  (iaTrri^eiv,  fiaTTrioavTeg,  was  well 
understood.  No  explanation  was  added;  no  descrii)tion  of  some 
strange  ceremony  followed;  the  notion  was  clear;  the  method  of 
obeying  the  command,  manifest.  What  was  at  hand  and  well  known 
was  used;  the  mode  of  the  administration  was  that  wliicli  was  then 
extant  among  the  Jewish   people,  of  which  Christ,  tlu-  .Alastcr,  and 

'  The  validity  of  baptism,  when  performed  by  licrctics  or  schismatics,  was  stoutly 
opposed  by  Cyprian  in  his  conflict  witli  Novatian.  In  case  of  heretics  and  schismatics 
us  ministrauts  ho  denied  that  there  was  any  real  baptism,  since  no  one  outside  the 
FToly  Catholic  Churcii  had  the  chnracter  requisite  to  make  the  baptism  effective  lo 
the  washinrf  away  of  sins,  even  though  their  professed  faith  and  all  the  formulas 
used  were  in  exact  harmony  with  those  of  the  Church.  This  arose  from  his  extrenie 
theory  of  the  unity  of  the  Churcli.     v.  Ep.  ad  .\fitgnum. 

'  For  authorities  v.  bk.  ii,  chap,  iv,  where  the  growth  of. the  episcopate  is  traced. 


396         SACRAMENTS  AND  AVORSIIIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

the  apostk's,  the  disciples,  were  a  part.  That  the  rite  was  to  have  a 
The  rite  Had  a  tk'ei)er  significance  to  those  who  accepted  it  is  manifest, 
deeiwr  import,  'fiiis  was  only  in  accordance  with  a  law  holding  in 
the  entire  cycle  of  art  and  philosophy,  as  well  as  religion.  It  was 
to  be  no  mere  washing  by  water,  but  a  purification  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  by  fire.  The  decision  of  the  Council  at  Jerusalem  (Acts 
XV,  29),  whereby  the  obligation  of  circumcision  was  no  longer  im- 
posed upon  the  Gentile  converts,  substituted  a  pleasant  for  a  painful 
initiatory  rite,  and  gave  to  baptism  a  foremost  place,  rather  than  a 
secondary,  as  under  the  Jewish  economy;  but  there  is  not  the  slight- 
est evidence  that,  during  the  apostolic  period,  the  mere  mode  of 
administration  underwent  any  change.  The  customary  mode  was 
Immersion  the  used  by  the  apostles  in  the  baptism  of  the  first  converts. 
■"m"^n  ™  th''  They  were  familiar  with  the  baptism  of  John's  disciples 
Jews.  and  of  the  Jewish  proselytes.    This  M^as  ordinarily  by  dip- 

])ing  or  iumiersion.  This  is  indicated  not  only  by  the  general  signifi- 
cation of  the  words  used  in  describing  the  rite,  but  the  eai-liest  testi- 
mony of  the  documents  which  have  been  preserved  gives  preference  to 
this  mode.'  While,  however,  the  mode  of  the  Jewish  proselyte  bap- 
.levvish  prose-  tism  is  generally  accepted,  the  date  of  its  institution  is 
lyte  baptism.  ^^[[\  j^  question.  A  large  class  of  scholars  look  upon  it 
as  of  immemorial  antiquity,  while  others  find  little  evidence  that  Jew- 
ish proseh^te  baptism  was  practised  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem by  Titus,  after  the  possibility  of  special  offerings  in  the  temple  had 
ceased.  The  chronology  is  difficult,  but  the  opinion "  that  proselyte 
baptism  among  the  Jews,  as  an  independent  rite  of  initiation,  could 
not  have  been  introduced  earlier  than  the  end  of  the  first  century  is 
entitled  to  much  respect.  But  that  it  was  before  practised  as  a 
token  of  purification,  if  not  as  an  initiatory  rite,  is  fully  estab- 
lished.3 

It  is  manifest  that  the  administration  by  the  apostles  involved 
Baptism  imme-  little  delay.  The  cases  of  baptism  recorded  in  the  Acts 
after'^  "proTs"  ^^  ^'^®  Apostles,  both  in  the  earlier  and  later  sections, 
sioa  of  faith,  indicate  that  the  rite  was  administered  to  the  converts 
near  the  time  and  place  of  their  acceptance  of  Jesus  as  the  Messiah, 
No  evidence,  however,  is  furnished  from  the  record  that  Peter  him- 

'  V.  Teaching  of  the  Tivelve  Apostles,  chap.  vii. 

'?'.  Le}'rer:  article  "  Proscly ten,"  in  Herzog's  Cydopcedia,  2te  Aui??;.  Plumptre  : 
Smith's  Bible  Dictionary,  article  "Proselytes,"  claims  that  the  rabbis  were  stimulated 
to  making  baptism  a  foremost  rite  of  initiation  by  the  great  success  of  Christianity 
among  the  Gentiles,  whose  only  initiatory  rite  was  baptism;  but  Leyrer  is  of  the 
o[)inion  that  a  formal  borrowing  of  Christian  usages  is  extremely  improbable. 

'  Among  others  v.  Edersiieim:  Life  and  Times  of  the  Messiah.  Schiirer:  History 
of  the  Jewish  People,  vol.  ii,  pp.  319-324. 


THE   SACRAMENT   OF    BAPTISM.  397 

self  baptized  the  three  thousand  believers  on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 

This  may  liave  been  done  by  different  apostles,  at  different  places, 

by  different  modes,  during  the  entire  day,'  or  on  subsetpient  days," 

The  terms  of  Scripture  describing  the  rite,  most  of  the 

ii  3    1        A  •.  r     1       -vr         ri  Immersion  the 

hgures  used  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  to   more  usual 

indicate  its  significance  (Rom.  vi,  4;  Col.  ii,  12,  et  aL),   ^^*'' 
the  explanations  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,^  the  coiiinicnts  of 
the  foremost  Christian  fathers  for  the  hrst  six  centuries,  and  the  ex- 
press instructions  of  ecclesiastical  councils  indicate  that  immersion 
was  the  more  usual  mode  of  baptism.* 

Nevertheless,  it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  the  peculiar  circumstances 
of  the  baptism  of  certain  persons  with  ready  and  available  means 
for  their  immediate  immersion,  as  in  the  case  of  Paul  {Acts  ix,  18), 
the  Philippian  jailer  (Acts  xvi,  33),  and  others.  These  facts  make 
it  highlv  probable  that  a  degree  of  liberty  was  allowed 

1  \        r     1      •    ■  •  1        •  ^    nioa.sure  of 

in  the  mode  of  administration,  so  that  in  case  of  exigency  liberty  permit- 
aspersion  was  practiced.  This  antecedent  probability  '*^^' 
has  now  been  changed  to  well-nigh  absolute  certainty  by  the  testi- 
mony of  "The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles."  This  invalua- 
ble document,  which  belongs  to  the  first  quarter  of  the  second 
century,^  supplies  a  long-missing  link  in  the  chain  of  evidence  be- 
tween the  close  of  the  apostolic  age  and  Justin  Martyr,  "  jhe  Teachinir 
respecting  the  rites,  polity,  and  life  of  the  Church.  It  of  the  Twelve." 
also  furnishes  valuable  aid  in  understanding  some  obscure  points  in 
the  writings  of  Clement,  Polycarp,  Barnabas,  and  Ignatius.  This 
writing  is  believed  to  have  originated  in  either  Syria  or  p]gypt,  and 
to  have  been  prepared  as  a  sort  of  Church  manual,  as  well  as  a 
catechism,  for  Jewish  catechumens.'  In  connection  with  valuable 
teaching   respecting   Christian    life,   it   speaks  of   the   ap])ropriate 

'  Zockler:  Apostelgeschidtte,  Nordlingen,  1886,  s.  164 

■^  Dolliiiger:  Op.  cit,  vol.  ii,  p.  160.  "It  is  not  said  that  the  3.000  converts  of 
Pentecost  were  nil  baptized  the  same  day,  but  only  tliat  on  that  day  were  added 
:{,000  souls  (Acts  ii,  41)." 

3  Cons.  AposL,  lib.  3,  c.  17. 

■•  V.  Tertullian :  de  Bapt,  c.  2.  Chrysostom :  Horn.  40,  on  1  Cor. ;  Horn.  25,  on 
Joiin  iii,  5.  Cyril:  Gatech.,  17,  8.  Ambrosius:  ck  Sarram.,  1.  2,  c.  6.  Conn.  Toledo: 
4,  can.  6,  and  many  other  testimonies. 

*Sabaticr:  La  Didache,  Paris,  1885,  places  the  composition  after  A.  D.  50. 
Bryeniiio.s,  IlMmack,  and  others  place  it  between  A.  D.  120  and  .\.  D.  165. 
Lecliler,  Funk,  Z.ihn,  and  others  are  inclined  to  regard  it  as  a  production  of  the 
lirst  century.  The  English  and  American  critics  also  generally  place  it  in  the  first 
century. 

*  Lechlor  holds  that  this  is  true  only  of  tlie  .second  pnrt.  Funk :  Doctrina  Duo- 
decern  Apostolorum,  Twhm^x,  1887,  "denies  the  Egyptian  and  maintains  the  Syrian 
or  Palestinian  origin." — Schaff, 


398         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

preparation  for  baptism,  and  its  mode  of  administration,  as 
follows: 

"Now  concerning  baptism,  thus  baptize  ye:  having  first  uttered 
Its  baptismal  ^^^  ^hese  things,  baptize  into  the  name  of  the  Father, 
teachiiiK.  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  living  water 

(tv  vdari  ^ibvTi).'  But  if  thou  hast  not  running  water,  baptize  into 
other  water  [elg  alXo  r^dwp),  and  if  thou  canst  not  in  cold,  in  warm. 
And  if  thou  hast  neither,  pour  out  water  upon  the  head  thrice,  into 
the  name  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit.  And  before  the  baptism 
let  the  baptizer  fast  and  the  baptized,  and  whatever  others  are  able; 
but  the  baptized  thou  shalt  command  to  fast  for  one  or  two  days 
before." ' 

This  document,  only  a  generation  removed  from  the  death  of  the 
apostles,  if  not  written  during  the  lifetime  of  some,  plainly  teaches 
a  degree  of  liberty  in  the  mode  of  the  administration  of  baptism. 
The  character  of  the  writing,  as  a  book  for  catechumens  of  Jewish 
origin,  would  certainly  exclude  the  supposition  that  this 
alternative  mode  of  baptism  was  of  the  nature  of  an  in- 
novation; besides,  it  is  easy  to  believe  that  at  the  time  of  its  writing 
there  were  still  living  in  Syria  or  Egypt  persons  who  w^ere  entirely 
Momiraentai  familiar  with  the  apostolic  practice.  The  testimony  of  the 
testimony.  monuments  is  in  entire  harmony  with  the  "  Teaching." 
The  chronology  of  the  earliest  frescos  has  been  elsewhere  examined.^ 
Among  the  very  earliest  frescos  is  that  found  on  the  wall  in  the 
Fresco  from  crypt  of  Santa  Lucina,  in  the  catacomb  of  San  Calisto, 
Santa  Lucina.  Rome  (Fig.  126).'  The  lower  central  fresco  has  almost 
without  exception  been  regarded  as  a  representation  of  the  close  of 
the  baptism  of  Christ  as  described  in  Matt,  iii,  16.  A  nude  male 
Baptism  of  figure  is  Stepping  from  the  water,  which  reaches  a  little 
Christ.  above  the  knees.     A  man  clad  in  a  tunic  is  standing  on 

the  shore  and  extending  his  hand  in  helpfulness  toward  the  one 

'  Bryennios  remarks  that  v8u)p  ^ibv  is  not  exclusively  runninp:  water,  but  that 
whicli  is  brouglit  fresh  from  rivers  and  springs,  where  in  earliest  times  the  Christians 
were  wont  to  baptize. 

"  Uepl  de  Tov  pairTicfiaToq  oiiru  jSaTTTiaaTE-  ravra  Trdvra  TrpoeinovTeg,  (iaKTiaare  etc  to 
bvojia  TOV  Unrpbg  koI  tov  Tlov  Kal  tov  dyiov  Hvev/xaTOC  ev  vdari  %uvTi.  'Edv  df  fifj  exvQ 
v6up  ^uv,  £tf  aA/lo  vSup  jianTiaov  el  S'  oh  Svvacat  ev  tpvxpt^,  ev  Oepfiu.  'Edv  6e  a/xtpoTcpa 
I^V  ^XV^i  Ikx^ov  e'lQ  TT/v  KecpaTiijv  rplg  v6up  elf  bvofia  Yiarpdq  koX  Tlov  Koi  dyiov  Uvevjua- 
Tog.  flpo  6e  tov  (iawTiafiaTog  irpovqcTevadTU  6  finKTi^uv  Kal  6  fiaTTTiCofiEvoq  Kal  el 
Tiveg  aX2.oi  SvvavTar  KsXevaeig  6e  vrjOTemai  tov  fiawTil^ojievov  wpb  fiidg  tj  Svo. —  Teaching 
of  the  Twelve  Aposths.  chap.  vii. 

^v.  pp.  29,  30,  97,  98. 

*It  is  impossible  to  represent  in  photograph  the  color  effects  in  the  fresco. 
They  are  pronounced  in  the  original,  showing  by  tlie  green  the  water  boundary  line. 


THE   SACRAMENT   OF   BAPTISM. 


:i'J9 


who  has  received  baptism.  Above  is  the  dove,  bearing  m  its  beak 
what  seems  to  be  an  olive  branch,  symbol izintj  tlie  Holy  Oliost, 
who  attests  the  act.     There  is  no  sni,'irestion  of  an  ininicrsion,  but 


A 


./ 


Fig.  120.— Fresco  from  Santa  Luciiia,  Rome.     Baplism  nt  (_lii  ist. 


rather  of  aspersion  by  the  ministrant,  who  stands  upon  the  shore.' 
Other  interpretations  of  this  scene,  as  that  it  is  the  „.^    . 

^  '  other  inlprprp- 

rescue  of  Peter  from  the  waves,"  or  the  saving  of  the  tations  not  ten- 
hunted,  persecuted  saints  from  the  waters  of  affliction,'  *  '*"' 
seem  to  harmonize  only  a  ])orti()n  of  the  clciiu'rits  of  the  fresco. 
The  interpretation  as  the  baptism  has  generally  been  accei)tcd  by 
the  best  archaeologists. 

Fig.  127  is  the  representation  of  a  fresco  from  aiiothci-  cubicu- 
lum  of  the  crypt  of  Santa  Lucina.^  It  is  the  same  age  as  Fig.  12(3, 
and  the  subject  is  evidently  the  same.  The  attitude  of  the  fig- 
ures in  the  two  frescos  is  very  similar.  The  symbolic  dove  has 
here  the  same  significance  as  in  the  other.  The  figure  leaving  the 
water  is  partially  draped,  while  in  Fig.  126  it  is  nudi'.  Tlu'  minis- 
trant is  represented  with  the  added  pallium,  instead  of  t,,,.  i„i,.rpre- 
the  simple  tunic,  as  in  Fig.  12G.     The  subject   of  the   "'"""• 

'v.  de  Rossi:  Rmn.  Setter,  t.  i,  lib.  3.  c.  3.  Schiiizo:  Die  K<>iab>ii,l>ni,  sh.  in::, 
314.  Roller:  L>:s  Catacomhes  de  Bovie,  Tom.  i,  p.  97.  Kraiis:  Real- EnajklojxTdie, 
Freiburg,  1886,  art.  "Taiife." 

^  Martigny :  Diet.,  art.  "  Pierre." 

3  Garrucci :   Storia,  etc..  i,  Teorica,  203. 

*The  construction,  history,  chronology,  and  frescos  of  this  crypt  have  been 
studied  with  great  thoroughness  by  the  brothers  dc  Rossi,  and  admirably  described 
in  their  monumental  work,  Bom.  Sotter. 


400        SACRAMENTS  AND  AVOIISHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

fresco  can  hardly  be  questioned.'  The  scene  can  only  by  an  un- 
warrantable stretch  of  the  imagination  be  regarded  as  the  last  stage 
of  an  immersion.     The  simpler  and  more  obvious  act  is  that  of  an 


Figr.  127.— A  baptism  of  Christ.    From  the  crypt  of  Santa  Lucina,  Rome. 

aspersion,  since  there  is  no  suggestion  whatever  that  the  ministrant 
has  before  been  standing  in  the  water. 

Fig.  128  is  the  representation  of  a  fresco  from  the  cemetery  of 

San  Pretestato,  Rome.     This  is  believed  by  the  highest  authorities  to 

belong  to  the  second  century.     The  three  figures  have 

Supposed  bap-  *  -^  p    . 

tism  from  San  been  interpreted  differently.  Those  who  see  in  it  a  bap- 
re  s  a  0.  tism  of  Christ  regard  the  sprays  around  the  head  of  the 
right  hand  figure  as  representing  the  water  used  in  sprinkling;  John 
and  the  other  figure  as  representative  of  the  people,  standing  on  the 
bank  of  the  river.  The  presence  of  the  dove  seems  also  to  suggest 
sufrmst  b  ^  baptismal  scene.''  Garrucci  also  regards  the  green 
lisnibysprink-  band  around  the  head  of  the  Saviour  as  analogous  to 
'"^'  that  in  Fig.  126.     De  Rossi  and  others  look  upon  the 

picture  as  representing  the  crowning  of  Christ  with  thorns.'    Against 
this  view  Garrucci  strongly  urges  the  fact  of  the  general  absence 

'  V.  Roller :    Op.  ciL,  Tom.  i,  pp.  95,  seq.,  pi.  xvii. 

^v.  Ferret:  t.  i,  pi.  l.\xx.  Garrucci:  Op.  ciL,  i,  p.  368;  ii,  46;  Op.  cit,  t.  i,  pp.  101, 
^eq.,  pi,  xviii. 

^v.  Bull.  Arch.  crisL,  1872.  Also  Strzygowski :  Ikonographie  dei-  Tavfe  Christi,  Muu 
Chen,  1885,  Taf.  i,  un.  4,  5. 


THE   SACRAMENT   OF    IJAPTISM. 


401 


of  representations  of  Christ's  sufferings  and  passion  in  caily  C'liris- 
tian  art,  as  well  as  the  presence  in  the  fresco  of  the  water  and  the 


Fig.  128.— Supposeti  baptism.    Frejco  from  Sun  Preteslato,  Rome. 

dove.     The  subject  of  this  early  fresco  is  regarded  as  questionahle; 
its  evidential  value  is  not,  therefore,  of  the  first  order. 

Competent  authorities  have  referred  the  fresco  (Fig.  120)  to  tlic 
latter  part  of  the  second,  or  early  part  of  the  third  cen-  pj,,,fj^,„  fr„„, 
tury.     It  is  part  of  the  decorations  in  one  of  the  "  chain-   sau  uaiisto. 


^^m. 


Fig.  129.—.^  bapii.>-m.    From  San  Calls'ii,  Rome. 

hers  of  the  sacraments,''  in  the  catacomb  of  S:  n   Calisto.     A  boy, 
standing  in  water  reaching  a  little  more  than  half  way  to  the  knees, 
26 


40-: 


SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


is  receiving  baptism  from  a  man  who  is  standiiig  upon  the  shore. 
The  water  is  broken  into  spray,  indicating  a  pouring  or  sprinkling.' 
Fig.  130  is  from  a  fresco  found  in  another  of  the  chambers  of  the 
Another  from  same  catacomb,  and  is  phiinly  contemporary  with  Fig. 
the  same.  129.     The  position  of  the  figures  is  quite  similar.     In 

Fig.  130  the  boy  stands  in  water  hardly  more  than  ankle  deep,  while 
the  ministrant,  clad  in  the  toga  and  bearing  in  his  hand  a  roll,  the 


y'A 


.mm 


._:fi^ 


Fiff.  r^O.— A  baptism.    From  San  Cali^to,  Roirie. 

usual  sign  of  authoritative  teaching,  stands  upon  the  shore,  and 
]»laces  his  hand  upon  the  head  of  the  candidate  in  the  act  of  bap- 
tism. 

Respecting  the  age  of  Figs.  126,  127,  128,  129,  and  130  there  is 
Thei5e  pre  Con-  '^^''^^'^ely  any  diversity  of  opinion  among  competent  au- 
stantine  in  ori-  thorities.  All  are  certainly  of  pro-Constantine  origin, 
'^'"'  Figs.  126,  127,  129,  and  130  reaching  back,  in  all  proba- 

bility, to  the  second  century.  As  to  the  interpretation  of  Nos.  126, 
127,  129,  and  130,  very  general  agreement  is  found  among  the  best 
archaeologists.     They  are  baptismal  scenes. 

In  the  post-Constantine  period   more   frequent   representations  of 

It  is  to  lie  rejrrcttpd  thai  the  plate  does  not  reproduce  these  sprays,  whicli  are 
very  manifest  in  the  fresco,  v.  de  Rossi:  JRom.  Sot'er.,  T.  ii,  p.  SS."?.  Roller:  Le:i 
Catacombes  de  Home,  T.  i,  p.  131. 


THE   SACRAMENT   OF   BAPTISM. 


40:J 


the  baptismal  rite  are  ])re.servetl,  and  they  are  wrought  out  in  much 
greater   detail.      The  erection  of  distinct   baijtisteries 

°  .  .  '  Post  -  Constan- 

gave  occasion  for  their  ornamentation  with  frescos  and  tine  portrait- 
mosaics,  some  of  which  were  elaborate  and  beautiful,  """es  more  fuii. 
Also  the  rite  is  found  depicted  on  the  sarcophagus  of  Junius  Bassus 
(«.  Plate  II)  in  symbolic  form  (v.  Plate  IP),  whei-e  the   ^ 

^         .  ,  ^  '  On     sarcopha- 

baptismal  waters  are  represented  as  flowing  from  the  rus  of  juuius 
uplifted  foot  of  one  lamb  upon  the  head  of  another,   ^'*^*"=*- 
while  rays  stream  down  from  the  beak  of  the  symbolic  dove.' 

A  fragment  of  a  glass  cup,  found  on  the  Esquiline,  Rome,  in  1876, 
also  contains  the  representation  of  a  baptism."     It  prob-   „     , 

^        .       ,  *  ^    .         Baptism  by  as- 

ably  belongs  to  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century.    Fig.   persionouKiass 

131  is  two  thirds  the  size  of  the  original.     The  scene  is  ^"^' 

an  interesting  one.     A  young  girl,  Alba   (possibly  Albana),  is  the 


Fig.  131.— Fragment  oi  a  glass  cup,  Rome.    A  baptism. 


central  figure.     She  is  clad   in   the  white  robe  usually  woi-n  on  the 

day  of  baptism.     The  ])riest,  Mirax,  whose  head  is  en- 
.',,,,         .        ,         .     ,  Til         T    •        1  Explanation. 

Circled  by  the  simple  nimbus,  extends  the  hand  in  the 
manner  of  address,  while  the  hand  of  a  person  not  represented  on 
the  fragment,  probably  the  sponsor,  is  laid  u})on  the  hea<l  of  the 
candidate.  The  chief  significance  of  the  scene  for  our  j)urpose  is  in 
the  water  flowing  from  an  inverted  urn,  and  the  descent  of  the  dove, 
bearing  in  its  beak  the  olive  branch.  The  representation  of  baptism 
by  aspersion  is  evident. 

'  V.  Plate  11°,  in  tlie  spandrel  between  ''Daniel  in  the  ilen  of  lions"  ami  "Christ's 
triumphal  entry." 

«  ?;.  de  Rossi:  Bull.  Arch.  CrUL,  187G,  Fuse,  i,  T.  i.  Oarriicci:  Storia,  etc., 
T.  cccclxiv. 


404        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

Several  mosaics  and  frescos  of  a  somewhat  later  date  represent 
the  baptism  of  Christ  in  an  almost  purely  realistic  manner,  and  gen- 
erally the  manifest  mode  is  aspersion.  One  of  the  best  preserved 
Mosaic  repre-  and  most  interesting  is  found  in  San  Giovanni  in 
sentation.  fonte,   Ravenna  (Fig.    132),'      The  mosaics  were  orig- 

inallv  e.veeuted  A.  D,  449-452,  While  they  have  probabl}^  suf- 
fered restoration  in  certain  parts,  there  is  no  evidence  that  the 
original   design  has  been   departed   from.      The   baptismal   scene 


Fig.  132.— Baptism  of  Christ.    Mosaic  from  San  Giovanni  in  fonte,  Ravenna. 

is  found  in  the  crown  of   the  dome.      Christ  stands  in  the  Jor- 
T»   „n<.       f  d'ln,  whose  waters  reach  to  about   the  middle  of  the 

Baptism  of  '  _ 

Christ  by  pour-  body,  while  John,  standing  on  the  land,  and  holding  in 
his  left  hand  a  jewelled  cross,  is  pouring  water  upon 
the  head  of  Christ  from  a  shell  held  in  the  Baptist's  right  hand. 
The  symbolic  dove,  descending  directly  upon  the  head  of  Jesus, 
completes  the  baptismal  representation.  The  Jordan,  lORD,  sym- 
bolized by  a  river-god  bearing  a  reed,  introduces  into  the  scene  a 
heathen  element. 

'  V.  Qiiast:  Die  alt-christlichen  Bauswerke  von  Ravenna,  Berlin,  1842,  ss.  4,  5,  and 
Taf.  i.  Richtcr:  Mosaiken  von  Ravenna,  Wien,  1878.  Garrucci:  Op.  ciL,  Tom.  iv, 
tav.  ccxxvi  and  ccxxvii,  pp.  34-36. 


THE   SACRAMENT   OF   BAPTISM. 


405 


A  very  similar  iriosaic  representation,  from  about  the  middle  of 
tlie  sixth  century,  is  preserved  in  Santa  Maria  in  Cos-   Another  mosa- 
nu'din,  Ravenna  (Fig.  133).     The  appearance  of  Christ  i«=- 
IS  more  youthful,  the  river-god  symbolizing   the  Jordan   is   more 


Fig.  133.— Baptism  of  Christ.    Mosaic  from  Santa  Maria  In  Cosmedin,  Ravenna. 

Striking,  and  the  rough  garment  of  camel's  hair  worn  by  the  Bap- 
tist is  clearly  shown. 


Fig.  134.— A  baptism.    From  a  fresco  in  SanUi  Pudenxiunu,  Uoiiif. 

Fig.   134  is  from  a  picture  found   in   Hanta  Pudenziaiia,  K«>mo. 
Here  the  complete  act  of  baptism  is  depicted-     The  font,  too  small 


406        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

for  immersion,  contains  two  nude  figures,  upon  the  head  of  one  of 
whom  the   ministrant  lays  the  hand.      Behind  him  is 
samaPudS  the  sponsor,  while  on  the  other  side  of  the  font  are  atten- 
'^"''-  dants  hearing   appropriate  garments  for  covering  the 

candidates  at  the  close  of  the  ceremony.  The  suggestion  here  is 
certainly  that  of  sprinkling  or  pouring. 

The  fresco.  Fig.  135,  is  from  the  cemetery  of  San  Ponziano,  Rome; 
From  San  Pou-  it  is  from  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.'  Here  the  bap- 
ziano.  tismal  scene  is  repeated  as  to  mode,  and  very  similar  in 

spirit  to  the  mosaics  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  already  de- 
scribed. Christ  here  stands  in  water  reaching  about  to  the  waist. 
The  Baptist,  clad  in  his  rough  garment  of  camel's  hair,  places  the 


Fig.  1^5.— A  baptism  of  Cbrist.    From  a  fresco  in  San  Ponztano,  Rome. 


right  hand  on  the  head  of  Jesus  in  the  performance  of  the  rite, 
Baptism  by  as-  while  the  ratifying  of  the  act  by  the  Holy  Spirit  is 
persioa.  here,  3s  usual,  symbolized  by  the  descending  dove.     On 

tlie  opposite  bank,  in  the  background,  an  angel,  descending  from 
the  clouds,  beai-s  a  basin  and  the  clothing  for  the  Saviour,  while  in 
the  foreground  the  hart  seeks  the  refi"eshing  waters. 

Other  representations  of  baptism,,  extending  from  the  fourth  to 
Uniformity  of  ^^^  tenth  Century,  found  upon  a  great  variety  of  objects 
art  tebtimony.  and  in  various  relations^  substantially  agi'ee  with  those 
ah-eady  given.*     It  is  most  noteworthy  that  from  the  second  to  the 

'  We  hayo  givea.  two  represeatations  of  bftptisms,  vrl»ioh  lie  ©utside  t]ie  period  to 
wliich  our  examinaliojis  have  been  more  specially  oonfinod,  in  order  to  sliow  the 
persistence  of  the  art  representations  of  this  rite  as  aspersion  or  sprinkling. 

'^  For  a  complete  representation  and  descriptioa  of  these  v..  Strzygowski:  Ikonogrcr,- 
phie  (lev  Taufe  Qhristi„  M.iinchea^  1885.^ 


THE  SACRAMENT   OF   BAPTISM.  407 

ninth  century  there  is  found  scarcely  one  pictorial  re]iresentation  of 
baptism  by  immersion;  but  the  su<^gestion  is  almcjst  uiiiformly 
either  of  sprinkling  or  pouring.  When  we  consider  the  fact  that 
monumental  evidence  is  invaluable  because  of  its  unconscious  char- 
acter [v.  p.  21),  and  also  when  it  is  rememl)ered  that  the  testi- 
mony of  the  archaic  document,  "  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve," 
is  a  complete  commentary  on  the  art  monuments,  and,  contrariwise, 
that  the  monuments  are  a  continuous  illustration  of  the  doctrines 
of  the  "Teaching,"  we  are  compelled  to  believe  that  while  immer- 
sion was  the  usual  mode  of  administering  baptism  from  the  tirst  to 
the  twelfth  century,  there  was  very  early  a  large  meas-  Liberty  of 
ure  of  Christian  liberty  allowed  in  the  Church,  by  which  mode, 
the  mode  of  baptism  could  be  readily  adjusted  to  the  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances. To  this  conclusion  we  are  led  by  the  combined  testi- 
mony of  the  "  Teaching,"  of  the  decisions  of  the  Church  fathers 
and  the  councils,  and  of  the  uniform  art  representations.' 

That  baptism  by  sprinkling  or  aspersion  was  practised  in  case  of 
the  sick  and  the  infirm  is  generally  conceded.  This  seems  to  be  a 
further  indication  of  a  degree  of  freedom  in  the  mode. 
This  clinical  baptism  was  not  regarded  with  favor  by  a 
large  portion  of  the  Church;  in  some  instances  its  validity  was 
seriously  questioned.  Yet  the  high-church  Cyprian,  by  whom  the 
preservation  of  the  unity  of  the  Church  and  of  apostolic  traditions 
was  regarded  of  utmost  importance,  clearly  decided  in  a  test  case  for 
the  validity  of  clinic  baptism:  "I  think  the  divine  benefits  can  in  no 
respect  be  mutilated  and  weakened;  nor  can  any  thing  less  occur  in 
that  case,  where,  with  full  and  entire  faith  both  of  the  giver  and  re- 
ceiver, is  accepted  what  is  drawn  from  the  divine  gifts.  For  in  the 
sacraments  of  salvation  the  contagion  of  sins  is  not  in  such  wise 
washed  away,  as  the  filth  of  the  skin  and  of  the  body  is  cyprian'sopin- 
washed  away  in  the  carnal  and  ordinary,"  etc,  ,  .  .  "  In  '"n. 
the  sacraments  of  salvation,  when  necessity  compels,  and  (iod  be- 
stows his  mercy,  the  divine  methods  confer  the  wh<»lc  benefit  on 
believers;  nor  ought  it  to  trouble  any  one  that  sick  people  seem  to 
be  sprinkled  or  affused,  when  they  obtain  the  Lord's  grace,"  etc. 
.  ,  .  "  Whence  it  appears  that  the  sprinkling  also  of  water  ))ri'vails 
equally  with  the  washing  of  salvation,"  etc." 

'Tho  argument  from  monumental  evidence  wns  presented  by  tlie  author  of  tliis 
hand-book  "in  a  series  of  lectures  on  "Monumental  Theolopy."  piveu  lx»fore  tlio 
School  of  Theology  of  Boston  University  in  tlio  winter  of  1870-71.  For  a  very 
able  and  interesting  statement  of  the  bearing  of  tlio  argument  u|wn  tlie  question  of 
Christian  union  and  missionary  effort,  v.  Prof.  Kglicrt  C.  Smyth,  in  Andovei-  lie-view 
April  and  May,  1834.  »  Ep.  75  (79)  ad  Magnum,  c.  12.     V.  also  cc.  13-17, 


408        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

From  the  question  of  Magnus,  as  well  as  from  the  answer  of 
Cyprian,  it  is  plain  that  clinic  baptism  was  not  generally  regarded 
with  favor  by  the  Church  of  the  first  three  centuries.  Neverthe- 
less, the  opposition  to  it  did  not  appear  to  come  so  much  from  a  dis- 
belief in  the  efficacy  of  the  mode  itself  as  from  the  doubt  enter- 
tained with  respect  to  the  soundness  of  the  faith  of  the 
Clinic  baptism  .    .  .  ,        -,   ,  ,.    ,         •  -n      i         •  c 

not      encour-  recipient,  since  the  delay  oi    bajjtism  till  the  time  of 

'*^*"''  infirmity  or  of  threatened  death  seemed  to  imply  a  con- 

tempt for  the  ordinance  and  a  neglect  of  the  duties  which  its 
acceptance  imposed.  For  Cyprian  clearly  affirms  that  the 
mode  is  of  little  importance,  provided  the  faith  of  the  recipient 
The  mode  not  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^  ministrant  is  genuine.'  This,  and  not  the 
objectionable,  simple  mode,  is  the  reason  why  the  person  receiving 
clinical  baptism  was  generally  ineligible  to  the  clerical  office.  The 
suspicion  of  dishonesty  and  the  disqualification  could  be  removed 
only  by  an  unwonted  proof  of  zeal  and  devotion.^ 

This  liberty  respecting  the  mode  of  administration  becomes 
more  manifest  as  missionary  enterprise  planted  churches  in  regions 
remote  from  the  countries  immediately  adjacent  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, where  the  rigors  of  the  climate  made  trine  immersion  at 
Permitted  by  ^^^^^  perilous  or  impracticable.  Hence  baptism  by  as- 
the  Celtic  persion  is  made  alternative  with  trine  immersion  in  the 
earliest  extant  Irish  baptismal  office.'  While  the  Greek 
Church  adhered  to  trine  immersion  with  great  tenacity,  and  to-day 
Also  by  Coptic  P^'^^^^^^^  ^^^s  mode  in  all  its  chief  churches,  the  Coptic 
and     other  and  Armenian  Churches  have  recognised  the  validity  of 

chiirchps  •  •  * 

trine  aspersion  from  the  earliest  period  of  their  histoiy." 
The  Syriac  churches  of  the  seventh  century  also  admitted  the  pro- 
priety of  infant  baptism  and  the  validity  of  aspersion.' 

§  6.    Times  and  Places  of  Baptism. 
In  the  apostolic  Church  the  time  and  place  of  baptism  were  mat- 
Apostoiic  cus-  ters  of  indifference.     In   accordance  with  the  general 
**""■  methods  of  missionary  propagandism,  the  circumstances 

and  the  proprieties  of  the  various  occasions  determined.  As  else- 
where stated,  the  time  seems  to  have  been  almost  immediately  on 
the  profession  of  faith  in  Jesus  as   the  Messias.     This  liberty  cou- 

'  Ep.  ad  Mafjnum,  oc.  11,  12,  13. 

'  This  is  seen  in  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Neo-Ca;sarea,  Can.  12. 

*  Warren:   The  Lilwy^j  and  Ritual  of  the  Otitic  Church,  Oxford,  1881,  p.  65. 

*  V.  Bntler :   Op.  cit,  vol.  ii,  p.  264,  265. 

'f.  Kayser:    Die   Canoms  Jacob   von  Edessa,  Leipzig,   1887,    Question  aud    I 
swer  :-Jl.     V.  Pi-tubyterian  Revieia,  Jauuarj',  1888,  pp.  150,  151. 


THE    SACRAMENT    OF    BAPTISM.  400 

tinned   into  the  second  century,'   and   was,   indeed,   never  wholly 
lost/ 

The  opinion  entertained  by  many  early  Christian  fathers  relative  to 
the  magical  power  of  the  water  in  baptism,  as  well  as  Reasons  of  de- 
the  doctrine  that  baptism  purged  away  the  sins  of  the  ''»y- 
past,  but  did  not  avail  for  future  offences,  caused  many  to  delay 
their  baptism  as  long  as  possible.  In  case  of  great  offenders  this 
was  sometimes  done  upon  the  advice  of  the  Church.  But  this  delay 
was  often  the  occasion  of  administering  severe  rebukes  to  those  who 
were  influenced  by  selfish  considerations  to  continue  in  sin,  or  neg- 
lected the  ordinance  through  carelessness  or  indifference. 

There  was  no  fixed  and  unalterable  time  for  performing  the  rite. 
In  cases  of  peril  neither  place,  time,  mode,  nor  ministrant  was  abso- 
lutely prescribed;  the  general  belief  that  baptism  was  essential  to 
salvation  allowed  nothing  to  prevent  its  admhiistration.  Neverthe- 
less, the  Church  was  accustomed  to  appoint  stated  times  when  bap- 
tism would  be  administered  to  those  who  had  been  prepared  by 
careful  preliminary  instruction.  The  times  considered  Favourite  times 
most  appropriate  and  sacred  were  Easter,  Pentecost,  and  ^^^  baptism. 
Epiphany.  From  the  second  century  these  were  observed  as  fit  seasons 
by  the  Eastern  and  Western  as  well  as  the  Coptic  churches.'  At  a 
later  period,  wdien  the  martyrs  became  objects  of  peculiar  veneration, 
and  the  anniversaries  of  their  martyrdom  were  observed  with  special 
care,  these  were  favourite  times  for  the  administration  of  baptism. 

Nevertheless,  these  seasons  were  not  absolutely  obligatory,  since 
Tertullian   says,  "Every  day  is  the  Lord's  day;  every   ^    roasonabip 
hour  and  every  time  is  appropriate  for  baptism,  if  men   'iberty. 
are  fit  and  prepared  for  it.     All  places,  too,  are  equally  available."  * 

In  accordance  with  this  principle  of  freedom  baptism  was  some- 
times administered  in  private  houses,  and  doubtless,  in 

,         ,  ,      .        ,  Sometimes  ad- 

times  of  persecution,   the  chapels  in  the  catacombs  of  ministered    in 

Rome  were  likewise  used  for  this  purpose.     The  monu-   P^^au;  houses. 
iiRMital  evidence  of  this  practice  is  entirely  conclusive.     The  private 

'  )'.  Tlie  Teaching  of  (he  Twdw,  cliap.  vii. 

'  Bupti.sin  in  a  private  house  was  first  inliibitcd  by  conciliary  action  in  the  sixth 
century,     v.  llefele:    ConcUien/fachichte,  Bd.  ii,  s.  608. 

^  Xnmcrous  passaoces  in  the  writings  of  Tertullian,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Jerome. 
Clirysostom,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  "Constitutions"  and  conciliary  canons,  attest  this 
]iiaetice.  Tertullian:  de  Coron.  Milit.,  c.  3,  says  that  tiie  whole  fifty  da3's  hetween 
l'].ister  and  Pentecost  were  kept  as  a  continuous  festival,  during  which  baptisms 
were  more  frequent,  v.  Butler:  The  Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of  Egypt,  Oxford,  188-4. 
•  From  the  remotest  antiquity  to  the  present  day  the  season  most  commended  for 
baptism  is  the  feast  of  Epipiiany."     Vol.  ii,  pp.  262,  263. 

*  de  BapL,  c.  4. 


410        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


oratory,   discovered  in  the  vicinity  of   the  baths    of    Diocletian,^ 
whose    walls    were   decorated  with   the   symbols  of   baptism,  was 
probably  used  to  baptize  the  members  of  the  household.      Likewise 
there  are  several  instances  of  cliapels  and  fonts  in  the  catacombs. 
After  the  recognition  of  Christianity  by  the  state,  baptism,  like 
other  Church  sacraments,  was  celebrated  with  greater 
ap  IS  er  es.      p^j^-^p  jjjj^j  ceremony.     Separate  buildings  (baptisteries) 
were  erected,  in  which  conveniences  were  provided  for  the  observance 
of  a  more  carefully  prescribed  ritual.     The}' 
constitute  an  interesting  class  of  architectural 
forms  which  have  survived  from  the  fourth, 
fifth,  and  sixth  centuries,  and  furnish  valuable 
suggestions  relative  to  the  state  of  art  during 
this  period  (v.  pp.  222-224).     Their  arrange- 
ment, the  position  and  relation  of  the  font,  the 
frescos  and  mosaics,  give  hints  respecting  the 
rite  of  baptism,  and  the  importance  attaching 
to  the  accompanying  ceremonies.     These  bap- 
tisteries, otKoi  Tov  f3an-iaTi]piov,Vi'ere  sometimes 
of  considerable  dimensions,  to  accommodate  the 
thousands  seeking  baptism  on  the  great  feast 
days  in  the  cathedral  churches  of  the 
large  towns,  and  were  occasionally 
used  as  the  places  of  assembly  of  the 
councils.    They  belong  to  the  regular 
central  style  of  architecture,  having 
their  outline  circular  or  polygonal. 
Fig.  136  is  from  the  representation 
of  a  baptistery  sculptured  on  a  sarcophagus  at  Rome.''     It  is  circu- 
Exampiesof  ^^^'  i^i  outline,  covei'cd 
baptisteries.   ^,^]^  ^  flat  dome,  sur- 
mounted by  the  favourite  Con- 
stantinian  monogiam,  •^. 

Fig.  137  is  tlie  groundplan  and 
connected  arcade  of  a  baptistery 
at  Deir-Seta  in  Central  Syria, 
described  by  de  Voglle.'  It  is 
hexagonal,    the     central     dome 

resting  upon   six  columns  which   plHi^rS^^pIan  of  a  baptistery  at  DeYr- 
SUrround    the    font    itself.       This  seta,  central  Syria. 

was  the  usual  form  of  the  baptisteries  in  the  Orient. 

'  V.  BaUeHino  di  Arch,  crist,  1876.  2  Garrucci:   Staria,  etc.,  t.  cccxxiii. 

2  de  Voglie;  Syrie  Cmtrak,  pi.  cxvii. 


Fig.  136. 


-A  baptistery.    From  a  sarcuplia- 
gus.  liome. 


^tS^i^^^J^feJJJi^X.:^jJS^VV^-!S^-!jt^^^^ 


THE  SACRAMENT  OF  BAPTISM.  411 

Fig.   138   is   a  vertical   section  of  the   noted   baptistery   of   St. 
John   in    Lateran,    Rome.      Only    the    central    portion,    which    is 
covered  by  the  dome,  is  here  given,  in  order  to  show  san  Giovanm 
the  position  of  the  font  and  to  illustrate  the  rich  and   '^  Laterano. 
suggestive  mosaic  decoration   which  is   frequently  found  in   this 


Fljr.  138.— Vertical  section  or  the  central  portion  of  the  baptistery  of  San  Giovanni  in  Lateran, 

Rome. 

class  of  buildings.  The  central  mosaic  of  the  first  zone  represents 
a  baptismal  scene,  in  which  the  same  mode  of  administration  is 
suggested  as  in  the  monuments  wliich  have  already  been  described 
(v.  pp.  404-406). 

Fig.  139  is  a  vertical  section  of  the  baptistery  of  Albegna,'  Italy. 

'  V.  Dehio  u.  Bezold:  Ojh  cif.,  taf.  3,  Figs.  5.  G. 


413        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

It  is  i)rob:il)ly  of  the  seventh  or  eighth  centuiy.  It  gives  the 
Baptistery  of  iirnuigemeiit  of  the  steps  leading  to  the  font,  and  of 
Aibegna.  i]^^  chapels  which  are  contained  in  the  space  covered 

by  the  lean-to  roof.     This  and  Fig.  138  are  octagonal  in  ground- 


Fig.  139.— Vertical  section  of  the  baptistery  in  Albegiia,  Italy. 

plan.  Both  will  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  adjacent  parts  were 
added  to  the  original  baptistery,  until  an  imposing  structure,  con- 
venient for  purposes  of  assembly  and  worship,  was  the  result. 


§  7.  Immediate  Preliminaries  to  Baptism. 

Prior  to  the  administration  of  the  rite  the  candidates  were  re- 
Profession  of  quired  to  renounce  the  devil  and  all  his  works,  to  profess 
faith  required,  faith  in  a  prescribed  creed,  and  to  promise  to  live  in 
obedience  to  Christ  and  his  precepts.  The  form  and  content  of  the 
creed  varied  from  the  simple  profession  of  faith  in  Jesus  as  the  risen 
Messiah,  to  the  more  lengthy  and  imposing  creeds  formulated  from 
time  to  time  by  the  Church.'  The  promise  of  obedience  to  the 
Church  was  often  made  three  times.  In  the  turning  toward  the 
Renunciation  '^^^^5  ^.s  the  place  of  darkness,  when  solemn  renunciation 
of  the  devil  and  of  Satan  was  made,  in  the  turning  to  the  east,  as  the 
source  of  light,  when  promise  of  obedience  was  enjoined, 
and  in  the  triple  renunciation,  promise,  and  confession  of  faith,  there 

'  I'.  Const.  Apostol,  1.  vii,  c.  41. 


THE  SACRAMENT  OF  BAPTISM.  413 

is  noticed  a  system  of  sii^nificant  syinbolisjn,  which  was  earl}'-  intro- 
duced into  ecclesiastical  art  {v.  book  i,  clKip.  iii). 

As  early  as  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century  si)on8orshii)  was 
recognised  as  an  important,  if  not  a  necessary,  acconipani- 

^     /•  1        i-  T,  ...  ,  ,  T  1,1  Sponsors, 

ment  ot  baptism.     Its  origin  is  not  known.     It  probably 

arose  out  of  the  circumstances  of  peculiar  peril  to  which  the  Church 
was  exposed,  whereby  the  children  would  be  left  in  orphanage,  or 
adults  be  liable  to  lapse  into  paganism.  In  either  case  the  sponsors 
were  regarded  as  sureties:  in  case  of  children  for  their  care  and  re- 
ligious training,  in  case  of  adults  for  their  sound  conversion  and 
genuine  Christian  character  at  the  time  of  their  presentation  for 
baptism.'  The  caution  used  by  the  early  Church  in  the  philosophy  of 
choice  of  sponsors  clearly  reveals  the  nature  of  this  re-  sponsorship, 
lation;  it  was  tliat  of  a  guarantor  of  the  moral  life  of  those  about  to 
be  baptized.  Hence,  when  parents  were  permitted  to  be  sponsors 
for  their  children  it  was  not  because  of  this  natural  relationshij), 
but  rather  that  they  might  afford  guarantees  for  their  moral  ami 
spiritual  character.  In  nearly  all  the  earlier  expositions  of  the  phi- 
losophy of  sponsorship  there  is  a  positive  denial  that  regeneration  of 
the  child  is  effected  by  the  faith  of  either  the  sponsor  t,,(.  (^jtt,  o(  ^1,^ 
or  the  ministrant."  Nevertheless,  it  was  held  by  Au-  sponsor  not 
gustine  that  the  faith  of  the  sponsors  may  inure  to  the  ^^'^'  '"*''■ 
advantage  of  the  child,  by  stimulating  to  greater  fidelity  in  educa- 
tion and  watchcare;^  "the  promises  of  the  sponsors  were  under- 
stood to  be  made  not  in  their  own  name,  but  in  the  name  of  the 
baptized,  and  that  the  latter  became  subsequently  responsible." 

§  8.  Accompanying  Ceremonies. 
Early  baptism   was   probably  by  trine   immersion,  pouring,  or 
sprinkling  of  the  nude  figure.      The   Teaching  of  the  ^^^^  baptism 
Tioelve  contains  the  oldest  distinct  precept  as  to  trine  of    the    nude 
baptism  :   "  But  if  thou  hast  neither,  jjour  water  upon     *^"'^'*' 
the  head  thrice,  into  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  the  Son,  and  Holy 
Spirit."^     By  the  close  of  the  second  century  this  was  the  common 
practice.     "  We  dip  not  once,  but  three  times,  at  the       Tertuiiian's 
laming  of  every  person  of  the  Trinity." '     With  this       testimony, 
•^^atement  of  Tertullian  the   teachings  of  Basil  and  Jerome  are  in 
act  accord.     So  also  Ambrose  is  minute  in  his  descrip-   Amiimse's  ac- 
n  of  the  rite.     "  Thou  wast  asked.  Dost  thou  believe  count. 
Tod  the  Father  Almighty  ?      And  thou  repliedst,  I  believe,  and 

'  Const.  Apost.,  1.  viii,  c.  n2.  *  Anpustine:   Ep.  ad  Bonif.,  98.      ^^^^ 

*  V.  de  Baptismo;  c.  Donntist.  iv,  31  ;  de  Lib.  Arbitr.,  iii,  2:5. 

4  v.  chap.  vii.  '  Tertullian:    cant.  Prax.,  o 


\ 


\ 


414         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

wast  dipped,  that  is,  buried.  A  second  demand  was  made,  Dost  thou 
believe  in  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord,  and  in  his  cross?  Thou  answeredst 
again,  I  believe,  and  wast  dipped.  Thereupon  thou  wast  buried 
with  Christ.  For  he  that  is  buried  with  Christ  rises  again  with 
Christ.  A  third  time  thou  wast  asked.  Dost  thou  believe  in  the 
IIolvGhost?  And  th}^  answer  was,  I  believe.  Then  thou  wast 
dipped  a  third  time,  that  thy  triple  confession  might  absolve  thee 
from  the  various  offences  of  th}^  former  life." ' 

Different  reasons  for  this  practice  are  found  in  the  Avritings  of 
„    .  ,      the  Christian  fathers.     Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  others, 

Various  expla-  .  .  . 

nations  of  the  both  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  Church,  say  that  it  repre- 
practice.  sents  Christ's  three  days'  burial,  and  his  resurrection  on 

the  third  day.  Others  explain  it  as  s^'^mbolic  of  our  faith  in  the 
Trinit}^,  into  whose  name  we  are  baptized.  Augustine  '^  unites 
these  reasons,  in  that  by  trine  immersion  the  Trinity  is  symbolized, 
as  well  as  the  Lord's  burial,  and  resurrection  on  the  third  da}^ 

Most  of  the  Christian  fathers  from  Tertullian  taught  that  this 
method  of  baptism  was  instituted  by  the  apostles.  The  "  Apostolic 
Canons  "  regard  it  as  of  imperative  obligation,  and  order  the  deposi- 
tion of  SLuy  bishop  or  presbyter  who  shall  administer  the  rite  in  any 
other  way.^  The  Arians  in  Spain  continued  this  practice.  To 
influenceofthe  P^'^test  against  this  heretical  sect  the  orthodox  party 
Arians  on  the  was  led  to  abandon  trine  immersion;  and  the  fourth 
practice.  Council  of  Toledo  (A.  D.  633)  decreed*  that  a  single 

immersion  should  be  regarded  as  valid  baptism.  It  was  led  to  this 
decision  by  the  advice  of  Gregorjr  the  Great,  who  held  that  both 
ways  were  "just  and  unblamable  in  themselves;  nevertheless,  to 
avoid  a  seeming  approval  of  the  Arian  heresy,  it  may  be  advisable 
to  drop  trine,  and  practise  single  immersion."  ^ 

As  further  accompaniments  of  baptism  must  be  noted  unction, 
which  was  performed  by  oil  consecrated  by  the  bishop,  the  imposi- 
tion of  hands,  and  the  sign  of  the  cross.  The  anointing  of  the  body 
„    ..  of  the  baptized  person  after  leaving  the  water,  called 

the  unction  of  chrism,  was  of  early  institution.  It  isj 
mentioned  by  Tertullian  as  usual  in  his  day.  At  a  later  period  the 
l»ractice  of  anointing  the  body  before  baptism  was  introduced,"  and 
forms  of  consecration  of  the  oil  Avere  prescribed.  Various  interpre- 
tations of  the  significance  of  these  two  unctions  are  met  in  the 
writings  of  the  fathers.     In  the  Constitutions  is  found  the  injunc- 

'  Be  Sacram.,  lib.  2,  c.  7,  as  quoted  bj-  Bingliam :  Antiquities,  etc..  bk.  xi,  chap.  xi. 
"  De  Consecrat.,  Dist.  4,  c.  78. 

''i.nons  49,  50.  4  c^n.  5.  =  Lib.  i,  Ej).  41. 

■-^se:  De  Sacramentis,  1.  1,  c.  2.     Constit.  Apost,  1.  7,  c.  42. 


A- 


THE  SACRAMENT  OF  BAPTIS:\[.  415 

tion:  "Tliou  shalt  first  of  all  anoint  him  with  the  holy  oil,  and  then 
baptize  him  with  water,  and  afterward  sign  him  with  the  ointment; 
that  the  anointing  with  the  oil  may  he  the  participation  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  and  the  water  may  he  the  symbol  of  death,  and  the 
igning  with  ointment  may  be  the  seal  of  the  compact  made  with 

God,"  '  etc. 

The  imposition  of  hands  was  to  symbolize  the  reception  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  It  was  used  in  confirmation,  which  geiier-  imposition  of 
ally  was  an  accompaniment  of  baptism,  and  completed  '*'"^'i^- 
the  admission  of  the  candidate  to  the  Church  and  to  a  participation 
in  the  holy  eucharist.  The  sign  of  the  cross  was  used  by  sign  of  the 
the  early  Christians  in  the  most  common  affairs  of  life.  <=''°*s- 
It  was  the  symbol  of  conquering  power,  by  which  Satan  and  all  the 
angels  of  darkness  Avere  driven  out  and  finally  subdued;  its  rich 
and  varied  symbolism  in  connection  with  the  rite  of  baptism  is 
the  theme  of  many  noble  passages  in  early  Christian  literature. " 

•  Const  AposL,  lib.  7,  e.  22,  quoted  by  Bingham:    Op.  cit.,  bk.  xi,  chap,  ix,  sec.  3. 
2  V.  pp.  83-89. 


416        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


CHAPTER  11. 

THE     LORD'S     SUPPER. 
§  1.    Idea   and  Mode  of  CeWbration. 

The  original  eucharistic  meal  was  symbolic.  The  broken  bread 
The  meal  sym-  ^"^l  the  consecrated  cup  were  also  prophetic  of  the  work 
boiic  Avhich  Christ  was  to  accomplish  for  his  disciples  and  for 

the  world.  The  real  sacrifice,  of  which  this  sacrament  was  to  be  a 
remembrance,  was  yet  to  be  accomplished;  hence  the  supper  Avas 
so  far  prophetic.  The  bread  was  to  symljolize  the  broken  body, 
and  the  cup  the  blood,  which  was  the  pledge  of  the  covenant 
between  God  and  man.  Every  disci^jle  who,  in  after  time,  should 
worthily  celebrate  this  supper,  in  obedience  to  the 
words  used  by  Christ  in  its  institution,  was  to  break  this 
bread  and  drink  this  wine  in  order  to  recall  the  memor}'^  of  the 
Founder,  the  Great  Sacrifice  for  the  world,  until  he  should  come 
again. 

It  is  probable  that  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  b}^  the 
Celebrated  ^I'-^^t  disciplos  Occurred  daily  in  private  houses,'  in  con- 
'^"''^-  nection  with  the  agape,  or  lovefeast.     It  was  of  a  sonie- 

wliat  festive  character,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  excesses  which 
Paul  reproves  in  the  Corinthian  church,'  and  was  associated  with 
an  ordinary  meal,  at  whose  close  the  bread  and  wine  were  distrib- 
uted to  those  present,  as  a  memorial  of  Christ's  similar  distribution 
to  the  disciples.  The  association  of  a  meal  with  religious  rites 
The  thousht  l^-'^d  been  most  familiar  with  the  Jews  during  all  their 
familiar  to  all.  history,  and  was  widely  recognised  by  the  heathen 
world,  both  in  conducting  their  common  festivites  around  an  altar 
with  sacrifices,  and  in  the  funeral  feasts  held  annually  in  the  cellce 
in  memory  of  the  deceased  members  of  tlie  family  or  club.'  Nearly 
Testimony  of  all  the  early  frescos  confirm  this  view  of  the  social 
early  frescos,  character  of  the  Supper.  A  table,  arohnd  which  are 
couches  on  which  sit  or  recline  the  participants,  is  the  ordinary 
method  of  representing^  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  (see 

's  ii.  4(5.    Tlie  referenoe  of  kuB'  fifitpav  is  uncertain ;  it  may  include  "  the  break- 
^  "  as  well  as  the  dail}-  visits  to  the  temple. 

"0 


Apdsb-ef,  pp.  351-354. 


i 


THE   LORD'S   SUPPER.  417 

Figs.  13,  14).  From  tlie  accounts  in  the  Acts  of  tlio  Apostles  (Acts 
ii,  42,  4G),  as  well  as  from  Paul's  letter  to  the  Corinthian  church 
(1  Cor.  xi,  20,  21),  it  is  safely  inferred  that  the  (lis-  a  communal 
ciples  contributed  each  a  share  of  the  food  necessary  '"'^'''• 
for  the  meal;  the  community  of  love  and  fellowship  being  herein 
shown,  as  at  first  in  the  gifts  to  a  common  fund  for  the  relief 
of  the  poor  saints  at  Jerusalem.  To  this  unifying  power  of 
the  eucharist  Paul  evidently  refers  (1  Cor.  x,  16,  17).  From 
the  account  given  of  the  practices  of  the  Corinthian  church 
(1  Cor.  xi,  17-34),  it  is  plain  that  private  members  appropriated 
to  themselves  the  bread  and  wine  which  were  designed  for  the  com- 
mon benefit,  and  did  not  wait  for  the  distribution  of  the  elements 
at  the  hands  of  a  cluuxrh  officer.  From  the  whole  history,  as 
given  by  Paul,  we  look  in  vain  for  any  evidence  that  a  priestly 
consecration  and  distribution  of  the  bread  and  wine  were  regarded 
as  necessary  to  the  validity  of  the  sacrament.  Neither  in  Christ's 
original  institution  of  the  supper,  nor  in  this  fullest  account  by 
Paul,  when,  if  at  all,  such  authority  would  have  been  asserted,  nor 

elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament,  is  found  any  evidence   .     ^  ,  , 

'  •'  Its  admlnlstra— 

that  the  Lord's  Supper  w^as  to  be  consecrated  only  by  a  tJon  not  con- 
chosen  or  appointed  class.  "  Consequently  the  limita-  fl°ed  toaciass- 
tion  of  its  administration  to  the  officers  of  the  church  cannot  claim' 
undoubted  apostolic  authority."*  This  was  in  accordance  with  other 
features  of  the  Church  while  in  its  plastic  period.  That  the  distinc- 
tive functions  of  the  officers  of  the  apostolic  period  had  not  yet  been 
fully  differentiated  is  thus  manifest  in  connection  with  the  ad- 
ministration of  both  the  great  sacraments  instituted  by  Christ. 
Moreover,  this  lack  of  an  official  character  was  in  in  harmony 
perfect  harmony  with  the  idea  of  a  universal  priest-  of'theunWei^'i 
hood,  which  Avas  prevalent  in  the  early  years  of  the  priesthood, 
history  of  the  Church.  Each  householder  was  the  highpriest  of  his 
own  family,  com])etent  to  do  all  things  necessary  to  their  spiritual 
u])building,  including  the  celebration  of  the  sacred  meal  in  mem- 
ory of  his  Lord.  But,  in  accordance  with  the  unifying  principle 
already  referred  to,  it  is  probable  that  this  sacrament  was  usually 
observed  in  a  congregation  of  believers.  It  seems  that  during  the 
early  apostolic  period  the  method  of  keei)ing  the  Supju'r  how  ceiebrat- 
recalled  the  last  meeting  of  Christ  with  his  disciples,  ed. 
It  was  accompanied  by  prayer  (Matt,  xxvi,  27;  Mark  xiv,  22,  23; 
Luke  xxii,  17)  and  singing  of  hymns  (Matt,  xxvi,  30),  and  was  con- 
nected with  a  social  meal,  the  agape,  to  indicate  that  its  pnrpose 
was  the  expression  of  brotherly  love.  The  offering  of  Vuanks  and 
'  V.  Beet:  Commentary  on  1  Cor.,  in  loco. 
27 

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\ 


418        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

praise  {evxaQia-La,  evXoyia,  1  Cor.  xi,  24;  1  Cor.  x,  16)  was  probably 
followed  with  the  holy  kiss  {(plXrjfjLa  ayiov,  Rom,  xvi,  16;  1  Cor. 
xvi,  20). 

Under  Trajan  the  strict  edicts  against  secret  societies  compelled 
The  agape  dis-  the  separation  of  the  agape  from  the  Lord's  Suppei-. 
continued.  '■fi^^i  former,  being  adjudged  by  the  emperor  to  per- 
tain to  the  secret  clubs,  kraiQeiat,  which  had  awakened  the  sus- 
picion of  the  government  by  being  held  in  the  evening,  was 
discontinued,  and  the  Lord's  Supper  was  connected  with  the  public 
worshi]).  The  necessity  for  observing  this  sacrament  in  connec- 
tion with  the  open  and  more  public  services,  and  the  institution 
of  the  catechumenate  and  other  forms  of  training  and  discipline, 
The  two  parts  gradually  led  to  the  division  of  worship  into  the  missa 
of  worship.  catechiunenorum  and  the  missa  fidtUum.  From  the 
circumstance  that  unbaptized  persons,  and  such  as  were  under 
church  discipline,  as  well  as  all  others  not  in  full  communion 
with  the  Church,  were  excluded  from  the  assembly  before  the 
celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  idea  of  a  mystery  (nvarrj- 
Qiov)  soon  attached  to  this  rite,  and  gave  rise  to  the  so  called  dis- 
clpllna  arcani.  This  was,  however,  of  later  institution;  probabl}'- 
not  earlier  than  the  time  of  TertuUian.  In  the  earliest  notices  of 
Simnicitv  of  ^^®  Lord's  Supper  a  simple  and  almost  literal  imitation 
its  early  obser-  of  the  meal  as  instituted  by  Christ  is  prevalent.  In  the 
"  Teaching  of  the  Twelve "  the  instructions  for  cele- 
brating the  eucharist  are  as  simple  and  archaic  as  those  respecting 
baptism.  There  is  a  marked  absence  of  involved  ritual  and  mys- 
tery; it  is  truly  a  eucharistic  meal.  "Now  concerning  the  eucha- 
Thp  "Teach-  rist,  thus  give  thanks;  first  concerning  the  cup:  We 
'""•"  thank  thee,  our  Father,  for  the  holy  vine  of  David  thy 

servant,  which  thou  hast  made  known  to  us  through  Jesus  thy  ser- 
vant; to  thee  be  the  glory  forever.  And  concerning  the  broken 
bread:  We  thank  thee,  our  Father,  for  the  life  and  the  knowledge 
which  thou  hast  made  known  to  us  through  Jesus  thy  servant ;  to 
thee  be  the  glory  forever.  Just  as  this  bi-oken  bread  was  scattered 
over  the  hills  and  having  been  gathered  together  became  one,  so  let 
thy  Church  be  gathei-ed  together  from  the  ends  of  the  earth  into 
thy  kingdom;  for  thine  is  the  glory  and  the  power  through  Jesus 
Christ  forever.  But  let  no  one  eat  or  di'ink  of  your  eucharist,  ex- 
cept those  baptized  into  the  Lord's  name;  for  in  regard  to  this  the 
Lord  hath  said:  Give  not  that  which  is  holy  to  the  cfogs."  ' 

After  the  feast  {fiera  6e  rb  efirrXrjadrivai),  thanksgiving  shall  be 
offered  for  ='  the  knowledge  and  faith  and  immortality  "  made  known 
■  Atdaxy  ruv  6u6Eiia  A-ocrrdZwi',  chap.  ix. 


THE   LORD'S   SUPPER.  419 

through  Jesus,  and  "for  spiritual  food  and  drink  and  eternal  life 
through  thy  servant."  Also  sui>])Iic-ation  for  the  Church,  that  it 
may  be  saved  from  evil  and  made  perfect  in  love.' 

In  Justin  Martyr's  account  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  noticed  an 
almost  like  simplicity  as  in  the  "Teaching."  There  is  hardly  a 
trace  of  a  secret  discipline,  since  this  father,  in  his  first  Apology,  is 
frank  in  his  account  of  both  the  Christian  sacraments.*  Neverthe- 
less, a  change  from  the  apostolic  custom  is  noticed  in  the  fact  that 
special  celebrants  or  officers  are  now  recognised.  "  There  is  brought 
to  the  president  of  the  brethren  bread  and  a  cup  of  wine  mixed 
with  water."  ^  The  deacons  distribute  the  consecrated  justin  Martyr's 
elements,  and  to  those  who  are  absent  they  carry  away  account. 
a  portion;  none  but  the  believers  or  the  baptized  are  admitted  to  the 
meal — "  to  feast  on  the  flesh  and  blood  of  that  Jesus  who  was  made 
flesh."  ^ 

In  Tertullian's  account  there  is  scarcely  more  formality.  His 
object  in  giving  the  statement  is  to  refute  the  vile  calumnies 
made  against  the  Christians,  that  in  their  private  dwellings  they 
were  guilty  of  practices  more  shameless  than  attached  to  the  heathen 
mysteries.  The  central  thought  of  the  feast  is  love.  "  The  Greeks 
call  it  dydr:?],  that  is,  love."  "  As  it  is  an  act  of  relig-  Tertuiiian's 
ious  service  it  permits  no  vileness  or  immorality."  "As  account. 
the  feast  commenced  with  prayer,  so  with  prayer  it  is  closed.  We 
go  from  it  ...  to  have  as  much  care  of  our  modesty  and  chastity 
as  if  we  had  been  at  a  school  of  virtue  rather  than  a  banquet."  * 

The  order  of  the  service  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  ante-Nicene  times 
Avas  nearly  as  follows:  First,  after  the  prayers,  the  kiss  order  of  ccic- 
of  peace  was  given  between  man  and  man,  and  woman  bration. 
and  woman — this  having  apostolic  sanction.^  Second,  the  two  parts 
of  the  service  proper,  namely,  the  oblation,  which  was  the  pres- 
entation of  the  offerings  for  the  feast,  and  for  the  j)oor  and  the 
clergy  ;  and  the  communion,  or  the  partaking  of  the  consecrated  ele- 
ments. Both  parts  of  the  service  were  accompanied  with  prayer 
and  praise.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  whether  the  service  was  in 
regular  ritualistic  form,  or  was  extemporaneous.  Probably  with  a 
perfect  freedom  the  uttered  pra^'ers  became  fixed  tlirotigh  repeti- 
tion, and  a  regular  liturgy  was  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  result  of  in- 
fluences exerted   through   many  decades  of   history.     At  first  tlie 

'  Ibid. :  chap.  x.  '  Apol.  i,  co.  Gl,  G5.  '  Apol.  i.  c.  65. 

*  Apol.  i,  c.  6G.  *  Apol,  c.  39. 

*  Rom.  xvi,  IG;  2  Cor.  xiii,  12;  1  Tliess.  v,  26.  The  kiss  of  peace  was  cotitiniicd 
into  the  post-Niceiie  period,  and  was  sanctioned  bj  conciiiary  action,  v.  Cone.  Laodic, 
can.  19. 


420        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

bread  was  the  common  bread  of  the  various  countries,  though  in 
later  centuries  the  Latin  ch\irch  insisted  on  unleavened  bread.  The 
wine  was  mingled  with  water,  and  the  communicants,  standing,  re- 
ceived both  elements  in  the  hands  from  the  officiating  deacons. 
Portions  of  the  sanctified  bread  were  sometimes  borne  to  their 
homes  by  the  members,  where  the  family  communion  was  repeated 
in  one  kind.  This  practice  was  especially  frequent  in  the  North 
Infant  com-  African  church  in  Cyprian's  day,  where  the  practice  of 
launioii.  infant  communion  with  wine  alone  was  in  vogue.     The 

custom  of  the  apostolic  Church,  for  all  communicants  to  make  ob- 
lations of  bread  and  wine  and  other  things  to  suj^ply  the  elements 
of  the  holy  eucharist,  and  gifts  to  the  poor,  was  contin- 

The     oblation  •'  '  ®   .  i,      .     .       . 

by  the  whole  ued  through  all  the  early  history  of  Christianity,  and, 
Church.  -jj  ^  modified  form,   until  the  twelfth   century.     The 

writings  of  the  fathers,  from  Justin  Martyr  to  Augustine,  recognise 
this  oblation  as  made  by  the  entire  company  of  believers.  They 
upbraid  those  who  from  neglect  or  penuriousness  fail  to  bring 
their  appropriate  contributions  to  the  general  fund,  and  carefully 
distinguish  as  to  the  character  of  the  gifts  which  will  be  accepted. 
What  offerings  Offerings  made  by  extortioners,  usurers,  corrupt  per- 
exciuded.  sons,  or  obtained  by  fraudulent  means,  were  rejected; 

and  Ambrose  used  the  threat  that  the  offerings  of  Valentinian 
would  not  be  accepted  by  the  Church,  to  induce  his  refusal  of  the 
prayer  of  Symmachus  to  restore  the  heathen  altars.' 

In  accordance  with  a  law  of  development  in  church  government 
'it  r  icai  ^"*^  discipline,  the  ceremonies  connected  wdth  the  conse- 
forms  gradual-  cration  of  the  elements  became  more  and  more  formal 
y  eve  oped.  ^^^  involved,  as  they  were  further  removed  from  the 
plastic  condition  of  the  apostolic  age.  From  the  simple  prayer  of 
thanksgiving  and  consecration,  used  by  Christ  and  by  the  Church 
of  the  first  and  second  centuries,  extended  and  carefully  pre- 
scribed liturgical  forms  appear,  the  work  of  great  churchmen,  or 
the  result  of  conciliary  discussion  and  decision.  Such  forms  of  the 
consecration  of  the  eucharist  are  met  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions 
of  the  fourth  century,-  and  in  all  the  great  liturgies  of  both  the  East- 
ern and  Western  churches.  It  is  believed  that  no  regularly  prescribed 
liturgies  were  used  in  the  ante-lSTicene  period.  The  earlier  recognition 
of  a  discipUun  arcani  partially  accounts  for  this;  for  when  Chris- 
tianity became  the  religion  of  the  state,  and  the  celebration  of  the 
eucharist  was  made  a  public  act,  a  great  number  of  written  liturgies 
were  prepared,  both  in  the  orthodox  and  heretical  churches.  While 
greatly  differing  in  minor  particulars,  these  great  liturgies  are  based 
'  V.  Ep.  30,  ad  Valent.^  2  Const.  Apost.,  lib.  viii,  c  13. 


THE   LORD'S   SUPPER.  421 

upon  the  earlier  and  simpler  order  of  consecration  and  communion. 
Nevertheless  they  were  often  of  great  length,  and  were  charaner  of 
accompanied  with  many  impressive  ceremonies,  espe-  ''"'  liiuifies. 
cially  frequent  musical  recitations  by  the  choirs  and  responses  l»y 
the  people.  As  a  rule,  the  Oriental  churches  accepted  the  most 
extensive  and  involved  liturgies  in  the  celebration  of  the  euciiarist, 
while  the  Western  centered  on  a  single  feature  of  the  divine  mani- 
festation— Chiist's  redeeming  work.' 

As  with  resi)ect  to  the  constitution  of  the  Church  and  the  func- 
tions of  church  officers,  so  also  with  respect  to  the  eu-   ^.       ,  ., 

'  i  _  No  early  theory 

charist,  the  apostolic  Church  had  no  clearly  defined  of  the  mode  of 
doctrine  as  to  the  mode  of  its  operation.  The  first  "^'* "i"^' •'"""• 
Christians  received  the  bread  and  wine  with  thanksgiving  and 
gladness  of  heart,  without  inquiring  into  the  manner  of  Christ's 
presence  in  the  elements.  There  is  no  evidence  what-  ^^.^  recognition 
ever  that  it  was  re<rarded  as  a  sin-offering  or  saci'itice.^  of  a  sin-offer- 
The  oidy  sacrifice  recognised  is  that  of  the  person  of  '"^' 
the  believer  with  all  his  powers  (Rom.  xii,  1;  Phil,  ii,  15-17,  el  uL). 
The  most  that  can  be  stated  is  that  those  who  had  worthily  par- 
ticipated in  the  Supper  were  thus  brought  into  conscious  union  with 
their  Lord,  as  in  other  religions  the  worshipper  was  conceived  to  be 
brought  near  the  divinity  through  the  medium  of  an  offering  by 
the  priest. 

The  "Teaching  of  the  Apostles"  speaks  of  a  sacrifice:  "  But  on 
the  Lord's  day  do  ye  assemble  and  break  bread,  and  give  thanks, 
after  confessing  v'our  transgressions,  in  order  that  your  sacrifice, 
7/  dvaia  v[j,o)v,  may  be  pure.  But  ever}'  one  that  hath  contro\ersy 
with  his  friend,  let  him  not  come  together  with  you,  until  they  be 
leconciled,  that  your  sacrifice,  ^  dvai.a  vjiibv,  may  not  be  profaned."  * 
Yet  it  is  manifest  that  the  term  sacrifice  is  here  used  in  j^^  ^^^.^^  ^p^_.^ 
a  very  different  sense  from  that  of  a  levitical  or  priestly  "sacritice'was 
oblation,  since  the  offering  here  made  is  by  the  entire  ""  '^'"^ "°  ' 
community  of  disciples,  thus  preserving  the  thought  of  the  universal 
priesthood  of  believers.  Li  arguing  against  the  Docetists,  Ignatius 
calls  the  eucharist  "the  flesh  of  om-  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  which 

'  This  is  ill  harmony  with  the  theory  of  worsliip  in  iliese  chiirclies.  Tlie  Greek 
iiichiiles  the  entire  circle  of  tlie  divine  manifestation,  from  the  creation  to  the  final 
triunipli  of  the  glorified  Chnrch.  The  Latin,  on  the  contrary,  proposes  a  narrower 
sphere  iu  its  tiieory  of  worship,  to  wiiich  its  litnrjry  strictly  corresponds.  It  is  the 
manifestation  of  the  history  of  redemption,  as  this  culminates  in  tiie  passion  and  aton- 
ing death  of  .Tesns  Christ.     Tts  litnrgy  must  be  correspondingly  abbreviated. 

-  ITofling ;  Di"  Lehre  der  altesten  Kirche  vom  Op/er  im  Lehen  und  Cultua  der  Christen, 
Erlangcn,  1S.")1,  ss.  4.5.  xi^q. 

^  Aidaxv  Tu)v  duikKO.  ' Attogto'/mv,  chap.  xiv. 


4-2'2         SACRAMENTS  AND  Vv'OIlSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

siifft'i-ocl  for  our  sins,  and  wiiicli  tae  Father,  of  his  goodness,  raised 
up  ag-ain;  "  '  and  again  he  speaks  of  the  Church  "  breaking  one  and 
the  same  bread,  which  is  the  medicine  of  immortalit}',  and  the  anti- 
dote to  prevent  us  from  dying,  but  that  we  should  live  forever  in 
Jesus  Christ." '  Such  language  appears  to  express  a  belief  in  the 
real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist,  yet  is  not  absolutely 
determining.  A  very  similar  view  would  be  inferred  from  the  lan- 
Qfuaare  of  Justin  Martyr '  and  Irenaeus."     The  latter,  how- 

Tlie  bread  and    o      "  •'  ' 

wiuearearciie-  ever,  elsewhere  implies  that  the  bread  and  wine  are  the 
^^^^'  archetypes  of  the  bod}-  and  blood  of  Christ.     This  is 

also  the  view  which  is  met  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  ^  and  in 
many  of  the  Greek  fathers  of  the  first  four  centuries. 

The  African  chui'ch  seemed  to  fluctuate  between  the  sjniibolical 
The  view  of  the  interpretation  of  the  words  of  the  institution  of  the 
Africau  Church.  Supper  and  the  idea  of  the  real  presence  in  the  ele- 
ments. The  strong  development  of  the  priestly  character  of  the 
clergy  by  Cyprian  led  him  to  view  the  eucharist  as  a  sacrifice. 

The  Alexandrian  church  were  generally  inclined  to  regard  the 
The  Aiexandii-  bread  and  wine  as  symbols  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
an  view.  Christ,  and  the  feast   as   spiritual    in   its   nature    and 

office. 

The  idea  of  a  sacrifice  is  expressed  in  the  language  of  nearly'-  all 
„     ^  the  ante-Nicene  fathers,  but  it  is  more  a  commemora- 

ration  of  a  sac-  tion  of  the  One  Sacrifice  for  sin  made  b}^  the  offering 
of  Christ,  "once  for  all,"  uj^on  the  cross,  with  the 
added  thought  of  thanksgiving  for  the  plan  of  redemption.  As 
late  as  the  twelfth  century  this  thought  was  perpetuated  by  the 
custom  of  the  presentation  of  the  eucharistic  elements  by  the  entire 
congregation,  the  universal  priesthood  of  believers  being  thus 
exhibited. 

The  notion  of  a  thank  offering  is  prominent  in  most  of  the  writers 
of  the  first  and  second  centuries;  but  in  the  third  centur}^  the  later 
doctrine  of  a  sin  offering  is  found,  especiall}^  in  the  writings  of 
Cyprian's  sao-  Cyprian,  Avhose  theory  of  the  priesthood  of  the  ministr}^ 
riflciai  view,  logically  deiiianded  an  offering  for  the  sins  of  the  peo- 
ple. His  language  is  remarkable,  and  expresses  the  extreme  view 
of  the  age  relative  to  a  genuine  offering  of  sacrifice  made  b}^  the 
priest.  "  For  if  Jesus  Christ,  our  Lord  and  God,  is  himself  the 
chief  priest  of  God  the  Father,  and  has  first  offered  himself  a  sacri- 
fice to  the  Father,  and  has  commanded  this  to  be  done  in  commem- 
oration of  himself,  certainly  that  priest  truly  discharges  the  office  of 

'  Ad  Smym.,  c.  7.  2   .^j  Ephes.,  c.  20.  3  j^^?.,  c.  66. 

*  Advers.  Ilair.,  iv,  c.  18,  seq.  ^  Const.  Apost,,  v,  c.  14;  vi,  c.  30;  vii,  c.  35. 


THE    LORD'S    SUPPER.  423 

Clirist  wlio  imitates  tluit  which  Clirist  did;  and  lie  tlieii  oflFers  a  true 
anil  full  sacrifice  in  the  Church  to  God  the  Father,  when  he  pro- 
ceeds to  offer  it  according  to  what  he  sees  Christ  himself  to  have 
oifered." ' 

The  three  views  of  the  Loid's  Supper,  the  mystical,  the  sym- 
bolic, and  the  extreme  materialistic,  traces  of  each  of  which  ai-e 
found  in  the  first  three  centuries,  were  perpetuated  in  the  post- 
Nicene  church.  Among  some  of  the  prominent  Greek  writers  there 
is  a  tendency  to  rhetorical  declamation  in  describing  opinions  vari- 
the  benefits  of  the  eucharist,  and  to  the  recognition  of  ""=*• 
some  mysterious  change  which  the  elements  undergo  in  the  act  of 
consecration,  by  virtue  of  which  the  believer  truly  partakes  of  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ.  It  is  difficult  to  find  those  exact  defini- 
tions which  enable  us  to  classify  these  writers  as  advocates  of  a 
mere  spiritual  participation  in  Christ's  nature,  or  of  the  ciassincatious 
doctrine  of  the  real  presence  in  the  bread  and  wine,  or  d'O'""- 
of  a  veritable  change  of  substance  in  the  elements.  The  same 
writer  fluctuates  in  his  expressions,  at  one  time  seemingly  repre- 
senting the  elements  as  changed  into  the  veritable  body  and  blood 
of  Christ,^  and  at  another  as  symbols  of  his  body  and  blood.  Other 
fathers,  as  Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  Chrysostom  in  the  East,  and  Ililaiy 
and  Ambrose  among  the  Latins,  are  (juite  pronounced  in  regard  to 
a  complete  change  of  the  elements  in  the  act  of  consecration,  and, 
therefore,  incline  to  the  later  view  of  the  Latin  Church.  Neverthe- 
less, in  these  same  writers  are  fouiul  expressions  which,  if  studied 
in  their  isolation,  would  lead  us  to  rank  them  among  the  advocates 
of  the  mere  symbolic  relation  of  the  elements  to  the  body  ansl 
blood  of  Christ,  and  of  a  purely  spiritual  communion  with  him. 
With  all  of  them  it  is  a  deep  mystery.  In  the  symbolic  The  symbolic 
school  ma}^  be  reckoned  Basil,  Eusebius,  Gregory  Nazi-  school. 
anzen,  and  Augustine;  although  these,  too,  at  times  use  expressions 
which  favour  another  theory. 

What  is  true  of  the  teachings  of  the  great  church  fathers  is  like- 
WMse  true  of  the  language  of  the  ancient  liturgies.  ^^^^  ii,„rjjipH 
Some  represent  a  veritable  change  in  the  elements  as  not  imif..rin  in 
occurring  in  the  act  of  consecration,  wliile  otliers  recog- 
nise only  the  spiritual  presence  of  Christ  in  the  supper.  The  Greek 
litursries  are  "-enerallv  more  clear  in  the  representation  of  tin-  real 

'  Kp.  62  (63).  ad  Ccecil.,  c.  14. 

*  V.  especially  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  as  ciied  by  Xcamlor :  Chrvillkhf  Dogmewjeschichte, 
Berlin,  1857,  Bd.  i.  ss.  425,  426.  "Regard  not,  therefore,  the  bread  and  llie  wine  a.s 
elements  simply,  for,  aceordinjf  to  llie  declaration  of  the  Lord,  they  are  tlio  body  and 
blood  of  Christ." 


424        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

presence  of  Christ  with  the  elements.  Generally  throughout  the 
eucharistic  portions  of  the  liturgies  there  is  the  recognition  of  an 
awful,  yet  glorious,  mystery.' 

From  the  ancient  canons   it   is   evident  that  full  members  of  the 
obiiKations  to   Church,  or  those  who  had  passed  through  their  catechu- 
coiniiiuiie.         menical  discipline  and  had  been  baptized,  and  who  were 
free  from  ecclesiastical  censure,  were   under  obligation  to  partake 
of  the  eucharist.     Some  of   the  canons  are   very  explicit,  going  so 
far  as  to  declare  that  such   as  refuse  to  partake  of  the  eucharist 
ought  to  be  excluded  from  the  Church;  ^  and  with  this  opinion  har- 
monized the  teachings  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  and  of  some 
of  the  most  eminent  Christian  fathers.^     Nor  did  a  plea  of  un wor- 
thiness excuse  from  this  solemn  duty.     The  reservation  of  some  of 
the  elements  for  the  use  of  such  as  were  not  prepared  or  willing  to 
commune,  called  eulogla,  evXoyia,  was  unknown  to  the 
Church  of  the  first  four  centuries,  and  probably  was  not 
recognised  before  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.     Nor  was  the  medi- 
eval and  modern  practice  of   private  mass,  where  the 

No  private  mass.         .  ,  11,1  1  1 

priest  alone  receives  the  elements,  known  to  the  early 
Church. 

Since  the  Church  from  the  beginning  of  the  third  century 
accounted  infants  as  proper  subjects  of  baptism,  and  regarded 
this  as  the  proper  initiatory  rite  into  the  Church  —  ratifying  the 
membership  by  the  holy  unction  and  confirmation — she  consistently 
Infant  com-  admitted  infants  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  Of  this  there  is 
munion.  abundant  proof  as  earl}^  as  the  third  century!     Cyprian 

is  very  clear  in  his  recognition  of  the  propriety  of  infant  commun- 
ion,^ and  he  mentions  it  in  such  terms  as  to  give  the  impression  of 

'  This  subject  is  discussed  at  great  len<>;th,  with  abundant  references  to  original  au- 
thorities, by  Kahnis:  Die  Lehre  vom  heiligen  AbendmahL,  Leipzig,  1851.  Riickert: 
Das  Abendmahl,  sein  Wesen,  und  seine  Geschichte  in  der  alien  Kirche,  Leipzig,  1856. 
Freeman:  Principles  of  Divine  Service,  London,  1855-1862.  Harrison:  An  Answer 
to  Dr.  Pusei/s  Challenge  respecting  the  Doctrine  of  the  Heal  Presence,  London,  1871. 
Ebrard:  Das  Dogma  vom  heiligen  Abendmahl  und  seme  Gesc/a'cAfe,  Franltfort,  1845. 
" No  other  liypollicsis  is  bac]<ed  up  by  such  a  subtle  philosophy;  no  other  can  so 
shelter  itself  from  both  reason  and  ridicule  in  the  sanctuary  which  has  been  provided 
for  it.  .  .  .  His  (the  believer  in  transnbstantiation)  Christ  in  the  sacrament  is  re- 
moved from  the  region  of  sense  to  the  region  of  the  unthinkable  and  non-existent. 
The  Roman  Catholics  sacramental  Christ  is  tlie  God  of  Spinoza."  v.  Cunnmgham: 
The  Groivth  of  the  Church,  pp.  242,  243. 

*  Go7ic.  Antioch.,  can.  2,  quoted  by  Bingham,  vol.  ii,  p.  791.  Augusti:  Handbuch 
d.  Christ.  Archeeologie.  Bd.  ii,  ss.  637,  638. 

*  For  declarations  of  sucii  as  were  entitled  to  commime  and  their  duty  v.  Const. 
Apostol.,  lib.  viii;  for  the  obligation,  among  others,  v.  Chrysostom:  Horn,  iii,  ad  Ephes. 

*  de  Lapsis,  c.  25. 


THE    LORD'S   SUPPER.  425 

its  commonness.  In  the  Apostolic  Constitutions/  where  the  order 
in  which  persons  are  to  receive  the  communion  is  treated,  children 
are  mentioned;  and  Augustine  in  many  passages  of  his  writings  rec- 
ognises its  practice  and  propriety.  It  was  also  custom-  E,e,u^nts  sent 
ary  for  the  early  Church  to  send  the  elements  to  absent  tosickandpris- 
members,  to  bishops  and  officers  of  other  churches,  to  °"'^'^^" 
the  sick  and  infirm,   and  to  captives  languishing  in  prison. 

The  Lord's  Supper  was  early  celebrated  in  private  houses;  but  in 
later  and  more  settled  periods  it  was  usually  celebrated  where  ceie- 
in  the  church.  The  people  received  into  their  hands  of  brated. 
both  kinds,  sometimes  kneeling,  sometimes  standing,  but  rarely,  if 
ever,  sitting.*  The  Constitutions  prescribe  an  order  in  which  per- 
sons shall  commune:  "First,  let  the  bishop  receive, then  order  of  com- 
the  presbyters,  deacons,  subdeacons,  readers,  singers,  munion- 
and  ascetics;  among  the  women  the  deaconesses,  virgins,  and 
widows,  after  that  the  children,  then  all  the  peo})le  in  order."  ^  In 
Justin  Martyr's  description  *  of  the  rite,  the  president  consecrates, 
and  the  deacons  distribute  both  elements  to  the  communicants;  but 
in  the  more  formal  order  of  government  it  is  seen  that  the  deacon 
is  forbidden  to  officiate  if  a  presbyter  be  present. 

The  practice  of  communing  in  one  kind,  except  in  case  of  urgent 
necessity,  was  unknown  to  the  ancient  Church;  of  this  the  proof  is 
too  abundant  to  need  specification.  It  was  sometimes  the  case  tliat 
the  bread  was  mingled  with  the  wine,  and  thus  both  ele-  Bread  mingled 
ments  were  given  at  the  same  time.  Hence  the  use  of  ^'^^^  ^^'"•'• 
eucharistic  spoons  in  the  Greek  church,  and  also  in  the  Coptic 
church  of  to-day. 

The  frequency  of  celebrating  the  supper  varied  in  different  ages 
of  the  Church.  The  apostolic  Church  at  first  had  daily  Frequency  of 
assemblies  for  observing  the  sacred  meal,  but  afterward,  celebration, 
apparently,  met  "on  the  first  day  of  the  week"  for  its  celebration.'' 
The  testimony  of  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  Eusebius,  Chrysostom,  Am- 
brose, and  others  is  to  the  same  custom  in  their  day.  But  besides 
the  Lord's  day  the  eucharist  was  c('l('l)rated  on  all  great  celebrated  on 
feasts  and  festivals,  and  in  some  churches  there  Avas  fwustdays. 
a  return  to  its  daily  observance.     But  after  the  sixth  century  the 

'  1.  viii,  c.  13. 

'  Tills  was  a  much  later  practice,  orip;inntinq:  in  peculiar  circumstances. 

3 1.  viii,  c.  13,  as  quoted  by  Bingham,  bi<.  xv,  cliap.  iv. 

*  Apol.  i,  c.  65. 

'  V.  Pliiiy:  Episfolre.  V\h.  x,  ep.  97,  in  his  celebratorl  letter  to  Trajan  on  the  lives 
and  customs  of  the  Christians  of  the  Province  of  Biihyaia.  Also  Justin  Martyr: 
Apol.  i,  67. 


426         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

celebration  became  less  frequent,  until  in  some  churches  communion 
was  insisted  on  but  once  a  year. 

There  is  no  evidence  in  the  writings  or  monuments  of  the  first  six 
Noeievationof  Centuries  of  the  elevation  of  the  host  or  of  its  adoration, 
the  host.  The  entire  accompaniments  of  the  eucharist  were  calcu- 

lated to  impress  the  mind  of  the  communicant  with  the  solemnity  of 
the  act,  as  well  as  with  the  high  privilege  of  the  sacrament.    The  dis- 
courses of  the  great  preachers,  as  the  Gregories,  Basil, 

Th6    Guchiirist  o  i  -'  <^  ^  ^ 

iiiagnined  by  Chrysostom,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Hilary,  etc.,  abound 
the  fathers.  ^^  xa^o^x,  eloquent  passages,  inculcating  the  necessity  of  a 
preparation  of  spirit  in  order  to  communicate  worthily,  and  showing 
the  immense  benefits  which  Christ  intended  to  confer  upon  the 
Church  by  the  institution  of  the  Supper. 


§  2.    The  Altar  and  its  Furniture. 

As  the  central  act  of  public  worship  was  the  eucharistic  supper, 
so  the  central  point  in  the  house  of  assembly  was  the  table  of  the 
Lord,  or  the  altar.  Paul  calls  it  Tpdrre^a  kvqlov.  It  received  differ- 
ent designations  at  different  periods  and  in  different  countries.  As 
the  idea  of  a  sacrificial  offering  became  more  and  more  prominent. 
Names  and  the  terms  cira,  alUire,  dvaiaoT^ptov,  etc.,  were  applied  to 
forms.  ii^Q  place  of  consecrating  the  elements  in  the  eucharist. 

The  forms  of  the  altar  varied  from  the  simple  table  [rQaTce^a,  mensa) 
to  the  more  elaborate  altars  in  wood,  stone,  and  precious  metals. 
Even  in  Tertullian's  day  the  ara  is  frequently  mentioned,  and  seems 
to  have  been  of  wood.  Generally  the  term  is  qualified  by  some 
word  indicating  to  whom  the  altar  is  chiefly  dedicated,  or  whose 
relics  lie  beneath  it.  There  are  sufticient  reasons  for  believing  that 
for  the  first  two  and  a  half  centuries  the  table,  or  altar. 

Often  portable.  .         . 

was  often  portable,  and  that  in  times  of  great  public 
agitation,  or  persecution  of  the  Church,  it  was  carried  from  place  to 
place  as  safety  or  prudence  might  dictate. 

After  commodious  basilicas  were  erected  and  were  under  the 
Position  of  the  protection  of  government,  the  regular  place  of  the 
^^^^^-  altar   Avas   at   the   middle   of    the   chord   of    the    apse 

(u.  Fig.  82).  It  is  believed  that  in  the  fourth  century  the  altar 
began  to  assume  the  form  of  a  tomb,  from  the  practice  of 
Coverinfc  relics  placing  beneath  it  the  relics  of  martyrs  or  saints, 
of  martyrs,  etc.  The  change  of  the  altar  from  wood  to  stone  can  be 
better  accounted  for  in  this  Avay  than  by  deriving  the  suggestion 
from  the  arcosolia  of  the  catacombs,  which  some  affirm  were  used 
for  altars   during  times  of  persecution,  and  from   excessive  ven- 


THE   LORD'S   SUPPEH. 


427 


eration  of  the  martyred  deatl.  Several  of  these  toml)like  altars, 
from  the  fifth  century,  still  survive  in  Rome,  Ravenna,  and  else- 
where; the  one  discovered  in  the  Basilica  San  Alessandro,  seven 
miles  from  Rome,  on  the  Via  Noiaentana,  and  that  of  SS.  Nazzaro 
e  Celso  in  Ravenna  are  good  examples.  From  these  well-pre- 
served altars  of  the  fifth  century,  as  well  as  from  mosaic  re])resenta- 
tions  found  in  several  churches  of  the  Ea.^t  and  West,  a  good  idea 
of  their  form,  material, 
and  accessories  may  be 
gained.  Fig.  140  repre- 
sents a  table  or  altar 
from  about  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, restored  partially 
from  divers  fragments. 
It  is  sketched  as  a  large 
table  of  marble,  support- 
ed by  pillars  upon  which 
is  sculptured  a  branch  of 
the  vine  with  its  fruit. 
One  frieze  contains  sculp- 
tured doves,  which  turn 

towards    the     mono<>'ram  Fig.  UO.— An  altar  (mc/(sa)  of  the  nfth  century. 

of  Christ;  the  other  (not  shown)  has  a  like  number  of  lambs 
turning  towards  the  mystic  Lamb  in  the  centre.  It  is  nearlv 
six  feet  long  and  about  three  and  a  half  wide.  It  gives  a 
good  idea  of  the  altar  in  the  form  of  the  mensa.'  The  altar 
was  often  i)laced  ui)on   a  platforni  raised  two  or  three 

,  .    ,      ,  11-1  11     1  Elevated  above 

steps  high,  beneath  winch  was  a  space,  called  con/essio,  the  general  lev- 
where  was  the  grave  of  the  saint,  afterward  the  depos-  *^'" 
itory  of  the  sarcophagus  containing  the  sacred  remains.  From  lit- 
erary notices,  as  well  as  from  mosaics  3-et  preserved,  it  is  ])lain  that 
from  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  the  altar  was  covered  by  a  canopy, 
oiborium,  suppoi'ted  by  columns,  between  which  stretched 
rods  bearing  the  veils,  or  curtains,  which  hid  the  sacred 
elements  from  the  vulgar  gaze.  The  ciboria  were  often  of  great 
costliness,  wrought  out  in  elaborate  patterns,  and  formed  a  most 
striking  part  of  the  furnitui'c  of  the  sanctuary  (firjiia,  .^loicfuarimn). 
The  custom  of  multiplying  altars  along  the  sides  of  the  c-hurch  is  of 
later  origin. 

The  chalice   (calix)   was  at  first   but   one  of  the  ordinary  drink- 
ing vessels  used  at   the  social    feasts.     By   degrees,  as  the   publico 
worship    became    more    regidar  and  orderly,  as  the  congregations 
'  V.  Roller:  CalncomlfS  de  Ronu;  torn,  ii,  [).  90,  pi.  Ixiii. 


Tlit>   ciborhini. 


428         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

had  their  stated  places  of  assembl}-,  and  the  societies  cared  for  the 
The  chalice  and  furniture  of  the  churches,  the  chalice  for  the  wine  and 
paten.  thg  paten  for  the  consecrated  bread  were  doubtless  of 

regular  pattern,  and  often  of  appropriate  decoration.  To  what  ex- 
tent the  forms  met  upon  sarcophagi,  on  slabs  of  marble,  or 
in  mosaics,  are  representations  of  the  chalice  and  paten  it 
is  difficult  to  say.  From  their  age  and  their  connection  with  in- 
scriptions, a  few  ma}^,  without  violence  to  any  laws  of  sound  inter- 
pretation, be  regarded  as  forms  of  sacramental  vessels.  Such 
evidence  must,  however,  be  received  with  caution,  since  some  of 
these  forms  are  plainly  for  purposes  of  ornament.  The  number 
of  chalices  and  pateiiis  still  surviving  from  the  first  six  centuries 
Earliest  exam-  i^  vei'y  small.  Probably  the  earliest  are  those  found 
P'^s-  at  Gourdon,  in  France,  now   preserved  in  the  Royal 

Library  of  Paris.  They  are  of  gold,  ornamented  with  scales 
of  garnet,  and  beautifully  chased.  From  the  fact  that  thej^  were 
found  in  connection  with  gold  coins  of  the  time  of  Justin  I.,  they 
are  believed  to  be  as  early  as  the  sixth  century.  From  the  descrip- 
tions of  Paul  Silentarius  we  can  safely  infer  that  the  vessels  which 
Rich  altar  fur-  decorated  the  altars  in  St.  Sophia  must  have  been  of 
niture.  wonderful  richness  and  beauty.     Numerous  notices  of 

other  Christian  writers  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries 
clearly  indicate  that  the  altar  furniture  was  carefully  studied  and 
was  often  of  most  costly  material. 

Likewise  the  accounts  of  the  pillage  of  churches  in  the  times  of 
persecution,  or  during  popular  uprisings,  clearly  prove  that  the 
churches  were  in  possession  of  many  valuable  rolls  of  the  sacred 
Eusebius's  tes-  Scriptures,  as  well  as  manuscript  liturgies  and  h^'mns. 
timony.  Eusebius  assures  us  that  he  has  seen  with  his  own  eyes 

the  sacred  Scriptures  committed  to  the  flames  upon  the  market-places, 
and  the  houses  of  worship  thrown  doAvn  from  their  foundations;  ' 
and  Optatus  speaks  of  the  Donatists  burning  the  altars  of  their 
rivals,  and  destroying  the  beautiful  altar  vessels  of  gold,  or  melting 
them  down  and  selling  them  as  profane.*  After  the  recognition  of 
im  eriai  ft  Christianity  as  the  religion  of  the  empire,  the  imperial 
gifts,  not  only  of  churches,  but  of  richest  furniture,  were 
frequent,  and  added  immensely  to  the  impressiveness  of  the  public 

'  Hist.  Eccles.,  1.  viii,  c.  2.  v.  Lactantius's  account  {de  Mart.  Persee,  c.  12)  of  tlie 
burning  of  the  splendid  church  at  Nicomedia  with  the  vohimes  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures. 

^  The  edict  of  Diocletian  contemplated  tlie  destruction  of  the  sacred  vessels  and 
books  as  well  as  tlie  clinrclies.  The  iruardians  of  the  churches  frequentlj'  refused  to 
produce  the  books  or  reveal  their  place  of  concealment. 


THE   LORD'S  SUPPER.  429 

worship.'  The  growlni^  splendour  of  cluirch  decoration  and  furni- 
ture is  sometimes  relinked  by  the  bisho})s  as  robbery  of  protest  against 
widows  and  orphans,'  and  is  contrasted  with  the  sim-  ^^*^  luxury. 
plicity  of  the  tirst  and  second  centuries,  when  the  warm  glow  of 
brotherly  love  was  prevalent,  and  when  the  body  of  the  Lord  could 
be  borne  in  a  basket  of  wicker  work,  and  his  blood  in  a  vessel  of 
glass.' 

'  Justinian's  intolerant  zeal,  in  building  ninety-six  cluirches  for  the  yielding  Greeks 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  supplying  them  with  linen  vestments.  Bibles,  liturgies,  and  vases 
of  gold  and  silver,  may  be  quoted  as  an  example. 

2  Clirysostom  :  Iloni.  50  in  Matt. 

^  Hicron. :   Ep.  125. 


430        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


CHAPTER  III. 

EARLY    CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP. 
§  1.   The  Apostolic  Age. 

The  worship  of  the  apostolic  Church  was  simple,  and  withoiit 
liturgical  character.  True,  Christ  left  a  form  of  prayer  which, 
by  its  spirit  and  comprehensiveness,  was  to  remain  a  model  for 
the  Church  in  all  the  future.  So  also  in  the  New  Testament, 
from  time  to  time,  recur  formulas  which  were  probably  the  germs 
Suggestions  of  ^^  ^^^^  Stately  liturgies  so  widely  accepted  during  the 
a  liturgy.  following   centuries.       Doubtless   in    this,   as    in  other 

respects,  the  influence  of  the  Jewish  temple  and  synagogue 
service  was  powerful  and  lasting.  Prior  to  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  it  is  evident  that  the  distinction  between  Christian  and 
Jew  Avas  not  sharply  made,  and  many  of  the  Jewish  converts 
Jewish  influ-  Continued  to  attend  upon  a  worship  which  had  be- 
ences.  come  venerable  from  age,  and  impressive  by  its  stately 

ceremonial.  Moreover,  the  doxology  and  the  psalmody  of  the 
Old  Testament  Scriptures  were  accepted  and  incorporated  into 
the  worship  of  the  new  religion,  and  they  were  found  to  be 
consonant  with  that  spirit  of  universalism  which  characterized  the 
teachings  of  Christ  and  of  his  first  apostles.*  In  accordance  with 
the  precepts  and  example  of  its  Master,  the  early  Church  was  ac- 
spirit  of  the  customed  to  offer  prayer  for  all  men,  even  for  enemies, 
early  Church,  and  in  this  respect  it  was  distinguished  sharply  from 
the  practice  of  Judaism  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  spirit  of  heathen- 
ism on  the  other.  The  bigoted  exclusiveness  of  some  Jewish  sects, 
contriisted  and  the  narrower  limitations  occasioned  by  nationalitj^, 
iuiV  he'itiieri-  ^^ii"th,  etc.,  recognised  by  the  heathen  world,  could  not 
'^"'-  harmonize   with   the    truth  which   had    been  communi- 

cated to  Peter  through  a  special  divine  manifestation  (Acts  x, 
34,  35). 

Associated  with  the  prayers,  often  mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  and  elsewhere,  is  found  the  recommendation  to  "  speak  in 
psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual  songs,  singing  and  making  melody 
in  your  heart  to  the  Lord  "  (Eph.  v,  19);  "teaching  and  admonish- 

'  Aiigiisti :    Ilandbuch  der  ch.  Arclvfologie,  Bd.  ii.  s.  7. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP.  431 

ing  one  another  in  psalms  and  hynnis  and  spiritual  sonofs  (xpaXjiolg, 
vfivoi^,  o)dalc  TTvevnaTiKali;),  singing  witli  grace  in  your  hearts  to  the 
Lord"  (Col.  iii,  17).  Another  part  of  the  worship  con-  p^^^,  q,  ^^^ 
sisted  in  the  reading  and  expounding  of  the  Scriptures  ship  in  apos- 
(Acts  i,  15,  seq.;  ii,  14  ;  iv,  33,  et  al.).  Doubtless  in  this 
there  was  a  close  imitation  of  the  form  of  the  Jewish  worship, 
for  it  is  inconceivable  tliat  men  who  had  all  their  lives  been  accus- 
tomed to  the  free  and  stimulating  services  of  the  synagogue  should 
suddenl}^  sunder  themselves  from  these  associations,  and  devise  an 
entirely  new  order  of  worship. 

The  first  Jewish  converts,  accustomed  as  they  had  been  to  hear  the 
law  read  and  expounded  by  some  priest  or  reader,  and  to  listen  to  the 
impressive  utterances  of  the  Prophets  and  of  the  Psalms  Jewish     con- 
in   their  frequent  jxatherinijs,  cherished  more  fully  the    verts  loved  the 
1  '^  ■^'  _  _•'  synagogue 

grand  and  solemn  lessons  of  their  sacred  writings  as  service. 
they  now  saw  their  fulfillment  and  culmination  in  the  Messias  whose 
kingdom  they  were  labouring  to  establish.  Douljtless  the  prev- 
alent custom  among  the  Jews,  to  invite  any  well-informed  man  to 
explain  the  Scripture  lesson,  was  entirely  consonant  with  the  feel- 
ings of  the  early  disciples,  when  the  right  to  teach  was  not  of  official 
sanction,  but  of  spiritual  endowments,  or  of  a  special  charism,  xf^pioj^ia 
dtSaaKaXiKov.  The  custom  of  Paul  on  his  missionary  tours  also  illus- 
trates the  easy  and  natural  connection  of  the  early  converts  with 
their  former  religion,  as  it  was  celebrated  in  the  syna-  „    „       .^  . 

^  ,  .  "  Paul's  mpthod 

gogues  of  the  dispersion.     His  method  was  to  attach   of  i-vanfjeiiza- 
himself  to   the  Jewish  synagogue,  and,  in   a  spirit   of 
generous  universalism,  use  the  existing  forms  to  convey  the  higher 
lesson  of  salvation  through  Jesus  Christ. 

The  question  of  the  composition  of  the  churches  founded  by  T*aul 
still  remains  an  open  one,  especially  whether  the  Jewish  or  the  heathen 
element  at  first  preponderated.  Doubtless  in  nearh'  every  case 
there  was  a  mixture  of  converts  from  both.  Inasmuch  as  the 
theism  of  the  Jews  was  the  substantial  foundation  on  composition  of 
which  the  Christian  system  must  be  reared,  their  forms  [',''',,  n'',''",7*^by 
had,  presumably,  large  influence  in  all  the  churches  es-  Pan', 
tablished  by  Paul  and  his  co-workers  during  tluir  wide  missionary 
jounieyings,  and  the  simple  synagogue  worship  probably  had  very 
considerable  effect  upon  most  of  these  churches  for  a  century'  after 
the  death  of  the  apostles.'     If  these  are  to  be  regarded  as,  in  a 

■  With  respect  to  the  composilion  of  tlie  Clitiroh  at  Rome,  Baur  and  Sclnvcpler,  as 
well  as  Thiersch  and  others  not  of  tlic  Tiibinjren  scliool,  have  eouglit  to  prove  the 
preponderance  of  Jewish  influence.  But  many  others,  as  Neander,  SchalT,  Lange, 
have  controverted  this  claim. 


433         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

measure,  colonies  of  the  mother  church  at  Antioch,'  then  must  the 
preuontlerating  influence  of  the  lieathen  element  be  pro- 
ofheathencon-  sumed.  Moreover,  the  opposition  which  Paul  often 
veils  lu  some,  encountered  from  the  Jews,  compelling  him  to  leave  the 
synagogue,  and  establish  an  independent  society  (Acts  xiii,  45,  seq.; 
xviii,  5-7  ;  xix,  8,  seq.),  would  suggest  a  larger  number  of  Gentile 
converts  in  the  churches  of  Antioch  of  Pisidia,  of  Corinth,  and 
of  Ephesus,  just  as  the  history  would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  in 
the  church  at  Berea  the  majority  of  converts  were  sincere  Jews, 
Of  Jewish  in  who  had  diligently  searched  their  Scriptures  to  discover 
others.  the  fulfillment  of  the  promise  of  the  Messiah.    While  the 

records  of  the  first  century  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  re- 
specting the  forms  of  Christian  worship  are  exceedingly  meager,  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  the  character  of  the  services  of  the  churches 
Character  of  would  be  somewhat  affected  as  the  majority  of  the 
the  public  wor-  members  were  of  Jewish  or  Gentile  origin  ;  in  the  former 

ship  affected  by  ^      .•  ^i        i?  j?    ^i.  j    • 

the    character  case  perpetuating  the  forms  of  the  synagogue,  and  in 

of  the  church,    ^^g  latter    modified   by   the   peculiar   thought    of   the 

heathen  converts. 

A  more  distinctive  service  might  be  sujoposed  to  be  developed  in 

the  latter  societies,  since  the  liberty  of  the  Gospel  would  experience 

.     little  hinderance  from  former  customs,  and  be  untram- 
The  services  in  .  ' 

churches  of  meled  by  a  venerable  ritual.  Yet  we  are  checked  from 
dSoped  mole  "taking  too  hasty  inferences,  since  the  letters  of  Paul 
distinctive  to  the  churches  which  are  most  distinctivel}^  of  Gentile 
converts  abound  in  references  to  the  Old  Testament 
Scriptures,  and  some  of  the  elements  of  the  worship  to  which  refer- 
ence is  therein  made  clearly  point  to  a  Jewish  origin.  Nevertheless, 
there  is  evidence  that  in  some  of  the  churches  the  letters  of  the 
apostles  were  read  in  the  assemblies,  and  constituted  a  part  of 
their  service  for  edification  and  instruction  (1  Thess.  v,  27  ;  Col. 
Paul's  letters  iv,  16).  By  degrees  these  letters,  with  other  New  Testa- 
Gentiie church"  "^^^^^  documents,  came  to  be  regarded  as  of  equal  and 
es-  even  superior  importance  to  the  Old  Testament,  and 

their  authoritative  character  was  recognised  earlier  by  the  churches 
of  Gentile  than  by  those  of  Jewish  character.^ 

When  all  the  circumstances  are  considered,  we  cannot  speak 
of  a  contradiction  between  the  spirit  and  worship  of  Jewish 
and  Gentile  societies,  but  rather  of  a  variety  in  unity.  The 
Yet  no  real  unity  consisted  partly  in  their  communion  with  God 
contradiction,  in  Christ,  on  the  basis  of  the  doctrine  of  the  apostles, 
which  was  by  both  considered  the  reason  and  end  of  divine  wor- 
>  V.  Lcchler:   Op.  cit,  s.  110.  '  v.  Lechler:    Op.  ciL,  s.  120. 


EARLY   CIIIUSTIAN    WORSHIP.  433 

ship  ;  partly  in  the  fratcni.il  ussofiatioii  of  believers  with  one 
another,  which  was  stimulated  and  promoted  by  their  religious 
services.  Furthermore,  both  parties  had  their  smaller  and  more 
exclusive  society  gatherings,  as  well  as  their  more  public  assemblies 
to  which  the  non-Christian  public  had  access.  The  difference  be- 
tween the  Jewish-Christian  and  Gentile-Christian  churches  in  its 
real  essence  consisted  in  the  fact  that  with  those  societies  which 
were  formed  out  of  the  converted  in  lieathen  countries,  their  wor- 
ship by  virtue  of  their  entire  isolation  from  the  Jewish   „  ,  _, 

^      ''  .  Greater    inde- 

temple  and  synagogue  service,  was  more  freely  and  pen  deuce 
independently  developed  by  the  pure  spirit  of  the  Gos-  heathen^  con- 
pel,  while  in  Palestine  the  connection  with  the  Old  ^''"^• 
Testament  ritual  was  more  persistent  and  protracted.  In  tine,  the 
worship  of  the  Gentile-Christian  churches  shares  in  the  liberty,  inde- 
pendence, and  novelty  of  Christianity,  but  in  such  manner  that  this 
independence  of  the  New  neither  excludes  a  leaning  toward  the 
forms  of  the  Old  Testament  worship,  nor  does  its  freedom  ignore  a 
law  of  orderly  arrangement  which  is  developed  from  within.' 

§  2.    Worship  in  the  Time  of  the  Apostolic  Fathen. 

It  is  quite  remarkable  that  the  apostolic  fathers  give  us  very 
few  hints  relative  to  the  nature  and  order  of  public  worship. 
Scarcely  a  paragra})h  is  met  in  Clement,  Polycarp,  Hermas,  or  Kar- 
nabas.  The  archaic  document,  "  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve,"  if 
it  can  be  firmly  placed  near  thp  end  of  the  fir.^t  or  at  Tj,e  "Teach- 
the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  becomes  valuable  '"p^-" 
as  giving  statements  relative  to  the  manner  of  celebrating  the  sacra- 
ments of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  (y.  book  iii,  chaps.  1,  2),  as 
well  as  the  character  of  the  assemblies  upon  the  Lord's  day.  We 
are  impressed  by  the  simplicity  of  the  service,  and  l)y  its  almost 
absolute  lack  of  ritualistic  forms.  The  command  to  meet  together 
is  coui)led  with  a  description  of  the  spirit  which  should  be  cherishetl 
by  the  participants,  being  largely  a  rei)etition  of  the  injunction  of 
Christ*  (Matt,  v,  2.3,  24).  Frequent  assembly  is  earnestly  enjoiniMl 
— "  But  ye  shall  come  together  often,  and  seek  the  things  which 
belit  your  souls;  for  the  whole  time  of  your  faith  thus  far  will  not 
profit  you,  if  you  <lo  not  become  perfect  in  the  last  time."'^ 

The  references  to   public  worship  in   the  Ignatian   writings  are 

'  Leohler:   Op.  nl..  ss.  120.  121. 

2  ^idaxri  -ruv  ATvoaT6?Mv,  chap,  xiv,    'But  on  tlic   Lord's  day  do  yo  assemble  and 
break  bread,  and  give  thanks,"  etc. 
2  Id.,  chap.  xvi. 
28 


434        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

very  few,  and  furnish  little  aid  in  constructing  the  form  of  public 
Notices  in  I  -  Service  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  second  century.  The 
natius.  duty  of  frequent  meetings  is  inculcated:  "Take  heed, 

then,  often  to  come  together  to  give  thanks  to  God,  and  show  forth 
his  praise.  For  when  ye  assemble  frequently  in  the  same  place, 
the  powers  of  Satan  are  destroyed,  and  the  destruction  at  Avhich  he 
aims  is  prevented  by  the  unity  of  your  faith."  >  He  agrees  with 
the  "  Teaching  "  respecting  the  propriety  and  custom  of  observing 
the  first  day  of  the  week,  i-ather  than  the  Jewish  Sabbath  ;  "  no 
longer  observing  the  Sabbath,  but  living  in  the  observance  of  the 
Lord's  day,  on  which  also  our  life  has  sprung  up  again  by  him  and 
by  his  death,"  etc.^ 

The  few  heathen  notices  of  the  worship  of  the  Christians  in  the 
first  half  of  the  second  century  are  important  in  themselves,  and  in- 
structive respecting  the  simplicit}^  of  services  which  continued  in 
the  Church  after  the  death  of  the  apostles.  The  testimony  is  also 
important  as  coming  from  enemies.  In  his  well  known  letter  to 
Heathen  testi-  Trajan,  about  A.  D.  102,  Pliny  describes  the  sim- 
mony.  plicity  of   the   Avorship,  and   bears   witness  to   the  high 

moral  character  of  the  Christian  fellowship.  "  They  are  accus- 
tomed to  assemble  before  dawn  on  a  certain  day,  and  sing  re- 
sponsively  a  hymn  to  Christ  as  God,"^  etc.  The  celebration  of 
the  saci'ed  meal,  and  the  pledge  to  abstain  from  all  wickedness 
while  absent  from  each  other,  are  likewise  attested.  Lucian,  the 
universal  scoffer,  saw  in  Christianity  only. one  of  the  numberless 
follies  of  his  time.  His  mocking  spirit,  while  contemning  all  re- 
ligions, sobers  into  candor  b}^  acknowledging  the  benevolence  of 
the  Christians,  and  he  testifies  to  the  power  of  their  belief  in  immor- 
tality to  keep  them  steadfast,  and  cause  them  to  abound  in  all 
helpfulness  and  kindness.*  He  likewise  speaks  of  their  worship  of 
Christ,  of  the  reading  of  their  sacred  writings,  and  the  celebration 
of  the  sacred  meal. 

^3.   PiihJic   Worshij)  in.  the  !^econiJ  and   Third  Centuries. 

It  is  not  till  the  middle  of  the  second  century  that  we  meet  with 
a  somewhat  formal  and  com])lete  descri])tion  of  Christian  public 
jiisfinMartyr's  Worship.  Justin  ^lartyr,  in  his  first  Apology  to  the  em- 
acrount.  peror,  senate,  etc.,  says:   "  On  the  day  called  Sunday  (// 

rov   'llXiov  Xeyo^ievrj  rifi^Qo)  all   who  live   in  cities  or  in  the  country 

'  Ad  Ephes.,  c.  xiii  :  r.  nlso  <id  Marjnes:..  c.  vii;  ad  Poli/r.,  o.  iv. 
^  Ad  Magnea..  e.  9.  s  Jijpistolo}.].  x,  ep.  96. 

*  de  Peregrinn,  ll-l.-?.  v.  Friedlaivlcr:  Sittcngeschichte  Roms,  Bd.  iii,  589-590. 
Uhlhorn:   Confiict  of  Christianity  with  HmtJienism,  pp.  325,  326. 


EARLY   CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP.  435 

gather  together  to  one  place,  and  the  Tueinoirs  of  the  apostles  or 
the  writings  of  the  pro})liets  are  read  as  long  as  time  permits;  then, 
when  the  reader  has  ceased,  the  president  verbally  instructs,  and 
exhorts  to  the  imitation  of  these  good  tilings.  Then  we  all  rise  to- 
gether and  pray,  and  as  we  before  said,  when  our  prayers  are  ended, 
-bread  and  wine  and  water  are  brought,  and  the  president  in  like 
manner  offers  prayers  and  thanksgivings,  according  to  his  ability, 
and  the  people  assent,  saying.  Amen;  and  there  is  distribution  to 
each,  and  a  participation  in  that  over  which  thanks  have  order  of  ser- 
been  given,  and  to  those  who  are  absent  a  portion  is  ^'*^**- 
sent  by  the  deacons.  And  they  who  are  well  to  do,  and  willing, 
give  what  each  thinks  tit;  and  what  is  collected  is  de})osited  with 
the  president,  wlio  succors  the  orphans  and  the  widows,  and  those  who, 
through  sickness  or  any  other  cause,  are  in  want,  and  those  who  are 
ill  bonds,  and  the  strangers  sojourning  among  us,  and,  in  a  word, 
takes  care  of  all  who  are  in  need.  But  Sunday  is  the  day  on  which 
we  all  hold  our  common  assembly,  because  it  is  the  first  day  on 
which  God,  having  wrought  a  change  in  the  darkness  and  matter, 
made  the  world;  and  Jesus  Christ  on  the  same  day  rose  from  the 
dead."  ' 

In  this  brief  passage  a  very  lively  sketch  of  the  form  and  spirit 
of  Christian  worship  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century  is  given. 
1.)  The  day  on  which  the  assembly  gathers  and  the  summary 
reason  of  selecting  this  day.  It  is  Sunday,  and  not  statements, 
the  Jewish  Sabbath;  it  is  because  on  that  day  God  finished  his  crea- 
tion, and  Jesus  Christ  rose  from  the  dead.  2.)  The  gathering  is 
from  city  and  adjacent  country  into  one  place;  the  place  is  not 
characterized;  but  it  is  a  society  under  president  and  helpers. 
3.)  The  order  of  the  service  is  like  that  in  apostolic  times,  with 
the  exception  of  singing,  which  is  not  here  mentioned.  The 
lector  reads  selections  from  the  Gospels,"  and  from  the  pro- 
phetic Scriptures;  next  the  president  expounds  and  exhorts 
to  an  imitation  of  the  examples  furnished  in  the  sacred  lessons. 
Then  follows  prayer,  led  by  the  president,  during  which  all  stand; 
next  the  consecration  of  the  elements  for  the  Lord's  Sup]>er,  tlicir 
distribution  by  the  deacons,''  a  participation  in  both  kinds  by  all 
who  are  present,  and  the  care  for  those  who  are  absent,  by  the 
deacons.  After  the  communion  is  the  collection  for  the  poor  and 
needy,  which  is  deposited   with  the  |)resident  for  disbursement  to 

'  Apol.  i.  c.  G7. 
^    ^ Apol.  i,  c.  66,  "For  the  apostles,  in  llie  memoirs  composed  by  tlicm,  which  are 
called  Gospels,"  etc. 

3  V.  c.  65. 


436        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

all  who  may  be  in  want,  or  in  bonds,  as  well  as  to  the  stranger 
sojourning  among  the  brethren.  From  this  account  by  Justin  it 
might  be  fairly  inferred  that  there  existed  a  regular  and  recognised 
order  of  Avorship,  and  to  proper  officers,  president,  lector,  and  dea- 
cons, specific  duties  were  now  assigned.  Here  is  noticed  a  regular 
and  orderly  procedure  in  the  service,  but  it  is  still  characterized  by 
earnestness  and  simplicity,  no  intimation  of  an  iuA'olved  liturgy 
appearing,  except  possibly  in  the  response  of  the  people.' 

Other  writers  of  the  second  centur}'  add  very  little  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  public  worship).  Origen,  Iren?eus,  and  Tertullian  in  their 
quite  extensive  writings  dwell  but  slightly  upon  this  subject.  In 
his  reply  to  Celsus,  Origen  uses  a  few  expressions  which  indicate 
a  fixed  order  of  service  in  the  churches  of  Alexandria,  but  it  is  not 
easy  to  construct  from  these  the  complete  form  of  worship.  Ter- 
Tertuiiiau's  tullian's  account  of  the  services  in  the  North  African 
staieiiient.  churcli  agrees  quite  closely  with  the  statement  of  Justin 
Martyr.  He  adds  a  few  particulars,  as,  "  We  also  give  admonitions, 
institute  examinations,  and  administer  the  divine  censure."  From 
the  last  expression  we  are  to  infer  that  the  discipline  of  the  Church 
was  also  considered  in  the  public  assemblies.  He  also  informs  us 
that  in  prayer  they  turned  toward  the  east;''  that  they  lifted  their 
hands  to  God  the  Father;^  and  that  in  the  ntissafideUiini  the  Lord's 
Prayer  was  used,  and  the  kiss  of  peace  was  given.'' 

When  the  sacerdotal  principle  w^as  greatly  strengthened,  during 

More  fixed  and  ^^^^  ^'"^^  '^^^^  ^^  ^'^^  third  century,  the  })ublic  services 
formal  in  third  assumed  a  more  fixed  and  ceremonial  character.  The 
cen  ury.  sharp  distinction  between  laity  and  clergy  brought  cor- 

responding changes  in  the  conduct  of  worship.  From  this  time  the 
ministering  priest  appears  more  prominently  in  both  the  missa 
catechumenorum  and  in  the  mhsa  JidellKm.  The  bishop  or  presby- 
ter is  the  offerer  in  the  eucharist,  "  who  offers  the  sacrifices  to  God." 
The  sacrifice  is  now  celebrated  daily;  the  lessons  are  read  from  a 
pulpitum.  It  is  evident  that  there  is  a  kind  of  responsive  service, 
for  the  Sursum  Conla  and  the  If/Mimis  ad  Dominuin  are  ex- 
cyprian's  pressly  mentioned  in  Cyprian's  treatise  on  the  Lord's 

words.  Prayer.'     Also  he  speaks  of  the  attitude  in  ]jrayer  as 

standing:   "  Moreover,  when  Ave  stand  praying,  beloved    brethren, 

/ 
Notwitlistaiiding  Justin's  Apology  is  addressed  to  the  emperor,  who  might  be 
supposed  to  be  more  interested  in  affairs  pertaining  to  his  capital,  it  is  believed  that 
he  descrihcs  the  order  of  worship  whicli  was  extant  in  the  patriarchate  of  Antioch, 
within  which  lie  resided. 

'  ApoL,  c.  16.  3  IdolaL,  c.  vii.  Ue  Oratwne,  c.  14. 

*  deOrcUione  dominica.  c.  31. 


EARLY  CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP.  437 

we  ought  to  be  wiatchful  and  earnest  with  our  whole  heart,  intent 
on  our  prayers." ' 

The  character  of  public  worship  in  the  African  churches  during 
the  fourth  century  can  be  pretty  well  ascertained  from  Aupustine's 
the  writings  of  Augustine.  The  following  is  the  order  ,''j'i|"j,^|;e/-,'"; 
as  therein  revealed.  The  Scripture  reading  was  from  fonnatiou. 
the  prophets,  epistles,  and  gospels — a  jtsalm  being  sung  between  the 
epistle  and  gospel  lesson.  We  infer  that  the  address  or  sermon 
made  tc  the  people  was  early  in  the  public  service.  In  the  Diin.'^a 
Jidellnm  the  worship  began  with  the  Sarsuni  Corcla  ("  Lift  up 
your  hearts  ' )  and  the  Habemus  ad  Dominum  ("  We  lift  them  up 
unto  the  Lord  ").  The  first  priest  then  responded,  "  Let  us  give 
thanks  to  our  Lord  God,"  and  the  people  said,  "  It  is  meet  and  right 
so  to  do."  The  prayer  of  consecration  of  the  elements  (sanctification) 
is  made  only  ly  the  })riest;  since,  from  the  language  of  Augustine, 
this  is  regarded  as  of  the  nature  of  a  sacrifice.  After  the  consecra- 
tion, the  Lord'f  Prayer  was  repeated  by  the  clergy  only.  Then  the 
Pax  vobiscton  ("Peace  be  with  you"),  and  the  kiss  of  peace.  Next 
followed  the  communion  and  the  dismissal  by  the  benediction,  which 
Augustine  mentions  in  his  private  letters.  In  these  letters  is  found 
also  the  statement  that  in  the  public  service  prayers  were  offered 
for  the  conversi  )n  of  unbelievers,  for  the  catechumens,  that  they 
might  be  earnes  ,  in  the  preparation  for  baptism,  for  scope  of  the 
all  believers,  for  bishops  and  priests,  for  all  rulers,  for  invocation, 
the  suffering  and  persecuted,  for  absent  members  of  the  congre- 
gation, and  "for  enemies.* 

The  notices  contained  in  the  writings  of  the  first  three  and  a  half 
centuries  represent  the  Lord's  Supper  as  the  central  act  of  public 
worship,  around  which  revolves  every  minor  part,  and  which  gave 
significance  to  the  whole.  The  celebrating  of  this  sacrament  is  the 
supreme  object  of  all  public  assemblies  of  the  saints. 

'  de  Oratione  dominica,  o.  31. 

'•*  V.  Moiie :  Laleininche  >ind  (jriechwche  Messen  am  dem  2ten  bis  6ten  Jahrhundert, 
Frankfort,  1850. 


438        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 


^^ 


CHAPTER  ly. 

THE     EARLIKST     LITURGIES. 

§  1.  Origin. 

The  almost  \inbroken  peace  which  the  Church  had  enjoyed  between 
the  reigns  of  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Decius  had  added  greatly  to  the 
number  of  her  adherents,  but  had  brought  serious  moral  enervation 
even  upon  some  of  her  high  officials.  Freedom  from  opposition,  and  a 
strong  reaction  against  the  rigors  of  the  Montanistic  discipline,  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  lapse  of  a  majority  of  North  African  Christians 
during  the  terrible  persecution  under  Decius  and  his  successors.'  The 
most  marked  symptom  and  proof  of  a  iecayinof  piety 

Occasions    of  ,  .  „  \  -,      •  t     "      o    -,         i 

the  Krowth  of  were  the  relegation  of  personal  duties  to  a  class  of  church 
iturgies.  officials,  and  a  growing  formalism  in  public  worship. 

It  was  during  this  interval  of  peace  that  the  sacerdotal  notion  had 
greatly  strengthened,  and  the  influence  of  the  laity  had  correspond- 
ingh'  declined. 

The  forty  years  between  the  death  of  Valerian  and  the  Diocletian 
persecution  were  most  important  for  the  discipline,  doctrine,  and 
worship  of  the  Church.  The  readmission  of  the  lapsed,  after  the 
Decian  persecution,  had  originated  the  sacrament  of  penance,  which 
Penitential  became  SO  powerful  a  factor  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Latin 
system.  Church.*     The  more  lenient  treatment  of  those  who  had 

denied  Christ  under  Valerian  tended  to  the  relaxation  of  ecclesias- 
tical discipline,  and  the  general  freedom  from  legal  disabilities  gave 
opportunity  for  the  erection  of  spacious  churches,  where  worship 
was  conducted  with  ever-increasing  pomp.  Just  then,when  piety  was 
feeble  and  heresy  was  rank,  the  Church  felt  the  necessity  of  guard-' 
ing  its  orthodoxy  by  the  clearer  formulation  of  doctrine,  and  fixing 
the  order  of  its  worship  by  the  construction  of  stately  liturgies. 

It  was  probably  under  these  circumstances  that  the  great  litui  - 
gies '  were  rapidly  developed.     From  the  liturgical  germs  found  in 

'  Aube  :  VKjlise  et  I'Etat  dans  la  seroach  Moitle  du  III '  Steele,  4  vols.,  Paris,  1816- 
1885,  vol.  iv,  pp.  10,seq. 

-  V.  Aub6 :  Op.  cil.,  vol.  iv,  pp.  30,  seq.  Leckey :  Histwy  of  Euroj^ean  Morah, 
London,  1884,  vol.  i,  pp.  457,  seq. 

^  The  term  liturgy,  ?.Eirovp}ia,  has  come  to  mean  the  order  and  method  of  public 
worship;  more  especially  tho  manner  of  celebratiug  the  eucharist.     The  term  mass 


THE    EARLIEST    LITURGIES.  439 

the  New  Testament,  and  in  tlie  writings  of  the  ante-Nicene  fathers, 
were  steadily  perfected  the  imposing  forms  whose  long-continued 
use  gave  character  to  the  i)ublic  worship  of  the  East  and  West. 
They   have    undergone    numerous    important    chanues, 

•^  *  *  o      '      Have    under- 

according  to  the  varying  fortunes  and  doctrinal  devel-    now.      sreat 

opments  of  the  Church,  or  as  they  have  been  amended  ^"' ' 
by  conciliary  decisions.  None  are  probably  older  than  the  fourth 
century;  since  till  the  Church  was  relieved  of  its  legal  disabilities, 
and  placed  under  state  protection,  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist, 
especially,  belonged  to  the  Disclplina  arcmd.  The  period  for  the 
full  development  of  tlie  great  liturgies  begins,  therefore,  with  the 
complete  trium})h  of  Christianity  over  heathenism.  This  is  evident 
from  their  fivcjuent  use  of  terms  which  originated  in  the  General 
Councils,  where  fundamental  doctrines  were  first  formulated.  Nev- 
ertheless, they  have  certain  striking  resemblances  which  suggest  a 
common  underlying  tradition,  and  marked  differences  that  could 
result  only  from  diverse  environments. 


§  2.   Chusijicntioii  and  Detscription. 

The  classification  of  the  early  liturgies  according  to  their  origin, 
points  of  likeness,  and  influence  has  been  attempted  by  several 
learned  liturgists;  '  but  the  results  are  by  no  means  harmonious. 

Neale  arranges  them  under  five  classes,  namely:  J.  TImt  of  St. 
James,  or  of  Jerusalem.  2.  That  of  St.  Mark,  or  of  N,.aip's  ciassi- 
Alexandria.  3.  That  of  Thaddanis,  or  of  Edessa.  4.  That  S"»"^'"- 
of  St.  Peter,  or  of  Rome.  5.  That  of  St.  John,  or  of  Ephesus. 
While  tradition  ascribes  the  origin  of  each  of  these  to  the  person 
whose  name  it  bears,  it  is  evident  that  they  were  tlie  result  of  long- 
repeated  services  at  the  great  centers  of  ecclesiastical  power,  were 
modified  with  the  shifting  fortunes  of  the  Church,  and  Mere  in  use 
in  different  districts  as  the  influence  of  the  patriarchal  ca])itals 
was  augmented  or  declined.     Moreover,  the  growth  of  a  multitude 

is  applied  to  llio  public  eiicliarisiic  service  by  the  Luiii  Church.  The  litiujficai 
l)ouk.s  were  generally  called  by  the  liealht-n  libelli,  by  the  Church  sucramentan'a,  Hl»i 
laijskrioruniy  etc. 

'  The  followiri}?  are  among;  the  most  learned  writers  upon  the  liturprios  of  the 
Church:  L.  A.  Muratori  (R.  C):  fjitunjia  liomana  vdits,  2  vols.,  Venet.,  1748.  Palm- 
er (Anglican):  Origines  Liturfficce,  2  vols..  London,  1845.  Daniel  (Lutheran): 
Cudez  Htunjicus  ecdesice  universcK  in  epikmien  redactus,  4  vols.,  Lipeiie,  1847-1 85  L 
Mone  (R.  C):  Lateinische  und  grieschische  Mrssen  am  dem  2ien  Us  Gtt^n  Jahrhundeil, 
Frankfort,  1850.  Neale  (Anfjlican) :  The  Liturgi'-.s  of  S.  Hark,  S.  Jmnes,  S.  Clement, 
S.  Chrysostom,  S.  Basil,  or  according  to  the  imes  of  the  churches  of  Alexandria,  Jerusa- 
lem, Constantino])!/',  London,  1859. 


440        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

of  lesser  liturgies  from  these  argues  a  great  variety  of  opinion,  and 
a  lar<'-e  degree  of  liberty  in  the  different  districts  and  churches. 

The  Eastern  liturgies  are  divided  into  two  parts:  1.  That  pre- 
ceding, and,  2.  That  following  the  Sursum  Corda.  They  generally 
•ro  under  the  names  of  xh^  proanaphora  and  the  anaphora.  It  has 
Two  pans  of  ^^^"  discovered  that  usually  one  liturgy  in  every  class 
a  liturgy.  or  family  of  liturgies  supplies  t\\e  jy^'oanaphora  to  all 

the  others.  Of  some  sixty  Oriental  liturgies  there  are  not  a  dozen  ■ 
exceptions  to  a  common  proanaphora.  This  would  seem  to  point 
to  a  common  source  of  one  branch  of  the  public  service;  while  the 
great  variety  found  in  the  anaphora  would  only  be  in  harmony  with 
the  spirit  of  the  East,  which  allowed  greater  variety  in  the  lan- 
guage and  order  of  public  worship. 

1.  The  oldest  liturgy  is  probably  that  of  St.  Clement,'  which 
dates  from  about  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century.  While  it 
Liturgy  of  St  ^^^  fallen  entirely  into  disuse,  it  is  of  interest  in  reveal- 
cieuient.  jng  the  character  of  the  early  rituals,  and  in  assisting  to 

determine  the  changes  which  were  introduced  into  the  worship  in 
the  post-Nicene  period.  In  it  the  missa  catechumenorum  is  strictlj'^ 
separated  from  the  missa  Jidelium  ;  the  forms  are  simple;  as  from 
very  early  times  the  sainted  dead  are  commemorated,  there  is  no 
Its  pecuiiari-  reference  to  individual  names;  Mary  is  not  once  men- 
"*'*•  tioned:  all  of  which   circumstances  point   to   an   early 

origin.  In  these  respects,  as  well  as  with  reference  to  the  reading 
of  the  Scriptures  and  the  homil}^,  the  formula  of  consecration,  the 
petition  for  the  excommunicate,  and  the  praver  foi*  enemies  and 
persecutors,  this  liturgy  agrees  in  sentiment  and  spirit  with  what  is 
given  by  Justin  Martyr  and  TertuUian,  and  would,  therefore,  justify 
the  opinion   that  the  eighth  book   of  the   "Apostolic 

Date  of  origin.     .-,  .        .  „      •    i      ,  ,  «    ,         i  .    -, 

Constitutions  might  be  a  product  of  the  third  century. 
Drey  has,  however,  pointed  out  two  circumstances  which  forbid  so 
early  an  origin:  First,  the  mention  of  the  ascetics,  for  whom  prayer 
is  offered,  and  to  whom  a  place  of  honor  next  to  the  clergy  is  as- 
Two  later  eie-  signed  ill  the  missa  fideliian',  secondly,  the  mention  of 
merits.  suhdeacons  in   the  liturgy.     Both  these  classes  received 

official  recognition  after  the  third  century;  hence  the  origin,or  at  least 
the  present  form,  of  the  eighth  book  of  the  Constitutions,  containing 
the  Clementine  liturgy,  must  be  later  than  the  third  century.^ 

'This  liturgy  is  found  in  tiie  eighth  book  of  the  "Apo.stolic  Constitutions." 
V.  Cotclerius's  edition  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers.  For  a  critical  examination  and  esti- 
mate, V.  especially  Drey  and  Bickell,  elsewhere  cited. 

*  V.  Drey:  Neuc  UnkTsuchnngen  iiber  die  Gonstitutionen  und  Kanones  der  Apostei, 
B.  139,  seq.     v.  Const.  Apos.,  I  viii,  c.  11. 


THE   EARLIEST   LITURGIES.  441 

2.  Another  very  ancient  liturt,'y,  belonging  to  tlie  very  large  class 
called  by  Neale  the  Ilierosolyniitan  (or  of  Jerusalem),  is  LUurgy  of  s. 
that  of  S.  James.  "From  this  Greek  liturgy  there  are  J^"!''*- 
three  sets  of  offshoots.  The  first  of  these  is  the  Cesarean  branch. 
St.  Basil's  liturgy  is  a  recast  of  that  of  S.  James,  as  St.  Chrysostom's 
is  an  abbreviation  of  and  new  addition  to  that  of  St.  Basil.  From  St. 
Basil's  sprang  the  Armeno-Gregorian  rite,  as  at  present  ^^  ^^^J.^^. 
used;  while  St.  Chrysostom's  exercised  an  influence  on  branches, 
the  later  forms  of  the  Nestorians.  Circumstances  have  rendered 
the  Constantinopolitan  rites,  as  I  have  already  said,  sole  i)Ossessors 
of  the  orthodox  East.  The  liturgy  of  St.  Basil  is  said  on  all  Sun- 
days in  Lent  except  Palm  Sunday,  on  Maundy  Thursday,  Easter 
eve,  the  vigil  of  Christmas  and  the  Epiphany,  and  the  Feast  of  St. 
Basil  (January  l).  That  of  Chrysostom  is  aj)propriated  to  every 
other  day  in  the  year.  .  .  .  The  second  offshoot  of  S.  James  is  of  far 
less  importance.  It  embraces  but  two  offices,  the  Sicilian  liturgy, 
.  .  ,  the  other  named  from  St.  Cyril,  which  was  never  widely 
used,  and  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  say  where  it  was  employed. 
The  Sicilian  liturgy  differs  principally  from  that  of  S.  James  in 
amplification.  .  .  .  The  third  offshoot  of  the  Hierosolymitan  office 
is  the  Syriac  liturgy  of  S.  James,  and  its  dependents.  It  differs 
verbally  from  the  Greek  office  of  the  same  name,  from  which  it  is 
derived.  Tlie  pi-ayers,  generally  speaking,  are  rather  shorter, 
though  the  Invocation  to  the  Holy  Ghost  is  much  amplified." ' 
This  Syriac  liturgy  is  believed  to  be  the  source  of  no  less  than 
thirty-nine  distinct  liturgies,  all  of  which  were  in  use  among  the 
Monophysites. 

3.  The  liturgy  of  S.  Mark  was  influential  in  Alexandria,  and  in 
the  churches  which  were  regarded  as  dependent  upon,  or  subject 
to,  the  Alexandrian  patriarch.  In  its  present  form  it  is  Ljt„rrry  of  st. 
usually  ascribed  to  C^ril,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  about   Mark. 

the  first  quarter  of  the  fifth  century.  Offshoots  from  this  were  used 
in  the  Coptic  and  Ethiopian  churches.* 

Many  other  liturgical  forms  originated  in  the  East  wliich  had  a 
■wider  or  narrower  influence,  whose  shades  of  diiference  are  numerous 
and  interesting  to  notice.  As  before  said,  it  is  probable  that  the  more 
unbridled  spirit  of  the  Eastern  churches  helped  to  modify  and  adjust 
the  liturgies  to  the  varying  coiiditions;  while  the  centralizing  forces 
of  the  West  secured  for  the  churches  greater  uniformity  in  pul)lii- 
worship. 

The  Western  liturgies  may  be  studied  under  four  classes:  1.  The 

'  Abridgred  from  Noalc. 

*  V.  Daniel:    Codex  Liiurgicus  eccksicB  universce,  Lipsio',  1853,  lib.  iv,  p.  i:!5. 


112         SACRxVMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

G:illk-;ui,  wliicli  lias  been  traced  by  Mone  and  others'  to  Epliesus  as 
The  Western  ^be  place  of  its  origin,  but  which  was  amended  from 
liturgies.  time  to  time  by  Hilary  and  others.    2.  The  other  member 

of  this  family  is  the  old  Spanish,  Gothic,  or  Mozarabic,  which  was 
probably  an  imported  liturgy,  but  was  largelj^  modified  by  Isidore 
of  Seville  in  the  seventh  century.  3.  The  Roman  liturgy,  which 
can  hardly  be  older  than  the  fifth  century.  It  seems  very  probable 
that  the  vigorous  bishops  of  Rome,  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies, gradually  brought  this  liturgy  into  form;  especially  Gregory 
the  Great,  who  was  active  in  effecting  reforms  in  ecclesiastical 
hvmns  and  music,  prepared  a  sacramentarium  which  was  largely 
accepted  by  the  Latin  Church.  4.  The  Ambrosian,  named  after 
the  bishop  of  Milan,  like  all  other  liturgies,  was  a  work  of  gradual 
and  long-continued  development.  It  is  more  nearly  related  to  the 
Roman,  although  in  some  features  departing  widely  from  it.^  It  is 
still  in  use  in  the  diocese  of  Milan. 

All  the  great  liturgies  have  aimed  to  unify  the  thought  and  feel- 
The  philosophy  iiig  of  the  Congregation  in  acts  of  solemn  worship. 
of  the  liturgy.  They  have  varied  according  to  the  views  of  their  com- 
pilers respecting  the  supreme  thought  which  should  dominate  the 
public  service.  Hence  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  liturgies  may  be 
regarded  as  an  attempt  to  express  in  the  great  assembly,  or  by  the 
community  of  believers,  for  purposes  of  instruction  or  edification, 
what  each  esteems  the  central  doctrine  of  Christianity.  The  modi- 
fications which  these  have  undergone  are  indices  of  the  shifting 
of  the  center  of  a  doctrinal  system,  or  of  a  modified  view  of  the 
best  means  of  expressing  the  dominant  truth  to  the  assembled 
Church. 

The  thought  of  the  liturgy  of  the  Greek  Church  is  the  divine  man- 
,   ifestation  in  effecting  the  work  of  human  redemption: 

The        central  •         o  .  . 

thought  in  the  extendmg  from  the  act  of  creation,  through  all  the  inter- 
1  urgy.  yp,^},^o.  dispensations,  to  the  life  of  Christ  from  his  birth 
to  his  glorification.  Every  prayer,  lesson,  antiphonal,  or  chant;  eveiy 
posture,  action,  change  of  vestments,  shifting  of  colors,  etc.,  are 
so  many  symbols  to  illustrate  the  unfolding  history  of  redemption. 

'  Mone:  Latemische  und  griechische  Messen  aus  clem  Iten  his  Gten  Jahrhundert, 
Frankfort,  1850.     Nealo :  Essays  on  Liturgiology. 

'^  Daniel:  Op.  cit.,  vol.  i,  pp.  48-113,  has  arranged  the  four  great  Western  litur- 
gies in  parallel  columns,  so  that  their  harmonies  and  variations  can  be  conveniently 
studied.  This  learned  liturgist  has  in  this  work  given  iis  a  mass  of  curious  and  val- 
uable information,  and  his  researches  have  greatly  aided  in  tracing  these  liturgies  to 
tiieir  origins  The  subject  is  beset  with  pecidiar  difficulties,  and  the  scholars  are  by 
no  means  in  harmony  respecting  the  chronology  and  relative  influence  o(  tliese 
forms  of  public  worship. 


THE   EARLIEST    LITURGIES.  44:J 

In  the  Latin  Church  the  entire  liturgy  centers  in  one  thought  of 
supreme  interest,  namely,  the  atoning  sacrifice  of  Christ,  veritably 
repeated  at  every  mass.  With  variety  in  secondary  (.p^,^jj,  ^^^^_ 
parts,   during  the   chan<>in<y  festivals  of  the  year,  the   trine    in    the 

^     .  ,,-,,,,  ,  1  Latin  liturgies. 

point  around  which  the  whole  system  revolves,  and  to- 
ward which  every  member  points,  is  the  sacrificial  offering  of 
Christ  in  the  mass  by  the  officiating  priest,  and  the  ap))r()priatioii 
of  its  benefits  by  the  worshipping  Church.  Hence  the  wider  range 
of  thought  to  be  expressed  by  the  Greek  liturgies  gave  occasion  for 
a  more  involved  and  imposing  symbolism;  while  the  Latin  litur- 
gies, by  a  concentration  of  attention  on  one  act  in  tlie  scheme  <jf 
redemption,  would  give  less  opportunity  for  spectacular  display, 
yet  would  produce  a  deeper  and  more  lasting  impression.' 

'  In  the  liturgies  of  the  Protestant  Churches  the  thoughts  of  the  priesthood  of  all 
believers,  salvation  throuu:Ii  personal  faith,  individual  privilege  and  responsibility, 
and  instruction  of  the  people  in  doctrine  and  duty  are  very  prominent.  Hence  the 
eucliarisi  is  not  celebrated  on  every  occasion  of  public  worship,  but  the  sermon  as- 
sumes a  place  of  greater  relative  prominence  than  iu  other  liturgies. 


444        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CilURCII. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE    LORD'S   DAY,   OR  SUNDAY. 
§  1.  Historic  Statement. 

The  daily  assembly  of  the  disciples  for  worship  and  for  the  cele- 
Eucharisi  ceie-  bration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  largely  ceased  with  the 
iirated  on  the   ai)ostolic   aije.      Sooii    the    eucharist    was    consecrated 

first  day  of  tbe      i  * 

week.  weekly  and  on  the  occasion   of  great  festivals,  till  at 

k'ligth  a  methodical  and  stated  observance  of  weekly  and  yearly 
feasts  was  instituted.  Daily  assemblies  were,  however,  recommended 
by  some  teachers  during  the  first  six  centuries,  and  explicit  injunc- 
tions for  such  gatherings  are  found  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions.' 
As  before  observed,  the  Jewish  Christians  at  first  continued 
The  Jewish  ^o  frequent  the  temple '  and  synagogue  services,  but 
<  hristians   at-  at  a  Very  earlv  date  "  the  first  day  of  the  week  "  took 

teuded    the  ,  "  .         . ,    ,  ,       ,  ,  ,  .    ,.     .  „ 

.Jewish  wor-  the  place  or  the  Jewish  Sabbath  as  the  chief  time  of 
'^'"P-  public  worship   (Acts  xx,  7;  1  Cor.  xvi,  2)   in  many  of 

the  churches  of  Jewish  Christians.  It  was  the  day  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ,  of  most  of  his  appearances  to  the  disciples  after  the 
„  .       resurrection,  and  on  this  dav  the  Holv  Spirit  was  lioured 

Reason    for  '  .^  j      i  i 

observing   the  out  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.^     For  these  reasons,  and 
ay.  especially  after  the  destruction  of  the  sacred  city  had 

rendered  the  sacrificial  service  of  the  temple  impossible,  Sunday  be- 
came the  recognised  day  of  assembly  for  fellowship  and  for  the  cel- 
ebration of  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  is  called  in  "  The  Teaching  of  the 
Twelve"^  the  "Lord's  day  of  the  Lord"  {KvpiaKTjv  6e  Kvpiov). 
The  Jewish  Christians  at  first  observed  both  the  seventh  and  the 
first  day  of  the  week;  but  the  Gentile  Christians  kept  the  "Lord's 
day "  from  the  beginning.  It  is  difficult  to  doubt  that  it  had 
Relation  of  the  ^P^^^^oHc  Sanction.  The  relation  of  the  seventh  to  the 
seventh  to  the  first,  as  understood  by  the  Jewish  Christians,  may  not 
be  easy  to  determine;  yet  there  seem  to  be  indications 
that  the  seventh  was  regarded  as  a  day  of  preparation  for  the  first. 

'  V.  1.  viii,  cc.  35-41. 

'^  Barry:  art.  "Lord's  Day,"  in  Diet,  of  Clirist.  Antiq.,  vol.  ii.  p.  \M?,\  and  Hessey: 
"Lord's  Day,''  in  Smith's  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  vol.  ii,  p.  1677;  Schaff :  Hid.  of  tlie  Ch. 
Church,  vol.  ii,  p.  205. 

*  Chap,  xiv,  1.     The  seventh  day  is  not  mcnlioned  in  this  archaic  document. 


THE  LORD'S   DAY,  OR   SUNDAY.  441 

"The  idea  of  Christian  worship  would  attach  mainly  to  the  one; 
the  obligation  of  rest  would  continue  attached  to  the  other;  although 
a  certain  interchange  of  characteristics  would  grow  up,  as  worship 
necessitated  rest,  and  rest  naturally  suggested  worship."  ' 

In  his  letter  to  the  Magnesians,"  Ignatius  evidently  addressed  a 
Church  of  mixed  character,  since  he  8j)eaks  of  some  igriatiuss  tes- 
"  who  were  brought  uj)  in  the  ancient  order  of  things,"  '■'"'""y- 
who  "  have  come  to  the  possession  of  a  new  hope,  no  longer  observ- 
ing the  Sabbath,  but  living  in  the  observance  of  the  Lord's  day,"  ^ 
etc. 

There  is  neither  in  this  writer  nor  in  the  Barnabas  epistle  an  inti- 
mation that  Sunday  was  regarded  as  in  any  way  a  sub-  The  Lord's  day 
stitute  for  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  nor  yet  a  continuation  ["^  u^e'Ssli 
of  it;  rather  it  was  a  new  institution.  It  is,  however,  sabbath, 
impossible  to  determine  the  time  of  its  beginning;  no  impres- 
sive enactment,  like  that  in  the  case  of  the  Decalogue,  so  enactment 
was  needed.  The  recollection  of  the  joyous  events  on  "»^ces9ary. 
the  first  day  of  the  week  led  the  early  Christians  to  meet  together 
and  to  celebrate  them  with  gladness.  Not  until  the  fourth  cen- 
tury do  we  find  a  statement  intimating  that  the  Jewish  Sabbath, 
with  its  sanctions  and  duties,  was  transferred  to  the  first,  or  the 
"Lord's  day."  Eusebius  says:  "On  this  day,  which  is  the  first  of 
the  Light  and  of  the  true  Sun,  we  assemble  after  an  interval  of  six 
days,  and  celebrate  holy  and  spiritual  Sabbath.  .  .  .  All  things 
which  it  was  duty  to  do  on  the  Sabbath,  these  we  have  transferretl 
to  the  Lord's  day."*  The  observance  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath  in  the 
churches  of  Jewish  Christians  continued  for  the  first  five  centuries. 
In  the  East  both  days  were  celebrated  with  rejoicing;  in  the  West 
the  Jewish  Sabbath  was  observed  as  a  fast. 

The  reign  of  Constantine  marks  a  change  in  the  relations  of  the 
people  to  the  Lord's  day.  The  rescript  of  this  emperor,  constantine's 
commanding  the  observance  of  Sunday,  seems  to  have  rescript, 
had  little  regard  for  its  sanctity  as  a  Christian  institution;  but  the 
day  of  the  Sun  is  to  be  generally  regarded  with  veneration.  "  But 
the  believer  in  the  new  paganism,  of  which  the  solar  worship  wa*< 
characteristic,  might  acquiesce  without  scruple  in  the  sanctity  of  the 
first  daj-^  of  the  week."* 

His  successors  not  only  sanctioned  the  legislation  of  Constantine, 

'  Barry:  in  loco  cit.  *  Ep.,  c.  15. 

^  V.  Lighlfoot:  Ifjnalius,  ii,  p.  120.  Ilis  rcmark.s  on  tliis  pa.ssairc  are  important. 
"Not  niort'ly  in  the  observance  of  it,  bnt  in  the  appropriation  of  all  those  ideas  and 
associations  which  are  involved  in  its  observance,"  etc. 

*  Com.,  Psahn  xcii.  *  Milman :  Hint,  of  Christianity,  vol.  ii,  p.  296. 


44G         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

but  enlarged  it,  by  multiplying  the  number  of  saered  days,  and 
le<»'allv  prohibiting  the  transaction  of  branches  of  public  and  private 
business,  as  well  as  the  more  debasing  i)ublic  amusements.  "  Thus 
Theodosius  I.  increased  the  number  of  judicial  holidays 
sionsoftiieetn-  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-four.  The  Valentinians,  I. 
peiore.  ^j^^  jj^  prohibited  the  exaction  of  taxes  and  the  collec- 

tion of  moneys  on  Sunda}^,  and  enforced  the  previously  enacted  pro- 
hibition of  lawsuits.  Theodosius  the  Great,  in  A.  D.  386,  and  still 
more  stringently  the  younger  Theodosius,  in  A.  D.  425,  foi-bade 
theatrical  performances;  and  Leo  and  Anthemius,  in  A.  D.  460,  pro- 
hibited other  secular  amusements  on  the  Lord's  day." '  While,  by 
an  early  law,  Honorius  had  respected  the  public  amusements,  and 
provision  had  been  made  for  their  maintenance  from  the  public 
treasurv,  by  a  later  rescript  the  sanctity  of  the  Lord's  day  was 
Humane provi-  guarded,  and  a  humane  provision  made  for  the  judges 
s'o"s-  to  visit  the   prisons  on  Sunday,  and   inquire  into  the 

treatment  of  prisoners,  and  alleviate,  as  far  as  possible,  the  hard- 
ships of  their  condition. 

Various  other  imperial  enactments  make  plain  the  duties  of  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  officers  respecting  the  observance  of  Sunday,  until 
it  takes  its  place  as  an  institution  to  be  guarded  and  regulated  by 
the  government. 

§  2.  Sanctity  and  Oroimd  of  Observance. 

It  is  indisputable  that  the  resurrection  of  Christ  was  the  one 
all-sufficient  fact  which  accounts  for  the  rise  and  growth  of  the 
Christian  Church.  "  Jesus  and  the  resurrection  "  was  the  burden 
of  apostolic  preaching.  Hence  the  recollection  of  the  day  of  the 
resurrection  was  so  indelibly  impressed  upon  the  hearts  of  the  first 
disciples  that  on  its  return  they  came  together  to  pray,  and  to 
recall  the  memory  of  the  Lord,  by  the  breaking  of  bread  and  the 
celebration  of  the  eucharist.  It  was  the  dictate  of  the  glowing  love 
for  Christ,  whose  followers  they  delighted  to  be  reckoned. 

We  fail  to  find  the  slightest  trace  of  a  law  or  apostolic  edict  in- 
stituting the  observance  of  the  "day  of  the  Lord;"  nor  is  there  in 
the  Scriptures  an  intimation  of  a  substitution  of  this  for  the  Jewish 
Sabbath.  The  primal  idea  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath  Avas  cessation  of 
labor,  rest;  the  transference  of  this  idea  to  the  first  day  of  the  week 
does  not  appear  in  the  teachings  of  Christ  nor  of  his  apostles.  Nor 
in  the  Council  of  Jerusalem,  when  the  most  important  decisions  are 
reached  relative  to  the  ground  of  union  of  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christ- 

'  ScliafT:  Ilist.  of  the  Christian  Church,  vol.  iii,  p.  .381.  Cod.  Theod.,  xv,  5,  2,  a. 
386:   "Niillus  Solis  die  populo  spectaculum  prsebat." 


THE   LORD'S   DAY,  OR   SUNDAY.  447 

ians,  is  one  word  found  respectinii;  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath. 
Contrariwise,  Paul  distinctly  warns  against  tlie  imposition  of 
burdens  upon  tlie  Chureli  respecting  days,  but  declares  for  a  con- 
scientious freedom  in  these  observances,  "  Let  every  man  be 
fully  i)ersuaded  in  his  own  mind"  (Kom.  xiv,  5,  6).  Still  more 
strongly  does  he  upbraid  the  Galatian  Church  for  putting  itself 
again  in  bondage  to  the  weak  and  beggarly  elements,  em  rd  daOevrj 
Kal  TTTCJXO'  OTOLxeia,  as  days,  months,  times,  and  years;  while  in  his 
letter  to  the  Colossians  (Col.  ii,  IG,  17)  he  speaks  of  the  entire  aboli- 
tion of  the  Jewish  Sabbath. 

From  all  the  passages  of  the  New  Testament  touching  this  ques- 
tion, it  is  plain  that  there  is  no  intimation  of  the  transference  of  the 
Sabbath  to  the  first  day  of  the  week,  nor  of  imposing  upon  Christ- 
ians the  obligation  to  observe  it  after  the  manner  of  the  Jewish 
Sabbath.  Rest  was  the  chief  thought  connected  with  the  one; 
joyous  activity  and  glad  worship  with  the  other.  Both  days  con- 
tinued to  be  observed  by  the  Jewish  Christians,  but  the  associations 
of  the  two  were  entirely  dissimilar.  Like  all  Christian  institutions 
which  have  been  examined,  the  first  day  of  the  week,  or  Sunday, 
came  to  be  hallowed  "  from  a  natural  fitness  of  things,"  and  not 
by  formal  apostolic  or  ecclesiastical  enactment.^ 

The  distinction  between  the  Jewish  Sabbath  and  the  Lord's  day 
is  repeatedly  set  forth  by  the  apostolic  fathers,  and  the  difference 
in  the  mode  of  observance.  In  the  Barnabas  letter  it  is  argued  that 
the  six  days  mentioned  in  Gen.  ii,  2,  signify  a  thousand  years  each. 
After  this  time  Christ,  by  the  overthrow  of  Antichrist,  will  reign  the 
seventh  thousand  years,  which  is  the  day  of  rest  mentioned  in  Gen- 
esis. The  rest  and  the  sanctification  of  the  real  Sabbath  will  be  the 
perfect  sanctification  of  believers,  and  the  working  of  righteousness. 
"  Wherefore,"  he  concludes,  "  we  keep  the  eighth  day  with  joyful- 
ness,  the  day,  also,  in  which  Jesus  rose  again  from  the  dead." " 

Justin  Martyr  is  very  clear  in  his  statements  relative  to  the  obli- 
gation and  observance  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath  and  of  the  j„stin's  opin- 
Lord's  day.  In  his  dialogue  with  the  Jew  Tryjihon,  '""• 
who  taunts  the  Christians  with  having  no  festivals  nor  Sabbaths, 
Justin  clearly  claims  that  Sunday  is  to  them  a  new  Sabbath,  and 
that  the  entire  Mosaic  law  has  been  abrogated.'  The  Thp  Mosaic  law 
new  law  binding  upon  Christians  regards  every  day  as  abrogated. 
a  Sabbath,  instead  of  passing  one  day  in  rest  or  absolute  idleness. 
He  further  claims  that  the  Sabbath  was  given  to  Israel  under  peculiar 

'v.  Barry:  art  "  Lord's  Da}',"  in  Sraiih  and  Clieetliam's  Dictionary  of  Christian 
Antiquities.,  p.  1043. 

2  c,  XV.  ^  Oum  Tryph.,  cc.  10,  11. 


448        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

c-iiriimstances,  and  lience  could  not  be  of  perpetual,  but  must  be  of  only 
temporaiy  obligation.'  This  temporary  character  of  the  command- 
nient  is  further  argued  from  the  fact  that  the  Sabbath  had  not  been 
instituted  at  the  beginning,  but  was  first  given  to  the  Jews  in  the 
wilderness.  As  prior  to  Abraham  circumcision  had  been  unnecessary, 
and  before  Moses  the  Sabbath  had  not  been  enjoined,  so  since  the 
comijig  of  the  Son  of  man  the  obligation  to  liallow  the  Sabbath  no 
longer  exists. 

Tertullian  claims  that  Adam,  Abel,  Enoch,  Noah,  Abraham,  and 
Tertuiiian's  Melchizedek  knew  nothing  of  a  Sabbath  da}^,^  and  that 
^'*^"'-  the  law  of  Moses  is  not  in  perpetuity,  but  only  of  tem- 

porary obligation.  The  cessation  from  labor  did  not  have  its 
ground  in  the  law  of  Moses,  but  came  from  the  consideration  that , 
the  joyous  festival  of  the  Lord's  day  should  not  be  marred  by  any 
thing  which  would  disturb  or  turn  the  thought  away  from  God,  and 
give  place  to  the  devil. ^  That  on  Sunday  the  Christians  stood  while 
jirayiiig,  and  did  not  fast,  find  their  explanation  in  the  fact  that  the 
day  of  the  resurrection  of  the  Lord  was  looked  upon  as  a  day  of  re- 
joicing and  triumph,^  and  that  such  practice  had  apostolic  sanction. 

With  respect  to  the  strictness  with  Avhicli  the  first  day  of  the 
week  was  observed  during  the  first  three  centuries,  the  following 
facts  are  important  to  notice.  Between  the  death  of  the  apostles 
and  the  edict  of  Milan,  the  Lord's  day  was  sanctified  by  a  Church 
unrecognised  by  the  state,  and  exposed  to  opposition  and  sometimes 
to  bitter  persecution.  The  motive  for  its  observance  was,  there- 
fore, i)urelv  moral  and  religious.     The  social  position  of 

Themotive  '^  •  _^_  i 

moral  aud  re-  the  early  Church,  drawing  its  members,  for  the  most 
part,  from  the  poorer  artisans,  traders,  and  slaves,  for- 
bade the  strict  and  general  keeping  of  the  Lord's  da}',  much  more 
of  both  the  Sabbath  and  Sunday.  Thus  the  universal  hallowing 
of  the  day  of  the  resurrection  was  impossible. 

True,  Tertullian  advised  Christians  to  postpone  all  business  until 
Provisions  for  ^""^'^^  ^'^^  ovQV,"  and  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  enjoin 
ohservanoe  of  that  the  Sabbath  and  the  Lord's  day  shall  be  observed  as 
festivals,^  "  because  the  former  is  the  memorial  of  the 
creation,  the  latter  of  the  resurrection ; "  that  the  slaves  work  five  days; 
that  on  the  Sabbath  day  and  the  Lord's  day  they  are  to  have  leisure 
to  go  to  church  for  instruction   in  religious  truth.'     But  it  is  quite 

'  Id.,  cc.  18,  19.  2  (7o,j  Judceos.  c.  4.  »  De  Oratore,  c.  23. 

*  De  Corona  Mil,  c.  ."?.     Irenjeiis:  Fra^j.,  c.  7.         ^  de  Oral,  c.  23.         «  1.  vii,  c.  23. 

"■  1.  viii,  c.  33.  Tlie  last  book  may  have  been  composed  after  the  publication  of 
the  edict  of  toleration.  The  mention  of  both  the  Subbath  and  the  Lord's  day  is 
evidence  of  the  Jevvish-Ciiristian  thouglit  which  characterizes  most  of  tliis  collection. 


THE    LORD'S  DAY,   OR   SUNDAY.  449 

incredible  that  tlie  large  body  of  Christians  could  absolutely 
cease  from  toil  during  two  days  of  the  week,  besides  attending 
other  festivals  which  had  been  instituted;  or  that  masters  would 
permit  slaves  and  dependents  to  desist  from  labor  for  so  large 
a  proportion  of  the  time,  especially  since  the  Christian  Church 
had  little  favor  with  the    heathen   world.      The   Chris- 

Iinposslbillty 

tians  in  the  the  third  century  being  very  largely  in  of  litcnu  ob- 
the  minority,  especially  outside  the  great  marts  of 
trade,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  all  could  secure  even  a  single 
day  of  the  seven  for  positive  and  continuous  cessation  from  toil. 
It  is  well  known  that  Christian  gatherings  took  place  at  night, 
and  it  is  probable  that  many  converts  of  the  servile  or  artisan 
classes  laboured  hard  on  the  seventh  and  first  days  in  order  to  be 
present  at  the  evening  assemblies  and  the  sacred  meal.'  While 
the  Jewish  Christians  still  adhered  with  great  tenacity  to  the 
observance  of  the  seventh  day,  in  the  estimate  of  the 

„         .,  ,  .  r.  ,  1    ,  11  ,      The       Gentile 

(rentile  converts  this,  at  nrst,  could  have  had  no  sucli  churches  un- 
sanctity  or  authoritative  sanction.  Converts  from  hea-  ^vu?]"the"oWu 
thenism,  who  had  had  little  previous  acquaintance  with    pation  to  keep 

,T'it-i'  111/-  •  •        Ibe  Lord's  day. 

the  Jewish  Scriptures,  were  probably,  tor  a  time,  not  in 
a  position  to  appreciate  the  form  and  obligation  of  the  fourth  com- 
mandment as  in  its  spirit  applying  to  the  Lord's  day.' 

Thus  the  recognition  of  two  days  was  found  in  the  churches 
composed  chiefly  of  Jewish  Christians,  while  in  the  Gentile-Christian 
churches  the  first  day  of  the  week  would  be  more  exclusively  celebrated. 
When  Tertullian  says,  "On  the  Lord's  day  every  one  of  ^he  fourth 
us  Christians  keeps  the  Sabbath,  meditating  in  the  law,   i-ommandmenr 

.    .  .     ^  °    .  .  not  the  basis  of 

and  rejoicing  in   the  Avorks  of  God,"  there  is  noticed   Lord's  day  ob- 
tliat  adherence  to  a  practical  rule  which  was  character- 
istic  of   the   Western   mind,   but  no  inclination   to    sabbatize    the 
Lord's  day  by  deriving  the  obligation   for  its  observance  from  the 
fourth   commandment.'     Notwithstanding   the   beginnings   of   the 

'  Cunningliam  :    The  Groioth  of  the  Church,  p.  281. 

-  V.  Uigjj:  Th<'  Sabbath  and  the  Sal>bath  Law  be/ore  and  after  Christ,  London,  1869, 
p.  45. 

*  "It  is  ver}'  suggestive  lliat  in  tlic  Scriptures  tlie  repose  of  God  after  creation  is 
made  tlie  prototype  iind  basis  for  the  celebration  of  tiie  vSabbatli  (Gen.  ii,  :? :  Kxo<l. 
XX,  8,  seq.).  It  is  tlierefore  implied  that  it  is  our  innermost  Godlikeness  that  calls 
for  the  rest  of  the  Sabl)ath — tiie  tnilj'  rational,  religiously  moral  es.sence  of  man.  and 
not  the  mere  natural  need  of  repose  and  enjoyment.  .  .  .  God  blessed  tl;e  Sabbath 
day;  there  rests  upon  its  observance  a  special,  an  extraordinary  benediction,  an  im- 
partation  of  heavenly  goods,  even  as  tiie  blessing  upon  labour  is  piimarily  only  an 
impartation  of  temporal  goods.  The  Sabbath  has  not  merely  a  negative  signilicancv, 
is  not  a  mere  interruption  of  labour,  but  it  has  a  very  rich  positive  signiflcancy — it  is 
29 


450        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OP  EARLY  CHURCH. 

sacerdotal  principle  are  found  in  Tertullian's  writings,  and  its  com- 
plete triumph  was  realized  under  Cyprian,  there  is  by  neither  of  these 
fathers  any  distinct  recognition  of  the  fourth  commandment  as  the 
ground  and  reason  of  hallowing  the  day  of  the  Lord's  resurrection. 

The  Alexandrian  school,  as  represented  by  Clement  of  Alexandria 
and  Origen,  more  strongly  presents  the  spiritual  view  of 
school  '  more  the  Lord's  day.  In  his  argument  with  Celsus,  Origen 
spiritual.  claims  that  true  Christians  make  all  days  Lord's  days; 

yet  in  other  writings  he  exalts  the  first  day  over  the  seventh,  as 
symbolic  of  a  continuous  Sabbath  of  rest. 

In  the  midst  of  the  corrupting  influences  of  heathenism,  and  on 
,  account  of  the  widespread  indifference  of  the  Church  of 

Reasons    of  ^  i  /■  i         r. 

seekinK  a  lepai  the  third  century,  after  the  ardor  of  her  first  love  had 
sanction.  cooled,  the  Christian  teachers  felt  the  necessity  of  bring- 

ing some  stress  of  authority  upon  the  Christian  conscience  to  hold 
it  to  the  faithful  observance  of  the  first  day,  as  the  Jews  had  known 
the  power  of  a  positive  enactment  in  keeping  them  steadfast  in  the 
hallowing  of  their  Sabbath.  The  constant  temptation  of  the  Christ- 
ians to  attend  upon  the  heathen  spectacles  and  festivities  could,  in 
the  case  of  such  whose  type  of  piety  was  low,  no  longer,  as  at  first, 
be  broken  by  considerations  of  the  high  privileges  of  Christian  wor- 
ship, and  of  the  commemoration  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  but 
the  restraints  coming  from  a  quasi-legal  enactment  were  found  to  be 
more  and  more  necessary.  Thus  while  the  Christian  fathers  of  the 
second  and  third  centuries  are  in  entire  accord  in  teaching  that  the 
first  day  of  the  Aveek,  the  Lord's  day,  is  that  which  Christians  should 
This  ancuon  ^^^'^^^'^te,  there  is,  nevertheless,  noticed  during  the  un- 
is  of  apostolic  fortunate  times  of  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  a  growing 

tendency  to  enforce  the  observance  of  Sunday  by  con- 
siderations somewhat  similar  to  those  recognised  under  the  Mosaic 
dispensation  and  by  the  Jewish  Christians;  yet  the  obligation 
comes  not  from  the  fourth  commandment,  but  from  the  apostolic 
The  Christian  institution  of  the  Lord's  day.  Nor  is  there  any  evidence 
no  referencrto  ^^^^  ^^^^  Christian  emperors,  from  Constantine  to  Jus- 
tht!  fourth  com-    tinian,  in  their  edicts  for  the  observance  and  regulation 

of  Sunday,  were  influenced  by  the  Jewish  law.     During 

the  piving  free  scope  to  the  higher,  time-transcend iiig  nature  of  the  rational,  Godlike 
spirit,  the  reattaching  of  the  spirit  tliat  iiad  been  immersed  bv  labour  into  tlie  tem- 
poral to  the  imperishable  and  to  the  divine. '.  .  .  Tiie  celebration  of  tlie  Sabbath 
belongs  to  morality,  per  se,  and  does  not  depend  on  the  fact  of  the  state  of  redemp- 
tion from  sinfulness;  hut  where  sin  is  yet  a  dominant  power,  th'  re  its  observance  is 
less  free,  legally  more  strict,  than  where  the  freedom  of  the  children  of  God  prevails." 
Wulke:   Christian  Ethics,  trans,  by  Lacroix,  New  York,  1873,  vol.  ii,  pp.  213,  214. 


THE  LORD'S   DAY,  OR  SUNDAY.  451 

the  first  six  centuries  there  are  few  if  any  instances  of  their  direct 
appeal  to  the  fourth  commandment.  Neither  can  many  passages 
in  the  Christian  writers,  nor  any  conciliary  decision,  be  quoted  in 
which  the  authority  for  keeping  the  first  day  of  the  week  is  de- 
rived fi*om  the  Mosaic  law. 

Nevertheless,  from  the  time  of  the  attempts  of  the  emperors  to 
adjust  the  civil  conditions  to  the  recognition  of  Sunday  ^^^  ^^^  i 
as  the  chief  religious  holiday,  the  sense  of  obligation  view  suppiant- 
to  keep  sacred  the  first  day  of  the  week,  coming  from 
legal  enactment,  more  and  more  supplanted  the  consideration  of 
the  high  and  joyful  privilege  which  had  animated  the  Christian 
Church  during  the  first  years  of  its  activity.  From  the  last  part  of 
the  sixth  century  the  strict  legalistic  view  becomes  more  and  more 
prominent,  and  the  rulers  in  State  and  Church  incline  to  strengthen 
the  civil  and  conciliary  enactments  respecting  the  Lord's  day  by 
divine  authority  as  contained  in  the  fourth  commandment.' 

'  The  sabbath  hterature  is  of  immense  volume.  Since  the  Reformation  tlie  dis- 
cussions upon  the  nature  and  obligation  of  the  Sabbath  have  been  many  and  ex- 
haustive. The  following  are  thorough  and  scholarly:  Bingham:  Antiquities  of  the 
Christian  Church,  bk.  xx,  chap.  ii.  Binterim:  Benkiviirdiykeiien  der  Ghrist-Kath- 
olischen  Kirche,  vol.  v,  1.  c.  1.  Heylin:  History  of  the  Sabbath.  Hessey:  Sunday:  Its 
Origin,  History,  and  Present  Oblif/otion,  Bampton  Lectures,  London,  1860.  Gilfillan: 
The  Sabbath  Viewed  in  the  Light  of  Reason,  Revelation,  and  History,  New  York,  1862. 
Probst:  Kirchliche  Disciplin  der  drei  ersten  Jahrhunderte,  Bd.  iii,  1.  Cox:  The  Liter- 
ature on  the  Sabbath  Question,  Edinburgh,  1865.  Barry  :  "  The  Lord's  Day,"  in  Smith 
and  Cheetham's  Dictionary  of  Ch.  Antiquities,  vol.  ii,  pp.  1042-1053.  Zockler: 
"  Sonntagsfeier,"  in  Herzog  u.  Plitt's  Real-Eacykhpddie,  Bd.  xiv,  ss.  428-435. 


453        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CliUiXIL. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

EASTER     AND     OTHER     FESTIVALS. 

§  1.  Idea  and  Time  of  Observance. 

Besides  the  weekly  observance  of  Sabbath  and  the  Lord's  day, 
the  Passover,  with  which  the  passion  and  resurrection 

The    Influence  ^,     .  .      .  ,  •         ,  .  i 

of  the  Jewish  of  Christ  were  so  intimately  associated,  continued  to 
passover.  exert  a  very  considerable  influence  upon  Christians  of 

Jewish  origin.  This  great  festival,  however,  soon  obtained  an 
exclusively  Christian  significance,  and  became  a  proper  Christian 
Passover,  especially  in  churches  composed  of  converts  from 
heathenism,  to  whom  Jewish  institutions  were  largely  matters  of 
indifference.  All  Christians  alike  agreed  in  the  propriety  of  the 
yearly  celebration  of  the  great  events  which  were  regarded  as 
the  most  important  in  the  history  of  redemption.  Respecting  the 
significance  of  these  facts  there  was  no  difference  of  opinion;  to 
keep  alive  the  remembrance  of  the  passion,  death,  and  resurrection 
of  the  Lord  was  regarded  by  all  alike  as  a  high  privilege  and  an 
imperative  duty.  The  commemoration  of  the  resurrection  soon 
became  the  most  important  event  of  Holy  Week,  and  is  now  known 
as  Easter. 

At  an  early  date,  probably  in  the  first  half  of  the  second  century, 
Controversy  a  difference  of  opinion  arose  as  to  the  proper  time  of 
of'^observing'*^  Commemorating  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  consequenth^ 
Easter.  respecting  the  time  of  observing  the  related  events  of 

the  institution  of  the  eucharist  and  of  the  crucifixion.  Pi-obably 
this  controversy  may  be  ultimately  traced  to  the  diversity  of  opin- 
ion in  the  churches  of  Jewish  and  Gentile  origin  respecting  the  ob- 
ligations of  the  Mosaic  institutions.'  One  party,  the  Christians  of 
Asia  Minor  and  a  few  others,  adhered  strictly  to  the  tradition 
respecting  the  time  of  celebrating  the  passover  by  Christ  and 
his  apostles  just  before  the  crucifixion.  Llence  they  uniformly 
The  Judaizinff  observed  the  Christian  passover  on  the  fourteenth  day  of 
party.  ^j^g  month  Nisan,  which  was  the  first  month  of  the  sacred 

year  of  the  Jews.  This  was  observed  as  a  fast.  In  the  evening  of 
the  same  day,  Roman  time,  but  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 

'  w.  Renan  :  Marc-Aurele,  pp.  194,  195. 


EASTER  AND   OTHER  FESTIVALS.  453 

Nisan,  Jewish  time,  they  partook  of  the  communion,  to  commemo- 
rate the  last  paschal  supper  of  Christ.  The  beginning  of  the  festival 
might  fall  upon  an}^  day  of  the  week;  only  it  had  a  fixed  date,  the 
fourteenth  Nisan,'  and  this  day  regulated  the  entire  Easter  festival. 
A  second  party,  of  which  the  Roman  Church  was  the  leader,  cel- 
ebrated the  crucifixion  of  Christ  on  Friday,  the  day  of  The  western 
the  week  on  which  it  actually  occurred.  The  Sunday  p^'^''^- 
following  was  observed  as  Easter,  or  the  day  of  the  resurrection. 
They  extended  the  fast  from  Friday  till  Easter  day,  and  did 
not  celebrate  the  eucharist  before  the  festival  of  the  resurrection. 
By  this  arrangement  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of  Christ  always 
fell  upon  Friday,  and  that  of  the  resurrection  on  Sunday;  yet  the 
feast  was  not  fixed,  as  in  the  other  case,  but  movable.  Hence  the 
Christian  Sunday,  or  the  day  of  resurrection,  and  not  the  Jewish 
paschal  day,  regulated  the  Easter  festival. 

§  2.  Attempts  to  Reconcile  Diffcreiices. 

The  controversy  respecting  Easter  had  no  reference  to  its  doctrinal 
import;  herein  all  Christians  were  essentially  agreed,  xhe  import  of 
It  was  rather,  as  before  said,  a  question  of  adherence  to,  ^''''  question. 
or  independence  of  Judaism,  and  of  harmonizing  the  practice  of  the 
Christian  world  in  the  commemoration  of  the  most  important  events 
in  the  Saviour's  earthly  mission.  The  fierceness  of  the  controversy 
threatened  the  peace  and  unity  of  the  Church.  Xear  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  Polycarp,  the  venerable  Bishop  of  Smyrna,  vis- 
ited Rome  in  the  interests  of  peace,  and  had  an  inter-  Attempts  at 
view  with  its  bishop,  Anicetus.*  The  attempt  to  unify  reconciliation, 
the  churches  was  unsuccessful,  although  a  spirit  of  mutual  charity 
was  promoted.  About  twenty  years  later  the  question  was  again 
debated  in  Laodicea  between  the  Quarto-decimanians  and  their 
opponents.  No  rui>ture  occurred  because  of  the  mutual  forbear- 
ance of  the  parties.  But  the  controversy  continued.  ToAvard  the 
close  of  the  second  century  the  Roman  bishop,  Victor,  The  demand  of 
attempted  to  interfere  with  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor,  victor. 
by  commanding  them  to  desist  from  their  mode  of  celebrating 
Easter.  To  this  demand  the  synod  of  Asia  Minor,  which  met  at 
Ephesus,  made  a  most  spirited  reply  through  Polycrates,  bishop 
of   that  city,  appealing  in  defense  of  their  rule  to  the  traditions 

'  Eupebins:  ITist.  Eccles.,  v,  c.  23.  "It  was  incumbent  on  them,  at  all  times,  to 
make  an  end  of  the  fast  on  this  daj%  on  w?iatcver  day  of  the  week  it  should  happen 
to  fHll."     Also  Hippolytus:  Philosophumena,  \\\\,  c.  18. 

*  V.  Eusebius:  Hist.  Eccles.,  v,  c.  24. 


454        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

which  had  come  down  to  them  from  the  apostles  John  and  Philip, 
as  well  as  from  the  venerable  Polycarp.  To  sustain 
The  arguments.  ^^^^.^^  practice,  the  church  of  Rome  and  its  adherents 
among  the  Eastern  churches  quoted  the  traditions  received  from 
the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul.  The  schism,  which  seemed  immi- 
nent on  the  threat  of  Victor  to  excommunicate  the  Quarto-deci- 
Good  offices  of  manians,  was  happily  prevented  by  the  good  offices  of 
irenajus.  the  other  bisliops,  especially  of  Irenaeus,  Bishop  of  Lyons. 

While  of  the  party  of  Victor,  he  claimed  that  no  difference  of 
opinion,  where  an  essential  dogma  of  Christianity  was  not  involved, 
could  justify  the  jeoparding  of  the  peace  of  the  Church  and  the 
extreme  penalty  of  excommunication. 

The  Council  of  Aries,  A.  D.  314,  and  the  Council  of  Nice,  A.  D. 
conciUary  de-  ^25,  decided  in  favor  of  the  Roman  rule,  and  those  who 
cisions.  refused  to  accede  to  this  decision  were  regarded  as  here- 

tics. The  rule  promulgated  by  the  latter  council  was  that  Easter 
Rule  for  ceie-  should  be  celebrated  on  the  first  Sunday  following  the 
bration.  gj-st   full   moon   after   the  vernal    equinox,    and   must 

always  come  after  the  Jewish  passover.  If,  however,  the  full  moon 
occurs  on  a  Sunday,  Easter  falls  on  the  Sunday  after.  Thus  the 
time  of  this  festival  may  vary  from  March  21  to  April  25.  This 
was  probably  the  substance  of  the  Nicene  decisions.' 

This  conciliary  decision  did  not,  however,  settle  the  differences  in 
the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  owing  to  the  different  astronom- 
ical cycles  employed  for  the  calculation  of  Easter.  The  cycles 
aimed  to  discover  a  period  which  should  contain  an  exact  number  of 
Different  cy-  lunar  months  and  of  tropical  yeai's.  Many  cycles  were 
cies.  proposed,  as  one  of  eight  years,  of  nineteen  years  (the 

Metonic),  of  seventy-six  years  (the  Calippic),  one  of  one  hundred 
and  twelve  years,  engraved  on  the  side  of  the  chair  in  the  statue  of 
Hippolytus  (v.  Fig.  50),  one  of  eighty-four  years,  which  was  a  modi- 
fication of  the  Calippic,  etc.  The  diversity  of  cycles  resulted  in  a  cor- 
responding difference  in  reckoning  the  Easter  Sunday.^     Since  the 

'  Tlie  decisions  of  the  Nicene  Council  are  not  quite  clearly  stated  in  any  single  au- 
thority ;  they  must  be  gathered  from  several  sources,  and  have  not  been  entirely 
unquestioned. 

^  The  recent  works  occasioned  by  the  bearing  of  the  Easter  controversy  upon  the 
criticism  of  the  gospels,  especially  John,  are  quite  numerous  and  important.  Among 
the  ablest  may  be  mentioned  Hilgenfeld:  Dei-  Paschastreit  der  alien  Kirche  nach  seiner 
Bedeutunrf  fiir  die  Kirchmgeschichte,  etc.,  Halle,  1860.  Steitz:  In  the  Studien  u.  Krit- 
iken,  1856,  1857,  1859.  Schiirer:  Die  Paschastreiten  des  2ten  Jahrhunderts,  1870.  For 
matliematical  computations  see  especially  Ideler :  Handhuch  der  Math,  und  tech.  Chro- 
nologic, Brcslau,  1825.  De  Rossi:  Inscriptiones  Christ,  urhis  RoincB,  Introduction,  gives 
valuable  discussions. 


EASTER    AND    OTHER    FESTIVALS.  455 

Alexandrian  Chiircli  fixed  the  vernal  equinox  on  the  21st  of  March, 
while  with  the  Romans  it  fell  on  March  18,  it  is  evident  that  there 
must  have  been  a  diversity  in  the  observance  of  Easter  Sunday. 
This  diversity  has  not  yet  disappeared,  since  the  Eastern  Church 
has  never  adopted  the  improved  Gregorian  calendar.' 

§  3.    The  Ceremoniea  of  Easter. 

To  understand  these  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  Easter  was 
the  central  point  of  the  paschal  season,  which  very  early  two  divisions 
extended  over  a  period  of  fifteen  days.  The  first  week  «'  ""^  festival, 
was  designated  Trdaxa  oravQUiaiiiov,  or  the  passover  of  the  cross;  the 
second  week,  ndaxa  dvaardaifiov,  or  the  passover  of  the  resurrection. 
While  not  of  apostolic  institution,  this  observance  of  Easter  was 
earl}^  introduced  into  the  Church.  TertuUian  seems  to  recognise  its 
celebration,*  and  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  represent  it  as  quite 
general.  The  ndtrxa  oravpojtji^ov  was  usually  kept  as  a  strict  fast, 
from  midnight  of  the  previous  Sunday  (Palm  Sunday)  till  cock- 
crowing  on  Easter  morn.  On  Good  Friday,  the  day  of  crucifix- 
ion, the  fast  was  continued  be\'ond  midnight  of  the  fol-  Manner  of  ou. 
lowing  day;  the  kiss  of  peace  was  prohibited,  the  orna-  servanco. 
ments  of  the  altar  were  removed;  the  lights  were  extinguished;  no 
chanting  was  allowed  in  the  processions;  there  was  no  consecration 
of  the  eucharist;  the  collects  were  mostly  intercessor^^ 

As  the  Easter  morn  drew  near,  the  signs  of  sorrow  and  mourning 
were  laid  aside,  the  lamps  and  tajiers  were  lighted,  Promsorrowto 
and  a  scene  of  darkness  and  mourning  was  succeeded  pi'^dness. 
by  one  of  splendour  and  gladness.  Prayer,  supplication,  the  singing 
of  psalms  and  hj^mns,  the  reading  of  appropriate  Scripture  lessons, 
and  homilies  from  the  clergy  occupied  the  hours  of  the  evening  and 
night.  The  Easter  Sunday,  from  Easter  eve  to  the  evening  of 
Easter  day,  was  one  continuous  celebration  of  the  resurrection.  The 
Scripture  readings  included  the  entire  resurrection  history;  the  joy 

'  Kaltenbnuiner:  Rfal-Encyklopndie  der  Christlirhpn  Alffrthiimer.  article  "Ostorn." 
Bii.  i,  s.  5G3,  seq.,  divides  tlie  Easter  controversies  into  tliree  periods-  1st.  The 
theologico-do<i:niatic,  reaeliinsr  to  the  Council  of  Nice.  A.  D.  3'i5.  2d.  The  astronorn- 
ico-chronolop:ic,  from  A.  D.  S'i.'S  to  the  time  of  Dionysius  Kxipriina,  A.  D.  525. 
.3d.  From  A.  D.  525  to  the  time  of  the  Venerable  Bede.  about  the  middle  of  the  eigrhih 
century,  during  wliich  the  rule  accepted  by  the  Catholic  Church  was  in  conflict  witli 
the  various  peculiarities  of  the  provinces.  For  the  theolop:ian  the  first  is  of  especial 
interest,  ou  accoiuit  of  the  connection  of  these  controversies  with  the  criticism  of  the 
evanijelists.  The  second  and  third  nro  more  important  to  tjic  historiau,  because  they 
are  indispensable  to  the  solutiou  of  chronological  queslious, 

'  ad  Uxor.,  ii,  c.  4. 


456         SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH, 

of  the  people  was  unrestrained;  all  labour  was  suspended.    After  the 
recognition   of   Christianity   by  the   empire,   prisoners 
m  r  y.  ^^^.^  ^f^gjj  j-eleased,  debtors  forgiven,  and  slaves  manu- 
mitted.    The  entire  week  was  thus  considered  a  season  of  uninter- 
rupted rejoicing. 

By  degrees  the  fast  preparatory  to  Easter  Sunday  was  lengthened, 
Lengthenedob-  until,  probably  about  the  time  of  Constantine,  it  reached 
servance.  forty  days  (Quadragesima,  Lent).     The  rejoicings  were 

also  continued  through  the  whole  period  of  fifty  days   (Quinqua- 
gesima)  from  Easter  to  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Whitsunday).' 


§  4.   The  Festival  of  Pentecost. 

The  tenn  Pentecost  was  used  by  the  ancient  Church  in  two  senses: 
one  had  reference  to  the  fiftieth  day  after  the  resur- 

TwOUSeSOfthe  ,  .   r^^      •  1  1         TT    1        CI     •     •  -I 

word  Pente-  rection  oi  Christ,  when  the  Holy  opirit  was  poured  out 
*^'^^^'  upon  the  infant  Church;  the  other  included  the  whole 

period  between  Easter  and  Whitsuntide,  which  was  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  rejoicings  of  Easter.  Used  in  the  latter  sense  it 
was  called  Quinquagesima.  During  the  fifty  days  the  eucharist  was 
Mode  of  obser-  celebrated  dailj^  fasting  was  forbidden,  and  the  congre- 
vance.  gation  Stood  while  pra^^ing.    Also  from  the  fifth  century 

the  Lord's  ascension  was  observed  on  the  fortieth  da^^  his  various 
manifestations  to  his  disciples  after  the  resurrection  were  recalled, 
and,  as  a  crowning  glory,  the  baptism  of  the  Holy  Spirit  was  com- 
memorated on  Whitsunday,  the  final  day  of  the  Easter  period. 
This  being  the  last  great  festival  of  the  year,  the  Sundays  following 
until  Advent  were  reckoned  therefrom. 


§  5.    The  Feasts  of  Epiphany,  Christmas,  etc. 

After  the  union  of  Church  and  State  feasts  and  festivals  were 
Multiplication  .^^''^^tl^'-  multiplied,  and  occupied  a  large  place  in  the  re- 
of  fPiists  and  ligious  services.  This  was  in  obedience  to  a  law  of  the 
spiritual  life,  that  when  piety  is  waning  forms  and  cere- 
monies are  substituted,  and  become  more  highly  valued. 

The  feast  of  the  Epiphany  was  usually  observed  on  the  6th  of 

Original  ffistt-  '^f^^'iuary,  to  commemorate  Christ's  manifestation  in  the 

vai  of  Epiph-  flesh.     At  first  this  included  his  advent  and  baptism, 

but  later,  when  Christmas  became  a  regularly  observed 

festival,  it  was  confined  to  his  baptism.     The  date  of  the  birth  of 

Probably  so  ca'lcd  from  tlic  custom  of  newly  baptized  persons  appearing  in  white 
clotliing  from  Easter  day  to  Whitsunday. 


EASTER   AND   OTHER   FESTIVALS.  457 

Christ    it   is  impossible  to  determine.      Neither  in    the    Scripture 
record  nor  in  the  patristic  literature  are  found  sufficient   „  .    .^^  . ., 

.  ^ .  ,  .  .  DateofChnsts 

data  for  solving  this  problem.     The  birth  of  Christ  had    b  i  r  ui    un- 

been  placed  on  the  25th  of  December  by  the  Church  of   '"'""'°- 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries;  but  the  reasons  for  this  decision  can- 
not be  satisfactorily  determined. 

There  is  equal  uncertainty  respecting  the  origin  of  the  Christmas 
festival.  Numerous  theories  have  been  advocated,  but  none  are 
universally  accepted.  Many  circumstances  point  to  its  origin  in  the 
attempted  christianization  of  various  heathen  festivals   „ 

i  Supposed    (111- 

which  were  celebrated  on  or  near  the  25th  of  December,  pin  of  the  fes- 
Tf  this  supposition  is  well  founded,  its  origin  must  have  '^'^ ' 
been  subsequent  to  the  recognition  of  Christianity  by  the  State;  since 
the  well  known  hostility  of  the  ante-Nicene  fathers  to  the  heathen 
festivals  would  have  absolutely  forbidden  a  syncretism  of  rites  so 
abhorrent.  But  the  general  decline  of  spiritual  life  during  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries,  and  the  reception  of  multitudes  into  the  Church 
who  M^ere  moved  by  no  higher  motives  than  popularity  or  worldly 
interest,  prepared  the  Christian  Church  to  connect  with  low  type  of 
her  own  festivals  those  derived  from  the  heathen  cultus  spirituality. 
which  might  appear  to  have  symbolic  reference  to  the  life  and  work 
of  Christ.  Such  were  the  Saturnalia,  Sigillaria,  Juvenalia,  and 
Brumalia,  which  were  celebrated  in  the  month  of  December  to  com- 
memorate the  golden  age  of  freedom  and  equality,  also  in  honour  of 
the  unconquered  sun,  which  renewed  its  strength  at  the  winter  sol- 
stice. 

The  laboured  investigations  given  to  this  subject  have  quite  firmly 
established  the  following  conclusions: 

1.  Until  near  the  close  of  the  fourth   century  the  Nativity  was 
celebrated  in  the  Oriental  churches  in   connection  with        conriusions 
the    Ejiiphany,    or   on    January   6  —  this   custom    con-        readied, 
tinning  in  many  parts  of  the  East  for  a  century  or  more  later. 

2.  From  a  much  earlier  date  the  Nativity  Avas  celebrateci  in  the 
Western  churches  on  December  25,  and  it  occui)ies  an  important 
place  in  the  most  ancient  liturgies.  It  is,  however,  impossible  to 
tix  the  date  when  the  change  from  January  6  to  December  25  was 
made. 

8.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  December  25  was 
quite  generally  recognised  as  the  day  for  the  celebration  of  the  Na- 
tivity, and  was  counted  among  the  most  important  festivals  of  the 
Christian  year. 

4.  There  was  a  growing  tendency  to  recognise  days  of  preparation 
for  its  celebration,  as  Christmas  vigils,  and,  later,  four  advent  Sun- 


458        SACRAMENTS  AND  WORSHIP  OF  EARLY  CHURCH. 

clays  in  the  West,  and  six  advent  Sundays  in  the  East,  as  means  for 
awakening  a  desire  for  the  coming  Redeemer,  Likewise,  the  season 
between  Christmas  and  Epiphany  was  afterward  filled  up  with  feast 
days,  each  designed  to  recall  the  memory  of  some  person  or  event 
connected  with  the  Nativity,  as  St.  Stephen's  day,  December  26; 
St.  John's  day  (the  evangelist),  December  27;  and  the  Innocents, 
December  28. 

When  Mariolatry  came  to  be  practised  by  the  Church  of  the  fifth 
Influence  of  ^^^^^  following  centuries,  there  gathered  round  this  cul- 
Marioiatry.  ^xis  a  great  number  of  festivals  in  honour  of  the  Virgin, 
commemorating  many  real  or  apocryphal  events  in  her  life.  This 
worship  assumed  such  prominence  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  almost  to 
supersede  that  paid  to  Christ  himself.  Also  the  multiplication  of 
saints,  and  especiall}^  the  canonization  of  those  who  had  suffered 
martyrdom  during  the  trying  periods  of  the  history  of  the  Church, 
greatly  multiplied  the  number  of  feasts  and  festivals,  until  almost 
the  entire  year  was  devoted  to  some  event  in  the  lives  of  these  who 
received  the  homage  of  a  Church  from  which  the  earnest  spirit  of 
piety  had  largely  departed. 


BOOK  FOURTH. 


Arch.?:ology  of  Christian  Life. 


THE 

ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  CHRISTIAX    FAMILY. 

"  God  setteth  the  solitary  in  families  "  (Psa.  Ixviii,  6).     The  fam- 
ily is  the  initial  state,  or  contains  it  in  fferm.    It  is  often 

1        1        ci      •  .      ,  ,  rr^  The    family    ii 

made  the  bcnpture  type  ot  tlie  Clmrch.  The  Church  type  of  the 
begins  with  the  first  true  worsliip  in  the  household.  ^^""'''• 
The  love,  the  confidence,  the  tender  care  of  each  for  the  other,  which 
should  characterize  the  family,  are  often  used  to  illustrate  the  com- 
munity of  interest  felt  by  the  individual  members  of  the  Church, 
and  tlie  intimacy  of  the  relations  of  Christ  to  his  Church  (Rev.  xix, 
6-10;  xxi,  9). 

Tile  stability  and  purity  of  the  Church  and  State  have  been  pro- 
portionate to  the  popular  and  legal  estimate  of  the  sanctity  and  sta- 
l)ility  of  the  marriage  relationship.  The  presence  of  Christ  at  the 
wedding  in  Cana  of  Galilee,  where  he  performed  his  chrisfs  sanc- 
tirst  miracle  to  contribute  to  the  rejoicings  of  the  occa-  '^'*^"- 
sion  (Jolm  ii,  7,  seq.),  happily  illustrates  the  feeling  and  teaching  of 
C^hristianity  with  respect  to  marriage.  Christ  is  explicit  in  his 
inculcation  of  the  divine  origin  and  sacredness  of  this  institution.  It 
is  more  than  filial  duty;  it  is  unifying;  the  twain  become  one  through 
the  purity  and  intensity  of  a  mutual  love;  common  interests  are  ne- 
cessitated by  common  affection  (Matt,  xix,  5,  (5;  Eph.  v,  :51).  The 
teaching  of  the  founder  of  the  new  religion,  that  only  one  pmnnd  of 
one  single  ground  of  divorce  is  lawful,  alike  distin-  divorce, 
guished  his  followers  from  both  Jews  and  heathen  of  his  day.  lie 
revolutionized  society  by  giving  to  the  family  a  sure  foundation, 
and  by  the  elevation  of  woman  to  be  the  true  companion  and  e(|ual 
of  man. 

The   example  of  Peter  (Matt,  viii,  14;  ^lark  i,  30;   Luke  iv,  .'?s), 
and  the  express  teaching  of  New  Testament  writers  (1  Tim.  v,  14; 


462  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

Heb.  xiii,  4;  1  Tim.  iv,  3),  are  in  harmony  with  the  conduct  of 
Christ  respecting  the  sanctity  of  the  marriage  relation.  Moreover, 
Paul's  teach-  the  counsel  of  Paul  to  the  Corinthian  Church,  evidently 
ini?    hanmmi-   •     j.gp|y  ^q  their  request,  is  entirely  consistent  with  the 

ous  with   that  i    -^  ~      ,     \.t  m  tt  i 

of  Christ.  general  doctrme  of  the  New   lestament.      He  guards 

marriage  so  carefully  that  even  to  those  who  are  joined  to  unbeliev- 
ers the  advice  is  given  not  to  disturb  their  relationships  except  by 
mutual  consent  and  for  mutual  good.' 

This  remained  the  teaching  of  the  Church  for  two  hundred  and 
fifty  years.     The  Pauline  doctrine  of  expediency  as  to 

Teaching  of  ^  y  i      ^   .i  a    a    4-         f  V  i       i, 

the  apostolic  marriage,  and  or  the  sacred  duty  of  parties  who  have 
fathers.  entered  into  the  marriage  union  to  remain  faithful  to 

each  other,  is  clearly  recognised  by  the  apostolic  fathers  and  their 
immediate  followers.  In  the  epistle  to  Diognetus  the  author  speaks 
of  the  manners  of  the  Christians,  and  institutes  compari- 
sons and  contrasts  between  these  and  the  heathen  cus- 
toms. "  For  they  neither  inhabit  cities  of  their  own,  nor  employ  a 
peculiar  kind  of  speech,  nor  lead  a  life  which  is  marked  out  by  any 
singularity.  .  .  .  They  dwell  in  their  own  countries,  but  simply  as 
sojourners.  As  citizens  they  share  in  all  things  with  others,  and 
yet  endure  all  things  as  if  foreigners.  Every  foreign  land  is  to  them 
as  their  native  country,  and  every  land  of  their  birth  as  a  land  of 
strangers.  They  marry  as  do  all;  they  beget  children;  but  they  do 
not  destroy  their  offspring.  They  have  a  common  table,  but  not  a 
common  bed.  They  are  in  the  flesh,  but  they  do  not  live  after  the 
flesh." ' 

Likewise  in  the  epistle  to  Polycarp,  Ignatius  retains  the  Pauline 
itrnatius's  ad-  spirit  in  recognising  the  doctrine  of  expediency  with  re- 
^'*'*-  spect   to   marriage,  but  is  very  rigid  with  regard    to 

the  sacredness  of  this  relationship  when  once  entered  into,  and  with 
respect  to  the  duty  of  mutual  helpfulness.  "  Speak  to  my  sisters, 
that  they  love  the  Lord,  and  be  satisfied  with  their  husbands  both 
in  the  flesh  and  spirit.  In  like  manner,  also,  exhort  my  brethren,  in 
the  name  of  Jesus  Christ,  that  they  love  their  wives,  even  as  the 
Lord  the  Church.  .  .  .  Let  all  things  be  done  to  the  honour  of  God."  ' 

'  There  is  no  real  contradiction  in  the  teachings  of  1  Cor.  vii.     No  rigid  law  can  be 

hnposed.     "  I  have  no  commandment  of  the  Lord  "  (ver.  25) ;  the  cir- 
Expediency         „        ^  r       .  ,      ,    ,  ,.  „  .     , 

the  law.  cnmstances  of  oacii  mnst  govern  each  ;   "  tlie  present  distress"  is  the 

key  to  the  whole  teaching;  if  one  lias  power  of  selfcontrol,  then,  in 

tiie  present  circumstances' of  peril,  celibac}'  may  be  best;  but  if  not,  owing  to  the 

fearful  temptations  of  Corinthian  society,  marriage  is  advisable.     But  when  marriage 

has  been  entered  into,  duty  is  plain  ;   no  separation,  even  for  a  season,  is  permitted 

except  by  mutual  consent.     The  rights  of  husband  and  wife  are  reciprocal. 

2  Ad  DiojneL,  c.  v.  3  ^^  Poiyc.^  c.  v. 


THE   CHRISTIAN   FAMILY.  463 

In  his  apology  to  tlic  onii»ei-or  and  senate,  Justin  Martyr  is  no 
less  explicit  in  his  interpretation  and  enforeement  of 
Christ*s  teachings.  He  especially  dwells  ui)()n  the  law  "*'^ "  Martyr, 
of  adultery  and  divorce,  as  given  by  Christ,  to  show  the  opinion 
and  practice  of  the  Christians.  This  is  so  opposed  to  the  law  of 
the  heathen  government  that  the  apologist  claims  that  he  knew 
of  men  and  women  of  sixty  or  seventy  years  of  age  who  have 
continued  pure  during  all  their  lives;  "and  I  boast  that  I  could  pro- 
duce such  from  every  race  of  men."  '  He  also  adds,  what  is  conso- 
nant with  the  Pauline  teaching,  "  But  whether  we  marry,  it  is  only 
tliat  we  may  bring  up  children;  or  whether  we  decline  marriage,  we 
live  continently." 

The  early  Romans  far  excelled  the  Greeks  in  their  respect  for  and 
honour  of  woman.     Yet  among  the  former  she  was  ab-   „     .  , 

.  /..  Posltionof 

solutely  destitute  of  rights  apart  from  her  husband,  woman  amouK 
while  with  the  latter  she  was  usually  the  veriest  slave.  "^^  Ro'nans. 
Even  in  the  earliest  and  purest  period  of  Roman  history,  when  mo- 
nogamy was  enjoined  on  the  husband,  and  the  infidelity  of  the  wife 
was  visited  with  heavy  penalties,  the  marital  authority  disregarded 
the  law  of  nature,  and  changed  moral  subjection  into  legal  slav- 
eiy.''  The  family  being  absolutely  guided  by  the  single  will  of  the 
head  of  the  household  [paterfamilias),  the  wife  and  child,  etjually 
with  the  bullock  and  the  slave,  were  destitute  of  legal  without  legal 
rights.  To  rear  or  not  to  rear  the  child  which  the  wife  rights, 
had  borne  him  rested  Avith  the  free  will  of  the  householder.  In  the 
family  woman  necessarily  held  a  position  of  domestic  subjection.' 
In  the  later  years  of  the  republic,  after  the  emancipa-  Evils  under  the 
tion  of  woman  from  the  rigor  of  the  earlier  laws  had  later  republic 
been  partially  effected,  the  weakness  of  heathen  morality  was  shown 
in  the  fearful  relaxation  of  the  ties  of  domestic  life,  and  in  the  bitter 
complaints  of  the  sterner  moralists  against  the  evils  of  celibacy,  the 
shameless  extravagance  of  women,  the  prostitution  of  marriage  to  a 
matter  of  mercantile  speculation,  and  the  consequent  ease  and  fre- 
(juency  of  divorce.  Celibacy,  childlessness,  and  infanticide  had  be- 
come so  common  among  the  upper  classes  during  the  closing  period  of 
the  republic  that  the  Latin  stock  had  been  largely  diminished,  and 
final  extinction  was  threatened.  So  alarming  was  the  situation  that 
the  first  emperor,  in  order  to  save  the  nation,  regarded  it  as  necessary 

to  set  lesral  bounds  to  luxury,  to  curtail  the  iiractice  of 

"  •  '  Legal  restraints, 

adultery  and  divorce  by  measures  of  the  utmost  sever- 

'  Apnl,  c.  XV. 

2  V.  Mommseii :   History  of  Rome,  New  York,  1870,  vol.  i,  pp.  -49,  89. 

8  Ibid.,  pp.  89,  90. 


464  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

ity,  and  to  offer  extraordinary  rewards  to  fathers  '  wlio  should  rear 
large  families.  But  the  disease  was  too  deepseated  for  radical 
cure;  it  could  only  be  held  in  check  by  the  vigorous  treatnient  of 
a  master  mind  like  Julius  Ctesar.  It  broke  out  anew  with  increased 
virulence  under  his  successors.  It  was  this  Roman  social 
le  con  ic  .  -^yQj.^^i^  emasculated  of  its  earlier  and  robuster  virtues, 
inoculated  with  the  vices  of  Oriental  luxury,  and  weakened  by  long 
indulgence,  which  was  opposed  to  the  simple  teachings  of  Jesus  and 
his  apostles  resj^ecting  the  sacredness  of  the  marital  relationship, 
the  equality  of  man  and  wife,  the  high  sanctity  of  maternity,  and 
the  solemn  duty  of  child  nurture. 

The  Christian  fathers  are  earnest  in  their  defence  of  the  purity  of 
Christian  morals,  in  contrast  with  this  abounding  corruption  of  hea- 
Tertuiiian's  thenism.  Tertullian  boldl}'  challenges  an  examination 
teaching.  of  the  life  and  practices  of  the  Christians,  and  plainly 

upbraids  the  heathen  for  their  wicked  practice  of  infanticide."  He 
as  ardently  defends  the  sanctity  of  marriage  against  the  opinions  of 
some  schools  of  the  Gnostics,  especially  Marcion.^  His  is  strictly 
the  Pauline  view.  He  neither  prescribes  abstinence  from  marriage, 
nor  does  he  insist  upon  it.  He  says  that  the  Creator  bestoAved  his 
blessing  upon  the  institution  as  on  an  honourable  estate,  as  he  did 
upon  the  whole  of  his  creatures  for  good  and  wholesome  uses.*  The 
limitations  of  desire,  and  the  duty  of  fidelity  to  vows,  are  not  im- 
posed upon  woman  alone,  but  upon  both  man  and  wife  alike. 

A  like  contrast  is  seen  in  the  care  and  rights  of  childhood  under 
the  heathen  and  Christian  sj'^stems.  The  difference  of  teaching  and 
„    .^  ^   practice  is  here  world-wide.  Scarcely  a  statute  condemna- 

Heathen     and    '  ... 

Christian  view  tory  of  abortion  is  found  in  all  the  range  of  Grecian  or 
Roman  jurisprudence.  If  regretted  and  condemned  at  all, 
no  check  Avas  given  to  an  almost  universal  practice  Avhich  was  sap- 
ping the  energies  of  the  heathen  world.  While  recognised  as  wrong 
by  many  of  the  heathen  moralists,  it  scarcely  received  a  severe  cen- 
r»,,.-„i^  *^'ii'6  in  all  their  writings.    So  also  with  infanticide.    The 

Opinions      re-  ^ 

speetinsjinfan-  practice  was  almost  universal  among  the  Greeks.  It 
finds  a  place  in  the  ideal  systems  of  the  best  philoso- 
phers and  thinkers;  it  is  permitted  by  the  statutes  of  Lycurgus  and 
Solon.  The  position  of  the  Greek  mother  encouraged  it.  The  Ro- 
man view  was  better,  although  its  practice  was  scarcely  improved. 
Tertullian  retorts  the  charges  of  immorality  upon  the  heathen  with 
witliering  sarcasm.'     Probably  the  opposite  policies  of  Greece  and 

'  V.  Friedlander:   SittengeschicMe  Roms,  Bd.  i,  s.  54. 

^  Ad  Nntionts,  1.  i,  c.  15;  Apol,  c.  ix.  ^  Qontm  Mar.,  c.  29. 

*  md.  s  Ad  Nat,  i,  13  ;  Apol.,  c.  ix. 


THE   CHRISTIAN   FAMILY.  465 

Rome — the  one  discoumgiiifif  and  tlie  other  encouratfini;  popu- 
lation— had  much  to  do  with  the  practice  of  exposure  and  iiilan- 
ticide.'  So  deep  was  the  conviction  of  tlie  Roman  incffwtuai leg- 
legislators  that  these  evils  were  threatening  the  life  isi^n'ou. 
of  the  state,  that  the  absolute  right  of  the  father  over  his  off- 
spring had  early  been  so  far  limited  as  to  forbid  him  to  exi)Ose 
or  destroy  any  well  formed  child  until  it  had  completed  its  thii'd 
year.*  Yet  Tertullian  plainly  intimates  that  these  laws  were 
easily  evaded,  and  had  little  power  to  correct  these  widely  preva- 
lent practices.* 

From  its  view  of  the  sanctity  of  human  life,  Christianity  placed 
a  guard  at  its  fountain-head.  In  contrast  with  the  widespread  in- 
difference of  the  heathen  moralists  respecting  abortion,  the  Church 
branded  it  as  a  crime  of  peculiar  enormity,  scarcely  inferior  to  mur- 
der itself.  Abortion,  infanticide,  and  the  exposure  of  children  were 
usually  placed  in  the  same  class  of  crimes;  they  were  Abortion  and 
constructive  murder.  By  conciliary  decree  the  guilty  infuutkide. 
mother  was  excluded  from  the  sacraments,  at  first  till  the  day  of 
death,  but  this  was  afterward  relaxed  to  ten  and  seven  years  of 
penance.  As  we  examine  the  treatment  of  children  in  the  house- 
hold, the  same  contrast  between  heathen  and  Christian  methods  is 
manifest.  The  blessing  pronounced  by  Christ  upon  young  children,, 
as  subjects  of  his  kingdom  (Matt,  xviii,  2-5;  Mark  x,  15;  Luke 
ix,  47),  continued  to  be  recognised  in  the  early  Church.  Bibiimi  tr":i- 
The  apostolic  injunction,  "  Fathers,  provoke  not  your  {r^i,,7i,'|i'of*' '° 
children  unto  anger  lest  they  be  discouraged "  (Col.  children, 
iii,  21),  "but  bring  them  up  in  the  fear  and  admonition  of  the 
Lord"  (Eph.  vi,  4),  implied  a  sacred  obligation  to  properly  train 
the  child,  and  on  the  part  of  the  child  certain  rights  as  against  the 
parents.  This  was  in  direct  contrast  with  the  provisions  of  the 
early  Roman  law,  which  recognised  the  absolute  [tower  contmry  to  the- 
of  the  father  to  dispose  of  his  child;  even  to  sell  it  into  R">"'""  '««■• 
slavery  or  to  deprive  it  of  life.  The  mitigation  of  the  severity  of  the 
earlier  law  by  the  more  humane  feelings  of  later  times,  and  by  the 
wisdom  of  the  great  Roman  jurists,''  had  moderated,  not  removed, 
tliis  contrast.  The  Christian  father  enjoined  oltedience,  but  his 
])ower  over  his  offspring  was  limited  by  the  consideration  that  both 
•  like  l)elonged  to  God.  The  few  pictures  of  the  Christian  hotise- 
iiold  drawn   by  the  ante-Nicene  writers  of  the  Church  are  l)eau- 

'  V.  Lecky:    Op.  at.,  vol.  ii.  p.  27. 

*  Ibid.,  pp.  22,  27.     V.  also  Mihiiliiis  Fcli.\-,  Allianagoras,  anil  L,;iclantiu3. 
3  Jd  Xat,  i,  15. 

*  Milman :  Latin  Christianity,  vol.  i,  pp.  496,  497. 
30 


4G6  ARCHEOLOGY   OF  CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

t  if  111,  and  clearly  show  the  vast  superiority  of  the  Christian  over 
the  heathen  family.  TertuUian  exclaims,  "  What  a  union  is  that 
of  two  believers  who  have  one  hope,  one  rule  of  life,  and  one  serv- 
rictures  of  ^^'^-  •  •  •  I"  alternate  song  echo  psalms  and  hymns;  they 
family  life.  yie  with  each  other  who  best  shall  praise  their  God. 
When  Christ  sees  such  things,  he  rejoices.  To  these  he  sends  his 
own  peace.  Where  two  are,  there  also  is  he.  Where  he  is,  there 
the  evil  one  is  not." '  And  Clement  of  Alexandria  affirms,  "  The 
children  glory  in  their  mother,  the  husband  in  his  wife,  and  she  in 
them,  and  all  in  God." 

Since    the  opinion  of  the  Church  of   the    first    three   centuries 

was  so  pronounced  respecting  the  sanctity  of  marriage  and  of  the 

familv,  it  might  be  presumed  that  it  had  careful  oversight  of  the 

parties   proiiosinsf    marrias'e,   and  prescribed  the   rules 

The     Cliurch     ^  i       i  »  ^ 

had  oversight  of  its  celebration.  While  the  Church  had  no  legal 
of  marriages,  jm-igdiction  ovcr  marriage  until  the  time  of  Justin- 
ian, the  Christians  had  nevertheless  accompanied  it  with  solemn 
religious  ceremonies,  and  hallowed  it  by  the  benediction  of  the 
community  of  believers.  The  Pauline  doctrine,  not  to  be  "  un- 
equally yoked  together  with  unbelievers"  (2  Cor.  vi,  14),  was  long 
regarded  as  of  binding  force.  TertuUian  is  clear  in  his  teachings 
on  this  point.  Cyprian  regards  the  directions  of  Paul  as  Avise  and 
obligator}^  The  post-Nicene  theologians,  as  Jerome,  Ambrose, 
Augustine,  and  others,  are  positive  and  earnest  in  warning  against 
these  entangling  alliances,  while  the  conciliary  decisions  are  firm  and 
unyielding.  The  Church  also  prescribed  the  limits  of  affinity  or 
T,       .,   ...       consanguinitv  within  which  lawful    wedlock  was   for- 

Prescribed  lim-       .  *  '  .   . 

its  of  consan-  bidden.  The  decisions  of  some  of  the  councils  are  full 
^'""'  ^  ■  and  explicit,  and  persons  who  violate  these  rules  are 

declared  guilty  of  incest,  and  liable  to  severe  ecclesiastical  penal- 
ties. Likewise  clandestine  marriages  are  forbidden.  Ignatius  says, 
"  But  it  becomes  both  men  and  women  who  marry  to  form  their 
union  Avith  the  approval  of  the  bishop,  that  their  marriage  may  be 
according  to  God,  and  not  after  their  own  lusts."  °  Those  were 
d.lys  of  trial  and  danger,  and  the  propriety  and  duty  of  taking  ad- 
vice of  the  church  officers  respecting  this  most  sacred  relation  are 
frequently  urged  by  the  Christian  writers  both  before  and  after 
Constantine.^  The  necessity  of  obtaining  the  consent  of  parents  to 
the  marriage  of  children  under  lawful  age  is  another  evidence  of 
the  care  with  which  the  relationship  was  guarded,  and  the  purity 
of  the  Cliurch  maintained. 

'  Ad  Uxor.,  xi,  8,  9.  =  Ad  Polyc.  c.  v. 

^  V.  Tertulliaa:  Ad  Uxor.,  1.  xi,  c.  2. 


THE   CHRISTIAN   FAMILY.  467 

The  ])lain  and  wholesome  teacliing  of  the  New  Testament,  and  of 
most  of  the  Cliristian  fathers  of  tlie  first  three  centuries  Family  reia- 
respecting  marriage  and  tlie  family  relation,  was  after-  en"d'''by*Two 
wards  weakened  by  two  principles  whose  baneful  inHu-  principles. 
ence  was  long  felt  in  both  East  and  West:  asceticism  and  mo- 
nasticism. 

Asceticism  has  pertained  to  every  religion,  and  to  everj'-  stage  of 
society.  It  was  found  in  heathen  Rome.  Whether  this  practice 
among  the  Romans  is  to  be  attributed  to  a  feeling  of  disgust, on 
the  part  of  a  few  nobler  minds, with  the  prevailing  impurity,  to  the 
rise  of  Neoplatonism  and  the  revival  of  the  Pythagorean  philosophy, 
to  the  Oriental  religions,  or  to  the  unconscious  yet  |)ow-  possible  orijrin 
erful  influence  of  Christianity,  may  not  be  fully  deter-  °^  Asceticism, 
mined.  Probably  each  and  all  these  forces  were  in  operation  to 
produce  the  eflFect.  Certainly  the  doctrine  of  both  Neoplatonism 
and  Pythagoreanisni,  that  matter  was  essentially  evil,  when  carried 
to  its  logical  result  would  lead  its  votaries  to  regard  the  human 
body,  with  its  appetites  and  passions,  as  a  source  of  evil,  and  the 
indulgence  of  sensuous  desires  as  incompatible  with  loftiest  virtue. 
The  practical  effect  of  the  theory  upon  the  heathen  world  in  cor- 
recting the  prevalent  impurity  was,  however,  but  slight.  Never- 
theless, if  the  records  are  to  be  trusted,  it  is  noteworthy  that  some 
most  conspicuous  public  characters  were  plainly  influenced  by  this 
])hilosophy.  The  celibate  life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  the  abstemi- 
ousness of  Zenobia,  the  maintenance  of  her  virginity  bj'-  Heathen exam- 
the  pagan  wife,  Hypatia,  the  continence  of  Julian  after  p'*^**- 
the  early  loss  of  his  wife,  are  clear  indications  of  the  influence  of  the 
Neoplatonic  teaching,  as  well  as  of  a  desire  for  the  reformation  of 
])agaiiism,  Avhich  the  superior  morality  of  Christianity  had  j)rovokeds 
To  what  degree  the  severe  asceticism  of  the  Indian  religions  affected 
the  western  mind,  and  how  far  the  Buddhist  mouasticism  was  the 
suggestion  and  furnished  the  type  of  the  Christian  orders  of  monks, 
are  debated  questions.  It  can,  however,  hardly  be  doubted  that 
this  ancient  and  widely  prevalent  religion  was  known  to  the  West, 
while  the  striking  similarity  of  the  discipline  of  the  Buddhistic 
and  Christian  monks  suggests  a  common  origin,  or  at  least  similar 
conditions. 

But  the  perversion  of  the  teachings  of  Christianity, which  incul- 
cated the  prime  duty  of  purity,  was  most  powerful  to  effect  the 
change  of  opinion  with  reference  to  the  married  state.  The  con- 
fiict  of  the  Church  with  the  social  evil  which  was  threatening  the 
life  of  the  empire  had  been  stubborn  and  persistent.  Fn»m  the 
^rst  the  words  of  Paul  as  to  the  lawfulness  of  a  celibate  life  had 


468  AKCII.EOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

been  influential,  and  a  condition  of  continence  had  received  high 
Causes  praise  from  the  Christian  fathers.     The  declining  piety 

streiiKthening       £  ^|^g  ^ijij.^^  century,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  merit  of 

it  in  itie  ,  .   ,    ,      i    •  ... 

cuurch.  good  works,  which  had  its  origin  in  the  penitential  sys- 

tem of  the  age  of  Cyprian,  greatly  strengthened  the  tendency  to 
asceticism.  An  unnatural  and  unscriptural  view  of  chastity  induced 
the  opinion  that  the  married  state  was  unfavorable  to  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  highest  perfection,  and  that  immaculate  purity  could  be 
attained  only  in  the  condition  of  celibacy  or  virginity,  or  by  the 
practice  of  the  most  rigid  abstinence. 

Nevertheless,  the  frequent  legislation,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical, 
shows  how  difficult  it  was  to  enforce  the  condition  of  celibacy  and 
chastity,  even  in  case  of  those  who  had  taken  upon  themselves  the 
most  solemn  vows.  The  law  of  Jovian,  A.  D.  364,  denouncing  the 
attempt  to  marry  a  nun  as  a  capital  crime,  was  wholly  ineffectual  to 
prevent  the  scandal.  Yet  the  opinion  of  the  Church  respecting  the 
sacredness  of  the  marriage  relation  is  shown  from  the  fact  that  while 
the  synod  of  Rome,  A.  D.  384,  declares  the  union  of  men  with  nuns 
who  have  taken  vows  of  celibacy  to  be  adultery,  it  did  not  venture 
to  order  their  separation  from  their  husbands.  In  spite  of  Augus- 
tine's commendation  of  virginity,  and  his  favorable  opinion  of  celib- 
acy, he  regards  the  marriage  of  nuns  as  binding,  and  deprecates  the 
evil  results  of  separating  man  and  wife  under  such  circumstances.  A 
careful  examination  of  this  legislation  will  show  that  the  efforts  to 
declare  such  marriages  invalid  completel}^  failed;  and  that  in  the 
fifth  century  there  yvas  a  tendency  to  judge  these  marriages  more 
tenderly, and  not  to  interfere  with  them.' 

As  asceticism  made  war  against  one  of  the  three  great  foes  of  the 
Asceticism  human  soul,  the  flesh,  so  monasticism  proposed  to  flee 
verms  the  from  another,  the  world.  Men  withdrew  from  society  in 
order  to  concentrate  their  entire  energies  upon  the  puri- 
fication of  the  spirit  through  Avatching,  fasting,  and  prayer.  Monas- 
Monasticism  ticism  ignored  the  social  duties  and  the  holy  work  of 
verms    the      elevating  mankind  by  personal  contact  and  influence,  and 

world.  ■^  ^  I  ' 

was  at  heart  a  system  of  absolute  spiritual  selfishness. 
The  two  principles  lying  at  the  foundation  of  monasticism,  celibacy 
and  asceticism,  were  alike  hostile  to  the  married  state,  pernicious  to 
the  family,  and  consequently  hurtful  to  the  truest  interests  of  so- 
ciety. The  fuller  discussion  of  their  influence  upon  Christian 
morality  does  not  fall  within  the  plan  of  our  inquiry.  It  need  only 
be  added  that  by  many  of  the  post-Nicene  writers  celibacy  and 
absolute  abstinence  from  carnal  pleasures  are  regarded  as  the 
'  Lea:  Hist,  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy,  Boston,  1884,  pp.  103-105. 


THE  CHRISTIAN  FAMILY.  469 

highest  virtues;  marriage  is  a  necessary  evil  entailed  by  the  fall, 
which  must  be  endured  bv  those  content  witli  low  at-   „  ... 

J  _       ^  Celibacy      and 

tainments  in  moral  puritj'^;  the  family  is  no  longer  the  viwnity  the 
most  sacred  institution  of  God;  the  position  of  the  wife  ^^  esivirucb. 
and  mother  is  almost  infinitely  below  that  of  her  upon  whom  rest 
the  vows  of  perpetual  virginity,' 

Thus  the  powerful  protest  against  the  abounding  impurity  led 
the  Church  to  the  other  extreme  of  severity.  What  was  at  first 
regarded  in  the  light  of  a  duty,  plainly  flowing  from  ])rinc'iples 
enunciated  by  Christ  and  his  apostles,  was  exalted  to  the  position 
of  the  most  meritorious  work  for  the  attainment  of  salvation.  The 
low  standard  of  piety,  and  the  perturbed  state  of  society  consequent 
upon  the  rivalries  of  the  East  and  West,  and  upon  the  gad  consequen- 
tribal  migrations,  contributed  still  further  to  these  ces, 
unhappy  results.  But  amid  all  the  influences  unfavourable  to  the 
family  life  the  Church  was  careful  to  guard  its  sanctity;  it  placed 
the  family  on  a  lower  plane  only  by  attributing  to  a  celibate  and 
virgin  state  a  loftier  dignity. 

'  See  especially  the  treatises  on  virginity  by  several  of  the  most  influential  and 
able  post-Nicene  theologians— Basil,  Ambrose,  Chrysostom,  Augustine,  and  others. 
The  language  of  Jerome,  the  great  promoter  of  monaslicism  in  the  West,  is  often 
most  extravagant  in  praise  of  virginity  and  a  recluse  life,  and  contemptuous  when 
he  refers  to  the  married  state. 


470  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE, 


CHAPTER  IL 

THE  CHURCH  AND  SLAVERY. 

"  Render  therefore  unto  Ctesar  the  things  which  are  Cresar's ;  and 
unto  God  the  things  that  are  God's"  (Matt,  xxii,  21).  "Let  every 
soul  be  subject  unto  the  higher  powers.  For  there  is  no  power  but 
of  God:  the  powers  that  be  are  ordained  of  God.  .  .  .  For  he  is  the 
minister  of  God  to  thee  for  good"  (Rom,  xiii,  1-4).  In  these  pas- 
Reiations  of  sages  ai'e  expressed  the  relations  of  the  early  Church  to 
the  Church  to   ^^le  government  under  which  its  members  then  lived. 

civil      govern-  » 

luent.  The  duty  of  obedience  to  civil  authority  is  here  plainly 

inculcated.  The  qualifying  teaching  of  Peter  has  reference  to  those 
cases  where  men  are  unable  to  submit  to  civil  injunctions,  and  pre- 
fer to  suffer  for  conscience'  sake,  or  where  government  has  so  far 
forgotten  the  reason  of  its  institution  as  to  be  no  longer  a  terror  to 
evil  doei's  or  a  praise  to  the  good.  The  Christian  Church  proposed  no 
revolution  in  the  civil  order,  but  aimed  to  permeate  societj^  with  a 

new  principle  which  would  effect  all  needed  reforms. 

The  declaration  of  Christ,  "  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this 
Avorld  "  (John  xviii,  36),  embodied  the  true  spirit  of  the  Church  in 
relation  to  secular  authority.  The  existing  forms  were  accepted; 
the  realm  where  Christ  was  to  reign  was  the  human  spirit;  the  law 
of  his  government  was  the  law  of  love.  This  law  being  supreme 
over  all  alike  who  should  become  subjects  of  his  kingdom,  an  equal- 
ity of  privilege  Avas  recognised  in  the  midst  of  the  most  diverse 
social  conditions.  It  is  the  silent  yet  powerful  operation  of  this 
law  A\hich  is  to  be  considered  in  estimating  the  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity upon  Roman  institutions  and  life. 

At  the  time  of  the  Advent  slavery  was  an  institution  recognised 
Slavery  a  fixed  ^^^^  regulated  b}^  the  Roman  law;  slaves  were  found  in 
institution.  every  province  of  the  vast  empire.  This  unfortunate 
class  had  at  first  been  chiefly  captives  taken  in  war;  at  a  later 
period,  when  the  original  source  of  supply  had  largely  ceased,  they 
were  propagated  by  means  of  numerous  marriages  encouraged  by 
Condition  of  the  owners.  They  were  the  property  of  the  masters;  the 
the  slave.  children  could  be  sold  or  alienated  like  other  propert3^ 

While  policy  or  feelings  of  humanity  might  lead  masters  to  miti- 
gate the  severities  of  bondage,  and  political  or  social  considerations 


THE   CHURCH   AND   SLAVERY.  471 

frequently  induced  the  nlaInuuis!^ion  of  slaves,  they  were,  neverthe- 
less, at  the  mercy  of  every  caprice  and  passion  of  the  owner.  Nor 
does  the  fact  that  self-interest  often  led  the  great  families  to  en- 
courage in  their  slaves  the  cultivation  of  the  practical  and  tine  arts,' 
and  even  to  assist  some  to  rise  to  the  position  of  teachers,  counsel- 
lors, and  companions,  change  the  essential  features  of  the  system. 
A  freedman  could  not  be  the  equal  of  the  freeborn;  by  him  no  civil 
or  military  honor  was  attainable;  his  sons  were  excluded  from  the 
senate;  they  were  tainted  with  servility  to  the  third  and  fourth 
generations.*  While  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  number  of 
slaves  in  the  empire,  or  even  their  proportion  to  the  entire  popula- 
tion, it  is  universally  conceded  that  their  condition  was  fearfully 
degraded,  and  that  they  were  a  constant  threat  to  the  peace  and 
prosperity  of  the  state. 

Christianity  recognised   this,   as  it  did   other  institutions  of  the 
einitire.     No    attempt    was    made   for    its    immediate   ,. 

^  ...  .  .        Christianity  did 

abolition.  A  new  and  desjjised  religion,  gathering  its  not  attempt  ai- 
votaries  at  tirst,  for  the  most  part,  from  the  humble,  '"*''^'  iii^ui'tion. 
and  often  from  the  servile  class,  was  not  in  position  to  make  open 
war  upon  an  institution  hoary  with  age  and  of  well  nigh  universal 
prevalence.  The  Scripture  teaching  is  that  liberty  is  of  the  Spirit; 
that  the  relations  of  master  and  slave  are  only  accidental,  not 
essential;  that  a  slave  can  be  the  truest  freeman  through  the  liberty 
wherewith  Christ  shall  make  him  free.  The  teaching  of  Scripture 
and  of  the  early  Christian  fathers  is  usually  that  of  submission  and 
obedience  to  the  existing  laws.  The  expectation  of  the  early  reap- 
pearing of  Christ  to  establish  his  kingdom  among  men,  which  from 
time  to  time  finds  expression  in  the  writings  of  the  apostles  and  early 
fathers,  probably  led  the  early  Church  to  regard  social  distinctions 
as  of  slight  importance.  Since  every  disciple  of  Christ  was  a  citizen 
of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  a  kingdom  different  from,  and  exalted 
far  above,  all  earthly  governments,  the  Church  leiiounced  all  claim 
to  earthly  rulership,  and  could  remain  indiffei'ciit  toward  exist- 
ino-  social  distinctions.  The  care  of  the  Church  was  for  the  relief 
of  the  immediate  wants  of  its  members.  The  motive  to  the  alle- 
viation of  hardships  did  not  seem  to  be  like  that  of  the  philoso- 
phers of  the  Stoic  schools,  namely,  to  introduce  into  society  a  more 
humane  feeling;  but  the  conviction  of  the  supernatural  freedom  and 
equality  to  which  men  were  invited  found  expression  among  the 
early  Churches  only  in  the  religious  life  and  intercourse.  This  spir- 
itual freedom  and  equality  pertained  to  the  life  of  fellowship  which 

'  I'.  Friedlander :   Sittengeirhicte  Rom-i,  Bd.  iii,  ps.  258,  259. 

2  Gibbon:  Decline  and  Fall,  etc.,  Harper's  edition,  New  Yoric,  1880,  vol.  i,  p.  51- 


473  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

was  experienced  by  Christians  themselves,  without  diiectly  influ- 
encing political  action  or  instituting  means  for  the  early  abolition 
of  slavery.  Yet  this  was  by  no  means  the  whole  work  of  the 
Christian  Church. 

"Tlie  treatment  of  slaves  by  their  Christian  masters,  and  the 
relation  of  Christian  slaves  to  their  masters,  underwent 
all  as  equal  in  an  immediate  change.  ...  As  members  of  the  Church 
the  Gospel.  there  was  no  difference  between  them.  They  came  to 
the  same  house  of  God,  acknowledged  one  Lord,  prayed  and  sang 
together,  ate  of  the  same  bread,  and  drank  from  the  same  cup.  .  .  . 
The  Church,  it  is  true,  would  not  receive  a  slave  without  a  certificate 
of  good  conduct  from  his  Christian  master,  but  when  this  condition 
was  complied  with  he  became  a  full  member  without  any  limita- 
tions. He  was  even  eligible  to  its  offices,  not  excepting  that  of 
bishop.  Not  infrequently  it  occurred  that  a  slave  was  an  elder  in 
the  same  church  of  which  his  master  was  only  a  member, 

"  The  Chm-ch  bestowed  labor  on  both  slaves  and  masters.  .  .  .  Ac- 
u  cared  for  the  cordiug  to  pagan  conceptions  slaves  were  incapable  of 
slaves.  morality.     The  Church  trained   them  for   virtue,   and 

not  unsuccessfully.  There  were  many  slaves  who,  in  extremely 
difficult  circumstances,  attested  the  reality  of  their  Christian  life 
with  fidelity  and  great  endurance.  Even  among  the  martyrs  there 
was  an  unbroken  line  of  slaves.  The  fairest  crown  fell  on  them,  as 
well  as  to  the  free.  .  .  .  Harsh  treatment  of  slaves  was  regarded  a  suf- 
ficient ground  for  excommunication.  .  .  .  The  Church  would  not  min- 
ister to  the  merely  natural  desires  of  the  slaves  for  liberty.  Yet  it 
deemed  it  a  praiseworthy  act  for  a  master  to  emancipate  a  slave. 
Emancipation  ^^  s^^^^'j  recognised  emancipation  as  a  work  of  Christian 
encouraged  love,  and  manumissions  often  occurred.  .  .  .  After  the 
third  century,  it  was  customaiy  to  perform  the  act  of 
manumission  in  the  Church,  before  the  priest  and  tlie  congregation. 
The  master  led  his  slave  by  the  hand  to  the  altar;  there  the  deed 
of  emancipation  was  read  aloud,  and  at  the  close  the  priest  pro- 
nounced the  benediction.  .  .  .  Tlieir  former  masters  esteemed  it  a 
duty  to  help  and  counsel  them  as  Christian  brethren,  and  thus  they 
did  not  find  themselves  isolated,  but  in  the  midst  of  a  communion 
which  instructed  them  to  be  active  and  useful  men."  * 

Yet  it  is  unhistoric  to  attribute  the  abolition  of  slaveni^  and  the 
rehabilitation  of  manual  labour  exclusively  to  Ch^istianit3^  The 
Roman  Stoics,  like  other  philosophers  before  them,  had  taught  the 
duty  of  humanity  to  slaves,  and  had  announced  with  clearness  the 
principle  that  bondage  and  freedom  were  only  accidents  of  society, 
'  Uhlhoru:   Conflict  of  Christianity  loilh  Heathenism,  pp.  184-188. 


THE   CHURCH   AND   SLAVERY.  473 

that  the  master  may  be  a  hondtnan  to  liis  vices,  while  tlie  slave  may- 
be the  noblest  freeman  througli  his  virtues.  In  this  respect  the 
teaching  of  Stoicism  was  very  like  that  of  Christianity.  Some  em- 
pei'ors,  too — notably  Hadrian,  the  Antonines,  and  Alexander  Seve- 
rus — through  a  sentiment  of  sympathy,  or  moved  by  fear,  promul- 
gated laws  restricting  the  power  of  the  master,  and  protecting  the 
slaves  from  many  cruel  and  harmful  practices  which  had  long 
disgraced  Roman  civilization.  Moreover,  these  maxims  of  the 
Stoics,  relative  to  the  essential  equality  of  man,  had  powerfully  in- 
fluenced the  Roman  jurisprudence,  and  led  to  a  consequent  amelio- 
ration of  the  condition  of  the  servile  classes.' 

Nor  can  it  be  claimed  that  the  legislation  of  the  Christian  emper- 
ors of  the  fourth  century,  respecting  the  condition  and  rights  of 
slaves,  was  a  very  great  advance  upon  that  of  the  heathen  emperors 
of  the  third.  By  the  abolition  of  the  punishment  of  crucifixion  the 
slaves  had  gained,  since  they  had  been  chiefly  exposed  to  this  dread- 
ful penalty;  but  still  more  humane  and  wide-reaching  was  the  enact- 
ment of  the  statute  forbidding  the  separation  of  their  families,* 
The  legislation  of  Justinian  was,  however,  almost  revolutionarj'. 
The  two  great  disabilities  under  which  the  slave  population  had 
suffered  for  so  many  centuries,  namely,  the  power  of  the  master  to 
subject  the  slave  to  torture,  and  the  non-recognition  of  the  legality 
of  slave  marriage,  were  entirely  remaved.  This  may  be  regarded 
as  the  most  important  legislative  contribution  to  the  abolition  of  sla- 
very which  was  made  by  the  Christian  emperors  prior  to  the  seventh 
century.  To  this  may  be  added  the  removal  of  all  restrictions  to 
the  manumission  of  slaves,  which  had  h'therto  prevented  the  action 
prompted  by  the  humane  impulses  of  noble  men,  both  pagan  and 
Christian. 

The  influence  of  the  moral  type,  which  Christianity  encouraged, 
has  been  strongly  emphasized  by  some  writers  on  the  relations  of 
Christianity  to  slavery.*  The  qualities  neglected  or  despised  by  the 
heathen  world  were,  under  the  Christian  system,  crowne<l  as  royal 
virtues.  Humility  is  often  commanded  by  Christ,  and  he  who 
would  be  great  in  his  kingdom  is  instructed  to  become  the  servant 
of  all.  Service,  helpfulness,  charity,  long-suffering,  gentleness,  pa- 
tience, goodness,  forgiveness,  non-resistance,  are  the  graces  which 
especially  adorn  the  Christian  character.  To  what  extent  this  view 
of  the  perfection  of  human  character  brought  the  Christian  Church 
into  closer  relationships  to  the  large  class  of  Roman  slaves  is  wor- 

'  Tprtnllian,  in  A polof/eticm,  speaks  oC  these  changes,  nnd  attrilmtps  thorn  to  a  se- 
cret workiiijr  of  nature,  tending  toward  Cliristianity,  not  b}'  Clirisliani'y. 

^  V.  Lecky :    Op.  cit.,  vol.  ii,  pp.  63,  64.  ^  Lecky:   Op.  cit.,  vol.  ii,  pp.  6S,  69. 


474  ARCHEOLOGY   OF    CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

thy  of  most  thouglitful  consideration;  doubtless  it  was  one  import- 
ant motive  to  their  care,  and  to  the  amelioration  of  their  condition. 

Another  notable  service  rendered  by  the  Church  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries  was  her  strong  and  persistent  opposition  to  the  prev- 
alent luxury.  The  discourses  of  the  great  preachers  and  monks 
abound  in  warnings  against  the  destroying  vices,  against  excess  in 
dress,  food,  and  equipage,  and  also  very  especially  against  immoral 
and  lustful  callings,  as  those  of  actors,  gladiators,  panders,  etc. 
This  check  placed  upon  luxury  and  extravagance  had  the  direct 
effect  to  decrease  the  demand  for  the  labour  of  slaves,  and  thereby 
(o  contribute  to  their  more  rapid  manumission,' 

While  the  relation  of  Christianity  to  Roman  slavery  has  been  vig- 
orously discussed,-  and  the  opinions  of  investigators  have  by  no 
means  been  accordant,  we  see  from  the  spirit  of  Christ's  teaching, 
as  well  as  from  abundant  testimony  gathered  from  the  writings  of 
the  Christian  fathers,  that  in  the  early  Church  no  distinction  of 
,.   ,,     privileace   between    master   and    slave    was   recoo-uised. 

Slaves  eligible    ^  ^  . 

to  office  in  the  Slaves  were  freely  admitted  to  the  sacraments,  and  were 
Church.  eligible  to  all  the  ecclesiastical  offices,     Calixtus  was  a 

Roman  slave.  The  Council  of  Orleans,  in  549  A.  D.,  was  compelled 
to  somewhat  modify  the  earlier  requirements  that  the  Christian  mas- 
ter must  liberate  his  slaves,  by  allowing  the  master  to  obey  the  laws  ^ 

'  Allard:    Op.  cit,  pp.  409-473. 

^  The  treatise  of  Wallon  :  Histoire  de  V esclavage.  2d  ed.,  Paris, 1879;  and  of  Allard: 
Les  esclaves  Chret.,  Paris,  1876,  have  used  the  monumental  evidence  but  very  spar- 
ingly. Tiip  same  want  is  felt  in  Zahn:  Sdaverei  u.  C hristenthum,  Heidelb.,  1879; 
Lechler:  Sdaverei  u.  Christenthum,  Leipzig;,  1877-78,  and  in  nearly  evevy  other  dis- 
cussion. Allard  is  most  in  sympathy  with  tlie  spirit  of  the  epigraphic  teaching,  and 
gives  some  valuable  suggestions. 

^  The  history  of  slavery  in  tlie  United  States  of  America  furnishes  some  parallels 
to  illustrate  the  difficulty  of  making  the  teaching  of  the  Church  respecting  this  insti- 
tution effective  and  practical  under  the  Roman  government.  The  American 
Churches  frequently  protested  against  slaver.y,  but  the  laws  enacted  by  the  different 
slave  States  made  this  protest  nugatory.  The  desired  instruction  was  forbidden  to 
slaves  by  penal  statutes.  May  not  this  be  a  sufficient  answer  to  the  excessive 
statements  of  tiiat  school  of  critics  to  which  M.  Havet  belongs  ?  "  There  is  no  more 
stupendous  example  of  frauds,  which,  nevertheless,  can  make  for  themselves  believ- 
ers, than  the  persistent  attempt  to  s:ive  to  Christianity  and  the  Churcii  the  honour  of 
the  abolition  of  slavery"  (in  the  Roman  Empire),  v.  Le  Christio.nisme  et  les  origines, 
t.  i,  Introduction,  p.  xxi.  This  judgment  respecting  the  early  Church,  in  effecting 
the  emancipation  of  slaves  under  the  Roman  Empire,  is  paralleled  hy  the  statements 
of  a  class  of  writprs  in  our  day  respecting  the  attitude  of  the  American  Churches 
toward  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  United  States.  Both  alike  are  defective  and 
unhistoric.  The  wiser  and  more  humane  policy  of  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines  was 
probably  largely  independent  of  Christianity.  The  influence  of  Christianity  was 
exerted  without  ostentation.     Even  Gibbon  recognises  its  later  power. 


THE  CHURCH  AND  SLAVERY.  47S 

respecting  the  slave,  but  forbade  him  to  exact  of  the  slave  any  ser- 
vice incompatible  with  his  new  dignity  as  a  member  of  the  Cliurch. 
Female  shives  often  exercised  the  office  of  deaconesses,' 

The  study  of  monuments,  in  all  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire,  fur- 
nishes the  most  emphatic  comment  and  completest  cor-  Monuments 
roboration  of  the  statements  of  the  Christian  fathers.       su''.stantiate 

wnUen  rec- 

Tliese  help  more  fully  to  comprehend  the  grandeur  of  ords. 
that  revolution  already  achieved  in  the  minds  of  the  Christians,  long 
before  its  effects  became  visible  in  the  society  of  the  state.^  If  we 
enter  a  pagan  columbarium,  where  the  rich  families  de-  Apagancoium- 
posited  the  ashes  of  their  slaves  and  freedmen,  all  the  ^riam. 
distinctions  of  society  and  class  are  here  continued.  It  would  seem 
that  even  the  grave  did  not  erase  the  stigma  attaching  to  the  servile 
classes.  The  name,  employment,  relation,  etc.,  of  the  slave  is  per- 
petuated upon  the  cinerary  urns.  Only  the  absence  of  the  master 
distinguishes  this  house  of  the  dead  from  the  palace  of  the  living. 

How  marked  the  contrast  in  a  Christian  catacomb !  The  claim  of 
Lactantius  is  fully  lustiHed — "With  us  there  is  no  dis-  „     .,  .     , 

''.  •'  No   distinction 

tinction  between  rich  and  poor,  between  bond  and  free."  '   amonK    the 

Notliing  tells  us  whether  a  tomb  contains  the  remains  ^''>"*"''n ^'^^'^• 
of  the  servile  or  of  the  free.  Every  thing  is  commingled.^  l^jmn  one 
is  seen  the  evidence  of  noble  birth,  upon  another  the  indication  of 
the  labourer's  avocation;  here  is  the  tomb  of  the  maiden,  there  of 
tlie  widow,  and  in  the  midst  of  all  is  the  faithful  pastor  and  bishop 
of  their  souls. 

"  During  the  thirty  years  in  which  I  have  studied  their  cemeter- 
ies I  have  found  no  more  than  a  solitary  inscrii)tion  from  Testimony  of 
which  the  condition  of  a  freedman  could  be  inferred." '  epiKmpiusts. 
"  In  the  very  considerable  number  of  Christian  inscriptions  which 
we  examined,  I  have  not  met  more  than  two  tltnll  l)earing  the  men- 
tion of  serous  or  Ubertus,  except  as  an  appellation  of  fi<lelity  toward 
God.""  "In  the  new  Christian  community  freedmen  deRossi'sopm- 
and  slaves  were  brethren,  and  together  served  the  same  '""■ 
God.  Among  tlie  faithful  of  the  Roman  Church  the  sjdrit  of  fra- 
ternity triumphed  over  the  ]>roud  arrogance  with  which  the  insti- 
tutions of  the  republic  an<l  of  the  empire  were  infected.  Of  this 
most  eloquent  testimony  is  found   in   tlie   silence  which  is  observed 

'  Ancilla  Dfi  is  the  title  frequently  met  on  the  tombs  of  Christian  women. 

^  .\iliird:  Les  esrlorvs  Chretieuvs,  p.  2:^5.  ^  Div.  List.,  v,  17. 

■»  Alliird:   op.  cit,  pp.  236,  237.  *  .MnnuiL'oni :    Ada  S.  Vidorini.  p.  1.30. 

«  Le  Blunt:  Inscript.  chret.  de  In  Gaul,  t.  i,  p  119.  The  word  Htiilus  was  applied 
to  an  ecclesiastical  division  or  district  of  the  city.  Each  one  of  the  tititli  seems  to 
have  had  an  exlra-nmriil  cemetery  under  its  cure,  where  its  dead  were  interred. 


476  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

respecting  the  social  condition  of  the  deceased  in  the  so  many  thou- 
sands of  epitaphs  discovered  in  the  catacombs.  Were  they  skives  ? 
Freedmen  ?  These  say  nothing  about  it.  I  have  never  met  the 
mention,  as  an  undoubted  fact,  of  one  servus  ;  very  rarely,  and  this 
exceptional,  of  a  freedman;  while  we  could  not  read  ten  pagan  epi- 
taphs of  the  same  period  without  finding  these  designations  of  slaves 
and  freedmen." '  The  silence  of  the  monuments  is  the  most  power- 
ful comment  on  the  statement  of  Lucian  with  respect  to  the  belief 
of  the  Christians:  "Their  lawgiver  has  persuaded  the  Christians 
that  they  are  all  brothers."  '■'  "  This  law  was  nowhere  written  or 
traditional;  it  was  the  spontaneous  effect  of  the  religious  doctrines 
of  the  new  society,  which  are  reflected  in  its  early  epigraphy  as  in  a 
mirror."^ 

The  whole  number  of  ancient  Christian  inscriptions  in  Avhich 
Libertus  sei-  slaves  are  mentioned  is  only  about  thirty,  and  about  the 
dommet.  same   number   in   which  the  title  of  libertus   is   met,'' 

This  wonderful  disparity  between  the  number  of  Christian  and  hea- 
then monuments  bearing  these  marks  of  the  servitude  of  the  interred 
cannot  be  explained  by  the  inferior  social  condition  to  which  it  has 
been  claimed  the  converts  to  Christianity  largely  belonged;  since 
this  would  naturally  tend  to  increase  rather  than  diminish  the  num- 
ber mentioned  among  the  servile  class.  Moreover,  the  great  ma- 
jority of  these  Christian  inscriptions  belong  to  a  period  later  than 
the  second  century,  when  the  new  religion  had  become  widely  pro- 
fessed, and  had  adherents  among  the  government  officials,  and  even 
Conclusions  i'^  the  imperial  household.  B}^  a  careful  eojnparative 
reached.  study  of  these  monuments,  the  following  conclusions  are 

reached: 

1.  Tliat  in  the  Christian  Church  the  number  held  as  slaves  was 
reduced  to  a  minimum. 

2.  That  in  Church  relations  and  in  Christian  burial  there  was  rec- 
ognised absolute  equality  of  right  and  privilege,  and  that  all  re- 
garded themselves  as  members  of  a  common  household. 

Another  interesting  class  of  epigraphical  objects  are  the  hullce. 

„.    ^  „  These  were  little  tablets  or  bands  of  metal,  which  were 

The  bullae.  ' 

accustomed  to  be  fastened  to  the  neck  of  fugitive  or 
untrustworthy  slaves.  Scarcely  more  than  twenty  of  these  of  a 
clearly  Christian  origin  have  been  discovered.  They  tell  an  inter- 
esting story  of  the  efforts  of  the  Christian  Church  to  soften  the 
hardships  of  this  condition.     They  likewise  clearly  testify  to  the 

'  de  Rossi:  Ball  di  arch,  crist,  1866,  p.  24.  '^  de  mork  Ptregrini,  13. 

2  de  Rossi :  Roma  Sotterranea,  t.  i,  p.  34:5. 

•*Scliultze:  Die  alichrisUidien  Grabstatten,  Leipzig,  1882,  s.  258. 


THE  CHURCH  AND  SLAVERY.  477 

existence  of  slavery  within  the  Cluirch,  as  connected  with  Christ- 
ian basilicas.  It  was  claimed  by  Pignoris '  that  tlie  cruel  custom  of 
branding  in  tlie  forehead  fugitive  and  perverse  slaves  was  supplanted 
by  tills  milder  characterization  through  a  special  edict  of  Constan- 
tiiie.  Only  three  of  these  chains  for  the  neck  have  been  certainly 
traced  to  the  pre-Constantine  period.  The  greater  })art  of  these 
Indlce  are  clearly  contemporaneous  with  Constantine,  or  belong  to 
tlie  fourth  century." 

Again,  the  monuments  accord  with  the  written  records,  and  con- 
tiriu  the  claim  that  Christianity  elevated  labour  and  the  chnstianify  el- 
labourer  to  a  state  of  respectability.  evateu  labour. 

The  condition  of  the  free  labourer  under  a  government  where 
slavery  is  the  legal  condition  of  a  large  portion  of  the  population 
must  be  one  of  great  hardship  and  humiliatio.i.  It  has  been  so  in 
all  lands.  That  it  was  emphatically  true  of  the  Roman  labourer  all 
historians  and  moralists  alike  affirm.  But  Christianity  was  to  teach 
anotjier  law  than  that  which  was  then  observed  by  paganism.  The 
awakening  of  a  spirit  of  industry,  and  the  affirmation  of  the  dignity 
of  labour,  were  two  important  seiwices  rendered  by  the  early  Chui-ch. 
The  literature  of  the  fathers  is  full  and  explicit  on  this  point;  the 
monumental  and  epigraphical  lesson  is  plainly  confirmatory  of  the 
documentary.  Such  inscriptions  as  the  following  would  mastrative  in- 
not  be  tolerated  on  a  pagan  monument:  MHTPl  KATI-  scripuoiis. 
ANIAAH  EPrOHOm.  This  belongs  to  the  third  century.  De  Rossi' 
also  describes  a  tomb  on  whicli  the  husband  had  engraved  the  pic- 
ture of  a  loom  and  shuttle,^  emblems  of  domestic  industry,  recalling 
the  customs  of  the  ancient  R')man  days.  Still  another  is  where  the 
wife  has  erected  a  rich  tomb  to  her  husband,  uj)on  which  stands  an 
inscription  that  would  be  regarded  a  cause  of  humiliation  to  the 

'  Dt  servis  eorumque  minviteriis,  Padova,  1G13. 

"  de  Rossi:  Bull,  di  arch,  crist,  1874,  pp.  60,  .seq.  The  followinp;  may  be  given  as 
an  example  of  these  bulke:  Tvne  me  quiafigi  tt  revoca  me  Puhlin  liuhrio  Latino  domino 
meo.  "Seize  me  because  I  have  Hed,  and  return  me  to  Pubhiis  Riibrius  Latinua, 
my  master !  " 

•''  De  Rossi:  Bidkttino  di  arch,  cri^t...  18G5.  p.  52.  Tlic  full  form  of  the  last  word, 
ns  found  in  tiic  inscription,  is  EPFOnonOIfl.  On  tliis  de  Ro-^si  comments:  "  It  is 
evident  to  me  tliat  the  stone-cnttcr  has,  by  mistake,  repealed  tlie  syUahle  nO,  as  if 
iio  would  amend  efiyoTrdM^  as  in  so  many  oilier  sj'Ilables  which  we  find  curelossly 
roduplicatod  in  both  Greek  and  Latin  inscriptions,  aithounh  no  such  word  is  found 
in  the  classical  lexicons,  it  is  plain  that  it  siirniflcs  operusa,  labo7-i<>.sa.  ...  It  shows 
the  Christian  glorying  in  labor — a  thins  unknown  to  the  pagan  world;  that  labour 
was  not  disgraceful,  but  honourable;  that  disgrace  and  sin  came  from  indolence 
and  laziness." 

■*  De  Rossi:  Inscrip.  Christ,  urbia  liomie,  No.  14  (A.  D.  279).  p.  21. 


478  ARCHAEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

proud  Roman:  AMATRIX  PAVPERORVM  ET  OPERARIA.'  The 
oomi)ani<)nsliip  in  labour  is  not  now  regarded  disgraceful,  but  wor- 
thy of  commendation.  See  the  following,  from  Garrucci,  found  in 
the  catacomb  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Marcellinus  upon  a  tomb  erected  by 
a  humble  saint  named  Primus  to  Leontia  :  LEONTIiE  CVM  LABA- 
RON/E  SViE.* 

Thus  the  testimony  of  the  Christian  fathers  and  of  the  monuments 
are  in  accord  with  reference  to  the  influence  of  Christianity  in  ame- 
liorating the  condition  of  slaves  under  the  Roman  Empire,  and  in 
cfiFecting  their  gradual  emancipation.  It  was  by  the  operation  of 
llie  law  of  love  which  was  promulgated  b}'  the  Founder. 

'  De  Rossi:  Lmrip.  Christ,  Xo.  62  (A.  D.  341).  p  49 

^  Garrucci :  Nuovt  epigrafe  gimlaiche  di  vigna  Handanini.  p.  9. 


RELATION  TO  CIVIL  AND  MILITARY  LIFE.  479 


CIIAPTEPw    III. 

RELATION  OF  THK  EARLY  CHURCH  TO  CIVIL  AND  MILITARY  LIFE. 

TiiK  clianges  in  Roman  opinion  relative  to  the  family,  to  slavery, 

and  to  manual  labour,  had  not  been  effected  by  Christianity  alone. 

We  have  noted  the  influence  of  the  Stoical  philosophy  in  causing 

the  revolution.      To  what  extent  these  modifications  of  thought 

and  practice  may  be  attributable  to   this  or  that  force  whicli  was 

silently    at    M'ork    in    the    Roman   world    during    the    second    and 

third  centuries  may  not  be  determined.     The  change  is  indubitable. 

From  the  first  Christianity   had   insisted  upon   honourable    labour 

as  a  duty.     The  example  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  is      ^^  .  ..    .. 

•^  .       '^  '  Christianity 

positive;  the  teachings  of  the  Scriptures  are  clear  and      encouraged 

explicit.     The  slothful  servant  is  pictured  as  deserving     ''i*^'""- 

condemnation;  Paul,  the  tent-maker,  glories  in  his  ability  to  gain  a 

livelihood,  and  will  not  consent  to  be  a  burden  to  his  brethren.    The 

man  who  will  not  toil  may  not  eat  his  bread  in  peace.     "  Diligent 

in  business"  was  associated  Avith  "serving  the  Lord." 

But  it  is  important  to  notice  the  relation  of  the  Church  to  certain 

trades  and  industries.     They  had  direct  influence  upon  the  type  of 

Christian  morality,  and  brought  the  teaching  of  the  Christians  and 

of  the  heathen  into  sharpest  conti-ast.     The  early  Church  was  beset 

by  adverse  influences  arising  from  the  prevalent  idolatry.   Adverse  inflii- 

from  the  abounding  impurity,  and  from  the  corrupting   sni't's- 

exhibitions  connected  with  the  popular  amusements.      The  statues, 

temples,  and  altars  dedicated  to  an  innumerable  multitude  of  gods; 

the  reverence  in  which  some  of  these  Avereheld  by  the  i)eoi)le;  their 

almost  continuous  Avorship,   conducted   in  all   the  great  centers  of 

population,  enveloped  the  Christians  in  an   atmosphere  laden  with 

impurity.     The  failure  or  blank  refusal  to  participate  in  the  ])ublic 

worship  of  what  were  reputed  to  be  the  guardian  divini-   ^   . 

1  '  '  Tryinc  position 

ties  of  the  State  made  the  Christians  an  ol)ject  of  liate  of  the  chiisi- 
and  suspicion,  and  subjected  them  to  the  charge  of  athe- 
ism. The  position  of  a  monotheistic  faith  and  of  an  absolute  relig- 
ion was  often  delicate  in  the  extreme.  To  show  themselves  loyal 
subjects  of  the  empire,  and  yet  uncompromising  in  their  allegiance 
to  Christ,   brought   daily   embarrassments   to   Christians.      Those 


4S0  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

cn^aijecl  in  the  service  of  the  temples,  or  in  trades  connected 
directly  with  idolatrous  worship,  as  image  makers,  incense  dealers, 
etc.,  were  adjudged  by  the  Church  as  contributing  to  the  corruption 
of  the  people,  and  were  ineligible  to  membership. 

The  testimony  of  the  fathers  on  this  point  is  clear.  Tertullian 
Certain  trades  ^^i'^'-  "^  ^^^e  it  that  that  trade  which  pertains  to  the 
couUemned.  yery  soul  and  spirit  of  idols,  which  pampers  every 
demon,  falls  under  the  charge  of  idolatry.  .  .  .  The  dealer  in  frank- 
incense is  a  something  even  more  serviceable  toward  demons,  for 
idolatry  is  more  easily  carried  on  without  the  idol  than  without 
the  ware  of  the  frankincense  seller.  .  .  ,  No  art,  then,  no  profession, 
no  trade  which  administers  either  to  the  equipping  or  making  of 
idols,  can  be  free  from  the  name  of  idolatry."  '  "  Again,  can  you 
have  denied  with  the  tongue  w^hat  you  confess  with  the  hand  ?  Can 
Tertuiiian's  .vou  unmake  by  word  what  you  make  by  your  deed  ? 
opinion.  (jj^,^  you,  who  make  «o  many,  preach  one  God  ?     Can 

you,  who  make  false  ones,  preach  the  true  God  ?  "  ^  "  For  it  matters 
not  whether  you  erect  or  equip;  if  you  have  embellished  his  temple, 
altar,  or  niche;  if  you  have  pressed  out  gold-leaf,  or  have  wrought 
his  insignia,  or  even  his  house;  work  of  that  kind,  which  confers 
not  shape,  but  authority,  is  more  important."'  "Whatever  guilt 
idolatrj'  incurs  must  necessarily  be  imparted  to  every  artificer  of 
The  Apostolic  every  idol."  ^  With  this  teaching  the  Apostolic  Consti- 
c .nstitutions.  tutions  are  in  harmony.  "If  a  maker  of  idols  come,  let 
him  either  leave  off  his  employment  or  let  him  be  rejected."  * 
Such  is  the  consistent  and  uniform  teaching  of  the  early  Church. 
The  sin  of  idolatry  was  a  constant  threat,  and  warnings  against 
the  evil  by  the  leaders  of  the  Church,  both  before  and  after 
Constantino,  are  positive  and  frequent.  The  Christians  w'ere  for- 
bi<lden  to  do  any  thing  which  could  directly  or  remotely  abet  or 
compromise  with  this  besetting  sin  of  the  Roman  world.  Like 
teaching  is  found  with  respect  to  those  employments  which  were 
Public  amnse-  c<^""ected  with  the  corrupting  practices  and  amuse- 
ments inter-  ments  of  heathen  societ^^  It  included  stage  actors, 
teachers  of  the  art,  procurers  and  panderers,  gladiators, 
those  employed  in  the  public  shows,  soothsayers,  minstrels,  dan- 
cers, etc. 

TIk"  Roman  drama  had  become  fearfully  corrupt.  While  nobU 
sentimt-nts  are  occasionally  found  in  the  plays  represented  before 

'  '^^  ^''"'«<-  c.  2.  2  JMcl,  c.  6.  3  ^j^-^^  ^  8 

■»  /hid.,  c.  4.    "  Qiiicquid  idolatria  commiltil,  in  artificem  quemamque  et  cuiiiscumque 
idoli  deputetiir  necesse  est." 
*  Cons.  Apos,,  1.  viii,  c.  32. 


RELATION  TO  CIVIL  AND  MILITARY  LIFE.  481 

an  averaLfc   audience,   the  resultant    influence   was   debasing,    and 
actors    were    lield    in    low    esteem.      Under   the    later   , 

...  Low  condHloo 

republic,  the  utterances  of  the  stage  were  often  laden  of  the  uoman 
with  ridicule;  t)f  tlie  gods,  and  had  in  no  small  degree  '^'■'*"'"- 
encouraged  the  growing  scepticism.  But  under  the  empire 
the  theatre  had  been  greatly  degraded  by  the  public  shows  and 
popular  e.xhibitions.  While  the  enormous  amphitheatres  were 
crowded  for  many  successive  days  to  witness  the  gladiatorial 
contests,  the  races  and  games,  the  entire  seating  cai)acity  of  the 
great  theatres  was  less  than  50,000;  and  in  ordinary  times  the 
theatre  of  Pompey,  with  a  capacity  of  17,580,  could  accommodate 
all  visitors,  8o  depraved  had  become  the  Roman  taste  that 
even  this  small  number  could  l)e  gathered  only  by  exhibitions 
of  the  lowest  sjjccies  of  the  drama,  light  comedy  and  mime.  The 
indecencies  of  these  representations  were  shocking  in  the  extreme. 
The  l)oldest  impiet}^,  the  most  shameless  immodesty,  the  grossest 
vulgarity  awakened  deafening  applause  from  the  debauched  popu- 
lace.' Nor  was  the  character  of  tliese  representations  much  improved 
in  the  Eastern  Empire,  even  in  the  time  of  Justinian.  The  Like  dp^rada- 
lowest  forms  of  social  life  were  there  presented.  The  uo" in tiie East, 
most  sacred  relations  Avere  travestied.  The  unfaithfulness  of  hus- 
band or  wife  was  the  frequent  subject  of  representation,  in  which? 
the  escapades  of  the  panderer  or  adulterer  were  oceasions  of  unlim- 
ited mirth,  Snatclies  from  the  indecorous  songs  heard  in  the  the- 
atre were  repeated  upon  the  streets  to  poison  the  imagination  and 
break  down  all  moral  restraint.* 

True,  a  few  no1)ler  characters  of  heathendom  felt  the  degrading 
influence  of  these  forms  of  dramatic  representation,  and  struggled 
to  improve  the  public  taste.  But  they  were  entirely  impotent  to 
arrest  the  sweeping  tide  of  corruption.  Moreover  high  tragedy 
was  never  ])opular  with  even  the  better  classes  of  the  High  traciviy 
Roman  world.  They  preferred  the  lighter  works.  The  ""popular, 
degeneracy  of  the  later  plays  was  manifest.  The  introduction  of 
music  and  the  dance  soon  caused  the  representations  to  assume 
the  form  of  the  pantomime,  which  became,  in  turn,  the  most  cor- 
rupting form  of  theatrical  rejiresentation.  So  generally  was  the 
immoral  influence  of  the  drama  recognised  that  actors  i^gm  .lisahiii- 
were  generally  under  social  and  legal  disability.  Often  ties  of  actoi-s. 
thev  ha<l  no  greater  rights  than  slaves  or  freedmen.  Hence  it  came 
to  pass  that  the  great  mass  of  players  were  from  these  classes,  sunken 
into  the  deepest  degradation,  with  few  if  any  legal  privileges,' 

'  Fricfllaiidpr:  Si'ffengeschichte  Roms.,  Bd.  ii,  ss.  391-305. 
«  Ibid.,  ss.  396,  397.  *  Ibid.,  ss.  424,  seq. 

31 


483  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

As  might  be  exiaected,  the  purity  of  the  Churcli  was  constantly 
threatened  by  these  exhibitions,  and  stringent  rules  were  enacted 
respecting  the  classes  who  were  connected  with  theatrical  represent- 
ations, and  the  frequenting  of  the  plays.  Tertullian  finds  in  all 
the  shows  and  spectacles  alike  a  taint  of  idolatry,  and  is  vigorous 
in  warnino-  ao-ainst  their  contaminating  influence.     "It 

Allshowstaint-  »      o  o         ^ 

fci  with  idoia-  may  be  grand  or  mean,  no  matter,  any  circus  proces- 
"'^-  sion  whatever  is  offensive  to  God.     Though  there  be 

few  images  to  grace  it,  there  is  idolatry  in  one;  though  there  be  no 
more  than  a  single  sacred  car,  it  is  a  chariot  of  Jupiter;  any  thing 
of  idolatry  whatever,  whether  meanly  arranged  or  modestly  rich 
and  gorgeous,  taints  it  in  its  origin." '  So  also  in  the  dramatic 
representations  and  the  combats  generally.  Moreover  he  urges 
the  Church  to  refrain  from  these  on  the  ground  of  their  immodesty 
and  impurity;  also  because  the  Christian  faith  and  life  are  there 
Christianity  travestied  and  brought  into  public  ridicule.  "We 
travestied.  ought  to  dctest  these  heathen  meetings  and  assem- 
blies, if  on  no  other  account  than  that  there  God's  name  is  blas- 
phemed. .  .  .  Shall  you  not,  then,  shun  those  tiers  where  the 
enemies  of  Christ  assemble,  that  seat  of  all  that  is  pestilential, 
and  the  very  superincumbent  atmosphere  all  impure  with  wicked 
cries  ?  " " 

Like  representations  of  the  character  of  the  public  shows  are 
Cyprian's  state-  made  by  Cyprian.  In  hi^  epistle  to  Donatus  he  draws 
meats.  ^  fearful  sketch  of  the  immoralities  of  his  time.     "  The 

whole  woi'ld  is  wet  with  mutual  blood.  .  .  .  Crime  is  not  only  com- 
mitted, but  taught.  ...  It  is  the  tragic  buskin  which  relates  in 
verse  the  crimes  of  ancient  days.  ...  In  the  mimes  .  .  .  adultery 
is  learned  while  it  is  seen;  .  .  .  the  matron  Avho  perchance  has  gone 
to  the  spectacle  a  modest  woman  returns  from  it  immodest.  .  .  . 
Men  grow  into  praise  by  virtue  of  their  crimes;  and  the  more  he  is 
degraded,  the  more  skilful  is  he  regarded.  ,  .  .  The  judge  sells  his 
sentence;  .  .  .  there  is  no  fear  about  the  laws  when  the  sentence  can 
be  bought  off  for  money;  ...  it  is  a  crime  now  among  the  guilty 
to  be  innocent." '  Equally  with  Tertullian  he  finds  in  all  the 
public  shows  a  gross  idolatry,  and  is  faithful  in  warning  against 
their  contamiuiting  influences.  The  spirit  of  his  teaching  is  that  of 
his  master.  "  Idolatry  is  the  mother  of  all  the  public  amusements. 
.  .  .  Thus  the  devil,  who  is  their  original  contriver,  because  he  knew 
that  naked  idolatry  would  by  itself  excite  repugnance,  associated  it 
with  public  exhibitions,  that  for  the  sake  of  their  attraction  it  might 

'  de  Spedoc,  c.  T.  2  /^^j/.,  c.  22. 

*  ad  DonaL,  cc.  6,  7,  10. 


RELATION  TO  CIVIL  AND  MILITARY  LIFE.  483 

be  lovc'<L"  '      He  ]>ositiv('ly  forLids  not  only  Victors   Liit  tcac-licrs  of 
the.  histrionic  art  from  coniniunicatintx  willi  the  C'iiurcli.  ,   , 

.  ■  .  Artors  exclud- 

"tor  lie  cannot  a])]»ear  to  liave  t^iven  it  (the  actor's  eii  from  the 
art)  up  wlio  substitutes  others  in  liis  phua',  and  who,  ^''"'■'^■*'- 
instead  of  himself  alone,  supplies  many  iu  his  stead.'"  Cyprian 
recognises  the  hardness  of  the  condition  of  such  as  have  left  lucra- 
tive callings  to  accept  the  faith  of  Christ;  but  the  earnestness 
and  wise  provisions  of  the  Church  for  such  are  clearly  illus- 
trated in  the  same  connection:  "But  if  such  a  one  Relief  of  hard- 
alleges  poverty  and  the  necessity  of  small  means,  his  ship, 
lu'cessity  also  can  be  assisted  among  the  rest  who  are  maintained 
by  the  support  of  the  Church;  if  he  be  content,  that  is,  with  very 
frugal  but  innocent  food."  ' 

The  Apostolic  Constitutions  contain  like  teaching.  "If  one  be- 
longing to  the  theater  come,  whether  it  be  man  or  woman,  .  .  . 
either  let  him  leave  off  his  employments,  or  let  him  be  rejected."^ 
The  decisions  of  the  Councils  are  entirely  liarmonious  conciiiary  ar- 
with  this  general  teaching  of  the  pre-Constantine  fathers  """• 
and  of  the  Constitutions.  The  Council  of  Elvira  (pi-obably  in  A.  1), 
305  or  306)  enacted  that  actors  and  soothsayers  should  be  received 
to  bai)tisin  only  on  condition  that  they  leave  their  arts,  and  do  not 
return  to  them.  In  case  of  return  they  are  to  be  rejected  from 
the  Churcli.^  Like  action  was  taken  by  the  third  Council  of  Car- 
tilage, A.  I).  307. 

The  unjiar.illeled  greed  of  the  Roman  populace  for  shows  had 
been  strengthened  b}''  the  enormous  expenditures  of  j^ove  of  spec- 
some  of  the  emperors,  whose  usurpation  or  vileness  of  tables. 
character  must  be  hidden  under  a  show  of  public  munificence. 
Probably  no  |)eriod  of  human  histoiy  presents  an  array  of  trades 
and  callings  to  prop  up  a  failing  faith,  and  to  pander  to  a  vitiated 
taste,  ecpial  to  that  of  the  empire  during  the  fii'st  three  and  a  half  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  era.  By  a  law  of  spiritual  life,  as  the  purity 
and  strength  of  faith  declined  the  machinery  of  religion  became 
more  complicated.  The  failure  of  the  religions  indigenous  to  Italy 
led  the  people  to  look  to  the  distant  and  the  unknown    „ 

1        1  _        ^  _  _  RiipiM-siiiion 

for  help;  the  wild  influx  of  worships  and  rites  fiom  the   uuiitipiies  the 

most   distant   regions  multiplied  the  numbers  <levoted 

to   trades  necessary   to   supjdy   the   deuiands  of  every  cult  us,   and 

'  de  Spectac.  c  4.     While  this  treatise  is  iisiiall}-  rejranied  as  of  doiilnfiil  gomiine- 
noss,  it  is  animated  by  the  <;eneral  spirit  of  Cyprian's  works. 

•  nd  Euchrai..  c.  2.  '  •''  Ihid.  ■»  Const.  Apostol.,  1.  viii,  c.  32. 

*  Canon  62:   "Quod  .si   facere  contra   interdiclnin  tentaverint,  projicianlur  ab  eo- 
clesia." 


484  ARCHAEOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

greatly  added  to  the  embarrassments  of  tlie  early  Church.  Prac- 
ticers  of  eurious  arts,  magicians,  diviners,  enchanters,  astrol- 
ogers; minstrels,  harpers,  dancers;  charioteers,  racers,  gladiators, 
curators  of  the  games;  makers  of  amulets,  fortune-tellers,  wander- 
ins?  beirgars — against  this  untold  multitude  who  directly  or  indirectly 
were  connected  with  the  prevalent  i)<)lytlH'ism,  or  sought  a  liveli- 
hood by  ministering  to  vitiated  tastes,  the  Church  set  its  face  as  a 
Severe  disci-  ^i"^-  Eligibility  to  baptism  required  the  absolute  i-elin- 
piine.  quishment  of  them  all,  and  indulgence  in  them  by  a 

member  of  the  Church  was  visited  by  severe  penalties.  The  disci- 
pline of  the  Church  was  strict,  but  oftentimes  it  Avas  unable  to 
stem  the  fearful  tide  of  corruption. 

Another  source  of  temptation  was  the  military  life.    The  relation 
of  the  Church  to  the  bearinsf  of  arms  was  not  easy  to  be 

Aversion    to  _  "      . 

military  ser-  determined.  Here  also,  as  with  respect  to  public  or 
^'*^**'  official  business,  the  prevalent  expectation  of  the  speedy 

coming  of  Christ  exerted  wide  influence.  So  evanescent  and  trivial 
did  the  affairs  of  earthly  governments  appear,  when  contrasted  with 
the  glories  of  the  kingdom  which  Christ  was  to  set  up,  that  the 
Christians  of  the  second  and  third  centuries  regarded  the  policies 
and  activities  of  the  state  as  unworthy  of  their  serious  thought. 
Patriotism  and  loyalty,  the  usual  motives  inducing  subjects  to  bear 
arms,  were  felt  to  a  less  degree  bv  men  whose  iirst  allegiance 
was  due  to  an  invisible  kingdom,  whose  sway  would  soon  be  uni- 
versal. Doubtless  also  the  teaching  of  Christ  to  avoid  strife,  to 
forgive  injuries,  to  bless  and  curse  not,  to  do  good  unto  all  men,  to 
resist  not  evil,  cultivated  in  his  followers  aversion  to  arms  and  to 
the  military  life.  It  is  evident  that  Tertullian  was  affected  b}'  this 
Tainted  with  vicAV,  but  still  more  by  his  abhorrence  of  idolatry.  In 
Idolatry.  ^j^^  military  life,  as  in  all  the  various  employments  con- 

nected with  the  numberless  religions  of  his  day,  he  sees  the  taint  of 
idolatry.  The  well  known  picture  of  a  Christian  soldier  taking  off^ 
the  laurel  chaplet  which  had  been  bestowed  by  imperial  favoui-,  the 
jeering  of  the  multitude,  the  murmur  arresting  the  attention  of  the 
tribune,  the  confession,  "  I  am  a  Christian,"  the  appeal  to  higher 
authority,  the  disrobing  of  the  soldier,  the  thrusting  into  prison 
to  await  martyrdom,  Tertullian  sketches  with  loving  interest,  and 
the  course  of  the  soldier  meets  his  thorough  approval'  This  par- 
ticular case  leads  him  to  the  discussion  of  the  general  question 
of  the  propriety  or  right  of  a  Christian  to  engage  in  the  military 
life.  "  Shall  it  be  held  lawful  to  make  an  occupation  of  the  sword, 
when  the  Lord  proclaims  that  he  who  uses  the  sword  shall  perish 
'  de  Corona  Mil. ;  c.  L 


RELATION  TO  CIVIL  AND  MILITARY  LIFE.  485 

by  the  sword?  And  shall  the  son  of  peace  take  part  in  tlie  l)aule 
when  it  does  not  become  liiiri  even  to  sue  at  law  ?  And  g,^,fg  contrary 
sliall  he  apply  the  chain,  and  the  prison,  and  the  tor-  to  Christ's 
ture,  and  the  punishment,  who  is  not  the  avenger  even  '^""^'''"^• 
of  his  own  wrongs  ?  Shall  lie,  forsooth,  either  keep  watch-service 
for  others  more  than  for  Christ,  or  shall  he  do  it  on  the  Lord's  day 
when  he  does  not  even  do  it  for  Christ  himself?  And  shall  he  keep 
guard  before  the  temples  which  he  has  renounced  ?  Touching  this 
primary  aspect  of  the  question,  as  to  the  lawfulness  even  of  a  mili- 
tary life  itself,  I  shall  not  add  more.'" 

But  jdaiidy  this  ^Montanistic  principle  coidd  not  he  made  practical 
in  the  Roman  Empire.  While  the  military  sjiirit  had  Dpcjideiuc  t.i 
greatly  declined  during  the  closing  decades  of  the  repub-  •""i'-a'y  spirit, 
lie,  and  in  the  first  century  of  the  empire  scarcely  a  remnant  of  the 
better  classes  could  be  found  among  the  soldiery,"  there  was,  never- 
theless, a  general  legal  obligation  to  bear  arms.  In  this  state  of 
unpopularity  of  the   military  calling  it  is  evident  that  an  irregular 

and    uniust    levy  w^ould    tend    to    pass   by    the    higher 

1  '      1   !•   11  '    ■   1  1  •  1       1       "  Unfair  levy, 

classes  and  tail  with  une([ual  severity  upon  the  burgess 

population,  from  which  a  large  proportion  of  Christians  had 
been  gathered.  That  many  were  thus  pressed  into  the  army  is  evi- 
dent from  the  testimony  of  Tertullian  himself.^  The  continuance 
of  these  in  the  service  was  a  matter  of  necessity,  since  tiieir 
desertion  must  have  brought  upon  the  Church  still  greater  sus- 
picion and  persecution.  Even  Tertullian  regards  the  case  of  those 
who  embraced   Christianity  after  they  had  entered  the 

...  ,.»  11-'  *  1-1  Milder  views. 

military  hie  as  very  delicate,  yet  appears  to  advise  the 
abandonment  of  the  calling,  and  the  acceptance  of  the  consequences.* 
Origen  was  early  inclined  to  speak  with  great  severity  respecting 
the  propriety  of  bearing  arms,  but  afterward  admitted  that  it  might 
be  possible  and  even  honourable.  Also  the  evidence  is  convincing 
that  in  the  reign  of  M.  Aurelius  many  Christian  soldiers  were  in 
the  Roman  army,  and  under  Diocletian  high  offices  were  tilh-d  by 
members  of  the  Church. 

The  Apostolic  Constitutions  also  certainly  proviile  fi»r  tlie  recep- 
tion of  soldiers  by  baptism.    They  were  to  be  examined,    provision    for 
and  taught  to  do  no  injustice,  to  accuse  no  man  falsely,   '*"»'"'*'"• 
and  to  be  content  with   their   wages."      The    Niceiie  decision    has 

>  lie  Corona  Mil.  :  c    11.  de  fdoi,  c.  10. 

"  Moninisen:    Hist,  of  Nome,  Now  York,  1872,  vol.  iv.  p.  581.  My.»/<«7..  cc.  .•^7.  -12. 

*  It  lias  been  cli:ir<;;ed  In'  Giljboii,  and  some  others,  tlial  Tertullian  leiiclies  the  dniy  of 
desertion.    The  passage  usually  cited  {dt  CoronaMil.,  c.  1 1 )  can  liardly  be  so  interpreted. 

*  Const,  Apost.,  1.  viii,  c.  32. 


480  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

occasioned  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  its  purport.  It  is  be- 
Dedsion  of  Ni-  H^^'ved,  liowever,  by  the  ablest  commentators  that  the 
cene  council,  twelfth  canon  was  not  aimed  at  tlie  militarj^  calling, 
but  rather  against  those  who  had  forsaken  it,  and  were  attempting 
to  reenter  it  by  means  of  bribery  or  corruption.  The  whole  con- 
duct of  Constantine  toward  the  soldiery  implies  that  military  life 
was  no  longer  under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  but  was  regarded  as 
permissible. 

Tlie  changed  relations  of  the  Church  to  the  government,  during 
and  after  the  fourth  century,  brought  corresponding  changes  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Church  fathers  respecting  the  lawfulness  of  accepting 
offices  both  civil  and  military.  The  union  of  Church  and  State 
l)rought  laxity  of  discipline  and  life.  Zeal  Avhieh  should  have  been 
manifested  to  maintain  the  high  moral  and  religious  purity  of  the 
Church  was  shown  only  in  the  defence  of  its  orthodox}^  The 
masses  of  the  heathen  world,  which  became  nominally  Christian 
with  little  change  in  belief  or  life,  caused  discipline  to  decay  and 
the  tone  of  piety  to  decline.  The  subsequent  action,  both  civil 
and  ecclesiastical,  seems  to  be  inspired  by  a  new  spirit.  The  popu- 
larity of  the  ecclesiastical  life,  exempt  as  it  was  from  many  services 
and  disabilities,  and  the  increasing  passion  for  monastic  retirement, 
compelled  the  government  to  guard  itself  against  these  incentives 
to  the  desertion  of  public  trusts,  especially  to  prevent  the  disintegra- 
tion of  the  army  through  withdrawal  of  its  members  in  order  to  enter 
the  less  dangerous  and  toilsome  avocations  of  the  Church.  Hence 
the  edict  of  Ilonorius  forbade  any  one  who  was  bound  to  the  mili- 
tary life  to  take  upon  himself  any  clerical  calling,  or  think  to  excuse 
himself  from  the  public  service  under  pretence  of  entering  upon  the 
ecclesiastical  life.  With  this  principle  the  canons  of  the  councils 
generally  agreed,  since  they  generally  refused  ordination  to  any  who 
had  entered  a  military  life  after  baptism,  and  in  most  cases  none 
who  had  been  soldiers  were  admitted  to  the  superior  offices  of  the 
Church. 

The  monumental  evidence  is  entirely  confirmatory  of  the  doeu- 
Moniinientai  mentary,  and  furnishes  a  very  interesting  comment  on 
evidence.  ^]^^  relation  of  the  Church  to  military  life  and  on  the 

pr()])ortion  of  Christians  enlisted  in  this  service.  Collections  of  in- 
scriptions, made  at  different  and  widely  separated  parts  of  the 
empire,  show  a  great  disparity  in  the  number  of  pagan  and  Christian 
soldiers.  Twenty  years  ago  the  studies  of  Le  Blant  on  the  collec- 
tions of  three  epigraphists,  Reinesius,  Steiner,  and  ]Mommsen,  which 
were  made  in  a  region  reaching  from  lower  Italy  north  to  the  Rhine 
border,  resulted  as  follows:    Of   10,500  pagan  inscriptions,  545,  or 


RELATION  TO  CIVIL  AND  MILITARY  LIFE.  4s7 

5.42  per  cont.,  contained  epitaphs  of  soldiers;  wliile  of  4,734  Christian 
inscriptions  only  26,  or  .55  of  one  per  cent.,  contained  any  reference 
to  the  military  life.'  In  GanI,  as  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Africa,  the 
title  of  soldier  is  rarely  found  inscribed  on  the  tombs  of  the  Christ- 
ian dead.  While  this  may  be  partially  attri])utable  to  the  aversion 
of  the  early  Christians  to  indul<^e  in  fulsome  descriptions  of  tlie  l)usi- 
ness  of  the  departed  dead,  no  reasonable  doubt  can  be  entertained 
that  the  fewness  of  such  inscriptions  is  largely  due  to  the  influence 
of  a  reliijion  whose  Founder  taught  submission  rather  than  resis- 
tance, and  the  fundamental  law  of  Avhose  kingdom  was  love. 

'  Le  BImuI:  Manuel  d' Epigraphit  chretienue,  etc.,  Paris,  18G9,  pp.  15,  16. 


488  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 


CHAPTER  ly. 

CHARITIES  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH. 

The  ancient  heathen  world  presented  a  sharp  contrast  in  the  social 
and  civil  conditions  of  its  peoples.  The  many  slaves  and  clients, 
dependent  upon  masters  and  lords  for  their  support,  tended  to  dim- 
inish the  number  of  paupers  who  must  receive  aid  at  the  hands  of 
the  orovernment.  While  the  system  of  slavery  and  clientacre  thus 
lessened  the  demands  for  the  practice  of  active  charity. 

Poor  relief  by  f    ^       •     -i-  -ii 

heatheu  na-  large  numbers  of  the  indigent  were  assisted  at  the  pub- 
"'*"^'  lie  expense,  and  many  instances  of  noble  private  gifts 

for  the  relief  of  the  unfortunate  are  recorded  by  the  historians,  and 
are  fully  attested  by  the  surviving  monuments.  In  Attica  Solon 
and  his  successors  had  incorporated  into  their  legislation  the  princi- 
ple that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  provide  for  its  poor  and  un- 
fortunate; and  very  early  in  the  history  of  the  Roman  Republic  the 
sums  expended  in  the  gratuitous  distribution  of  corn- to  the  people 
constituted  an  important  item  in  the  public  budget.  The  number 
thus  receiving  relief  at  Rome  alone,  at  the  beginning  of  the  empire, 
was  320,000,  or  more  than  one  fourth  of  the  entire  population  of 
the  city.  Under  the  vigourous  jiolicy  of  Julius  Cicsar  this  had 
been  reduced  to  150,000,  but  under  Augustus  it  had  risen  to 
200,000,  and  under  the  Antonines  had  increased  to  the  enormous 
number  of  500,000.  This  gratuitous  distribution  of  corn,  bread,  oil, 
and  salt,  which  began  at  Rome,  extended  to  many  of  the  great  cit- 
ies and  was  probably  practised  even  in  many  of  the  smaller  towns 
of  the  empire.' 

The  Avritings  of  the  Stoics  had  inculcated  charity.  In  some  of 
Tearhings  of  these  are  found  noble  precepts  which  seem  to  rival  the 
tbesioics.  most  exalted  teachings  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
fraternity  of  the  race,  and  the  corresponding  duty  of  relieving  the 
woes  of  all,  are  sometimes  taught  Avith  great  distinctness  and  en- 
forced with  much  eloquence.  When  Cicero  says,  "  Nature  ordains 
that  a  man  should  wish  the  good  of  every  man,  whoever  he  may  be, 
for  this  very  reason,  that  he  is  a  man;"'  and  Seneca  affirms,  "I 
know  that  my  country  is  the  world,  and  my  guardians   are  the 

'  Mommscn:  IIi.<;t.  of  Borne,  vol.  iv,  p.  591.     Leckey:    Oj).  cit ,  vol.  ii,  pp.  74,  75. 
*  de  officiis,  iii,  G. 


CHARITIES  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH.  489 

gods;"'  :iii(l  Lucian  sings  of  a  time  when  "tin-  liunian  race  will 
cast  aside  its  weapons,  and  wlien  all  nations  will  learn  to  love,"''  we 
seem  to  have  in  this  philosophy  a  basis  for  broadest  benevolence  and 
universal  charity.  Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  some  of  the  purest  and 
best  men  of  heathenism  belonged  to  tlie  Stoic  school,  and  were  at 
times  loud  in  their  protests  against  injustice  and  cruelty.  Yet  in 
tills  system  was  recognised  a  principle  which  must  be  fatal  to  liii^h 
and  continuous  charity.  The  duty  of  suppressing  all 
emotion  would  result  in  the  extinction  of  the  very  '^s  dereci!'. 
sources  of  true  benevolent  activity.  Indifference  in  the  presence  of 
suffering,  or  the  reckoning  of  every  condition  of  human  experience 
as  unworthy  the  thought  of  the  true  man,  necessarily  carried  with 
it  indifference  to  the  alleviation  of  woes,  and  jtroduced  the  strange 
contradictions  presented  in  the  teachings,  life,  and  death  of  some  of 
the  great  masters  of  this  i)hilosophy. 

The  stress  of  poverty,  as  well  as  the  desire  for  the  iiromotion  of 
favourite  schemes,  had  resulted  in  the  organization  of  The  clubs  aud 
numerous  clubs  and  associations  throughout  the  Roman  «ums. 
Ein])ire.  Thi'V  were  in  great  variety — social,  jtolitical,  industi'ial, 
and  religious;  yet  in  each  was  found  an  element  of  mutual  aid  in 
case  of  distress.  By  weekly  or  monthly  c*)ntributions  of  the  mem- 
bers, and  by  liberal  gifts  from  the  wealthy  whom  they  counted 
among  their  patrons,  a  fund  was  secured  which  was  placed  in  charge 
of  curators  to  be  used  for  the  common  benefit.  These  colltii/ia  also 
cared  for  tlie  burial  of  tlieir  members  by  the  appropriation  of  a 
given  sum,  usually  dependent  \\\^^m  the  rank  of  the  deceased,  a  )»or- 
tion  of  whicli  was  spent  at  the  funeral  banquet,  and  for  the  distri- 
bution of  bread  and  wine  among  the  jjoorer  members  of  the  guild. 
Such  was  th?  Roman  care  for  the  dead, and  for  keeping  alive  their 
memory,  that  the  rich  often  made  large  donations  to  ^n  eiemt-nt  of 
the  collegia  upon  the  special  condition  that  the  anniver-  seiisiiness. 
sar\'^  of  their  death  should  be  celebrated  in  a  worthy  maimer  by  sac- 
rifices, assemblies  at  the  tomb,  libations,  and  distrilnition  of  money, 
bread,  and  wiiu^  among  those  who  might  be  present  at  the  ceremo- 
nies. So  common  was  it  to  provide  for  the  burial,  and  for  ci'lebrat- 
ing  the  anniversary  of  the  (h'ath  by  a])propriate  observances,  that  it 
mav  be  called  a  Roman  custom.  It  furnishes  an  ex)>lanation  of  the 
building  of  maguiticent  tombs  along  the  Ap|)ian  Way,  and  of  the 
erection  of  convenient  cellm,  upon  sites  sometimes  of  great  extent  anil 
costliness,  connected  with  which  were  altars  and  baiKjueting  halls 
for  holding  the  burial  feasts. 

The  collegia,  especially  the  burial  clubs,  hatl  a  most   important 
'  de  vita  heata,  xx.  *  Fhan-alia,  vi. 


490  ARCir.EOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

influence  upon  the  early  Christian  societies,  and  are  intimately  con- 
influence  of  nected  with  the  history  of  Christian  charities.  The 
thti  a dicgia  on  jit-^th^'U   inscriptions   plainly   use    lano-uacve  which  has 

Cbristiau  char-  ^  t        "i  t  i      r^^         i 

ities.  sometimes  been  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Church,  as 

brother  smd  siste)',  father  and  mother,  as  a}»plied  to  members  of  the 
guild,  or  to  founders,  liberal  patrons,  or  chief  officers  of  the  same. 
Doubtless  it  was  within  the  walls  of  the  schola,  or  at  the  gather- 
in  <^s  in  the  hired  room  of  some  humble  Roman  tavern,  that  the  vast 
bodv  of  artisans,  excluded  as  the}^  were  from  all  hope  of  political 
trust  or  preferment,  felt  the  importance  of  individual  life  and  expe- 
rienced the  quickening  power  of  a  common  interest.  This  liberal- 
izing influence  was  doubtless  one  source  of  the  jealousy  of  the  em- 
perors, and  led  to  the  partial  suppression  of  the  meetings  of  the 
guilds.  In  these,  vastly  more  than  in  any  form  of  heathen  worship, 
is  found  a  measurable  resemblance  to  the  methods  and  spirit  of  the 
Christian  Church.  It  has  often  been  remarked  by  students  of  early 
Christianity  that  in  the  Christian  societies  alone,  of  all 

The  Church  a  "^  .  .  ' 

true  coiuinuQi-   the  Roman  world,  a  true  community  was  realized.     Both 

^^'  in  the  religious  and  political  life  of  that  period  this  was 

totally  unknown.  The  mass  of  the  citizens  were  valuable  only  as  they 
contributed  to  the  welfare  of  the  state;  and  the  religious  worship, 
supported  by  the  government,  had  less  interest  for  the  masses  of  the 
people  than  had  the  daily  shows  in  the  amphitheatre.  The  thought 
of  the  personal  duty  of  charity,  or  of  communal  benefits,  was  foreign 
to  the  pagan  mind.  It  Avas,  therefore,  impossible  that  either  the  re- 
lief afforded  to  the  needy  by  monthly  distribution  of  corn,  or  the  lar- 
gesses of  the  emperors,  or  the  support  given  by  masters  to  slaves,  or 
by  patrons  to  clients,  or  by  the  numerous  guilds  to  their  members 
could  be  of  the  nature  of  a  pure  and  genuine  charity.     Through 

Heithen  char-  ^^^'^^  ^"^^  ^^^  ^^'^'^  diffused  the  taint  of  selfishness.  The 
uy  tainted  with  largesses  were  at  times  bestowed  to  allay  popular  clam- 
s  uess.  ^^jj.^  ^j.  ^^  j^j^lg  ^1^^  crimes  of  an  ambitious  usurper;  the 
distribution  of  corn  was  often  made  in  order  to  relieve  the  hunger 
of  a  rabble  which  might  otherwise  precipitate  a  bloody  revolution ; 
the  monthly  contributions  and  intimate  association  of  the  clubs  weii- 
for  the  beneflt  of  members  of  the  guild  alone.  The  Stoic  philosoidiy 
failed  when  tested  by  the  adverse  condition  of  the  Roman  world, 
and  its  teachings,  however  noble  in  themselves,  Avere  inadequate  to 
purify  the  awful  corruptions  of  society  or  alleviate  the  sore  distress 
and  ])Overty.  In  its  ultimate  analysis  this  philosophy  was  an  edu- 
cation of  pride,  and  tended  to   a  sublime  egotism.'     Its  pantheistic 

'  ConybJare  and  Howsoti :  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  6th  ed.,  New  York,  1858, 
vol.  i,  p.  3GS. 


CHARITIES  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH.  491 

principles  also  detracted  from  the  dignity  and  sacrcdness  of  individ- 
ual l)eing,  and  could  therefore  furnish  no  solid  ground  for  geuuiue 
charity. 

Christian  charity  was  a  necessar}-  outflow  from  the  idea  which 
lav  at  the  verv  source  of  the  svstem,  namelv,  the  kin<r-  „  ,  , 
dom  or  (jrod,  winch  is  a  community  of  men  who  have  tion  or  christ- 
been  reconciled  to  God  in  Christ,  whose  law  is  a  law  of  "^^ ^"'^'""'^y- 
love.'  This  law  is  the  supreme  rule  of  action  in  this  comnninity; 
hence  the  selfish  element,  which  tainted  nearly  every  system  of  relief 
in  the  heathen  world,  is  eliminated,  and  the  charity  is  practiced  in  the 
name  of  Christ  who  came  to  realize  the  kingdom  of  heaven  among 
men.  It  is,  therefore,  done  unto  men  not  simpl}^  to  relieve  from 
present  ])Overty  and  need,  but  much  more  because  of  their  relations 
to  the  new  kingdom,  which  is  also  to  be  an  everlasting  kingdom,  of 
which  each,  however  lowly,  may  be  a  subject.  The  selling  of  all 
that  he  had  and  giving  to  the  poor  was  the  condition  imposed  by 
Christ  upon  the  young  rich  man  in  order  that  he  might  become  a 
member  of  this  community,  and  thus  feel  that  he  had  richer  pos- 
sessions in  sharing  in  the  experiences  of  the  whole  body  of  believers. 
Christ's  own  example  is  that  which  he  would  have  his  followers  imi- 
tate. It  is  the  Samaritan's  catholicity  of  spirit  which  receives  his 
special  approval.  He  leaves  the  society  of  his  immediate  family  to 
l)ecome  the  friend  of  publicans  and  sinners.  He  violates  the  arti- 
ticial  proprieties  of  his  nation  to  instruct  the  woman  of  Samaria  at 
the  well,  or  to  heal  the  afflicted  SyrophuMiician. 

This  broader  spirit  and  deeper  significance  of  charity  found  ex 
eniplification  from  the  very  beginning  of  Christ's  public  ministry. 
Germs  of  the  beneficent  institutions  which  have  been  to  the  great 
honour  of  the  Church  are  found  in  the  lifetime  of  Christ  in  the 
circle  of  serving  women  surrounding  tlu-  Lord,  a  type  of  the  deacon- 
esses and  of  all  charitable  women,  in  whom  tlie  history  of  the  Church 
is  so  rich.* 

What  has  been  said  elsewhere  (v.  p]).  465  stj.)  respe<"ting  the 
Church  as  a  family  is  specially  a]»plicable  to  her  chari-  ,^|,^  family  of 
ties.  The  apostolic  Church  continued  the  family  idea  i«*iit'v<'rs. 
which  had  been  so  prominent  during  the  ministry  of  Christ.  The 
spirit  of  communion,  first  realized  by  the  Church,  explains  the 
exceptional  ))rovisions  made  for  the  early  relief  of  the  i)oor  and 
needy  disciples.  We  have  already  found  that  the  Lord's  Sui)per 
and  the  associated  lovefeasts  weie  occasions  for  the  most  beautiful 
manifestations  of  the  common   interest  and  care.     Moreover,  the 

'  Uhlliorn  :   Christian  Charity  in  ike  Ancient  Church,  New  York,  188.!,  p.  57. 
*  Uliuiorn:   Op.  cit.,  p.  70. 


492  ARCHEOLOGY   OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

institution  of  a  class  of  officers  wliose  special  business  \vas  to  have 
tlie  oversio-ht  of  funds  which  had  come  from  a  common  offering, 
shows  the  i)rominence  which  the  work  of  charity  had  assumed  in 
the  apostolic  Church.  This  is  in  no  Avay  changed,  w^hatever  theory 
of  the  diaconate  nuiy  be  accepted;  not  even  if  the  management  of 
the  charitable  funds  Avas  never  entrusted  to  the  deacons,  but  was 
under  the  control  and  direction  of  the  elders  or  bishops.  The  em- 
phasis put  upon  the  idea  of  aid  to  the  poor  saints,  as  members  of  a 
community,  is  in  no  sense  lessened.  As  in  every  other  department 
of  activity,  so  here,  the  spirit,  at  first  pi-ompting  the  early  Christ- 
ians to  a  spontaneous  relief  of  distress,  later  accomplished  its  work 
throu<>-h  a  formal  organization.  The  old  Jewish  law  of  tithing  the 
income  is  nowhere  insisted  upon;  but  the  exhortation  is  to  imitate 
The  true  spirit  Christ's  example,  who  "  though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  your 
of  charity.  pakes  he  became  poor,  that  ye  through  his  poverty  might 

be  rich"  (2  Cor.  viii,  9).  The  readiness  and  hearty  willingness  of  the 
oiferings  is  the  test  of  the  religious  character  of  the  charity,  and  of 
its  acceptance  with  God;  he  who  gives  grudgingly  is  not  a  Christ- 
ian giver  at  all;  and  the  essence  and  proof  of  religion  is  ministration 
to  the  distressed  (2  Cor.  ix,  7;  viii,  2,  3;  James  i,  27,  et  al.).  The 
same  spirit  is  shown  in  the  repeated  exhortations  to  hospitality  which 
are  found  in  the  New  Testament  writings.  The  frequent  passing  of 
members  of  the  Church  from  one  part  of  the  empire  to  another, 
usually  in  the  work  of  evangelism,  rendered  this  duty  most  pressing. 
Doubtless  in  this  respect  there  was  great  likeness  between  the  con- 
duct of  the  Christians  and  that  of  the  numerous  heathen  clubs,  since 
these  likewise  inculcated  the  duty  of  helpfulness  and  hospitality; 
but,  as  before  stated,  their  aid  was  wholly  confined  to  the  members 
of  the  guild. 

When  the  charities  of  the  Church  are  estimated  in  their  wider 
range,  it  becomes  important  to  study  the  business  and  financial  con- 
dition of  the  empire  during  the  first  two  centuries  of  its  history.  It 
has  been  customary  to  represent  this  as  prosperous  to  an  unusual 
Financial  pros-  degree.  The  evidence  is  convincing  that,  outside  of 
perity.  Rome,  the  proportion  of   citizens  who  were  liable  to 

pinching  poverty  was  less  than  at  the  present  time  in  northern 
Europe.  For  the  most  part  the  taxes  Avere  not  excessive,  food  Avas 
generally  abundant,  the  relation  of  labour  to  the  necessities  of  life 
was  more  advantageous  than  in  modern  Europe,  the  prices  of  provi- 
sions were  carefully  regulated  by  law,  so  that  no  such  rapid  and  dis- 
turbing fluctuations  Avere  possible  as  now  result  from  speculation 
and  from  a  system  of  extended  credits.  Friedlander  claims  that 
property  was  less  concentrated  than  at  present;  that  the  value  of 


CHARITIES  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH.  493 

the  largest  estates  in  the  time  of  the  early  ('m]iiiv,  even  when  slaves 
are  included  in  the  reelvoniuLC,  talis  tar  hidow  that  of  (i,.,.;,t  fortunes 
many  private  individuals  in  Euroi)e  and  America  to-day.  it-^s  timn  now. 
Only  two  i)ersons  of  Rome  are  representeil  as  havinii;  a  propeity 
worth  more  than  $-20,()()(),()00,  and  the  incomes  of  the  most  wealthy 
Romans  during  the  first  four  and  a  half  centuries  of  the  empire  are 
greatly  excelled  by  those  of  the  families  of  Rothschild,  liedford, 
Demidoff,  Astor,  and  Vanderbilt.' 

This  social  and  financial  condition  of  the  empiic  during  the  first 
centurvand  a  half  of  our  era  must  have  vitally  affected    „       ,  ,.  « 

Powerful  influ- 
the  (juestion  of   the   nature  and  extent  of  C-hristian  be-   ence  on  cbarl- 

neficenee.    Times  of  general  prosperity  call  for  the  estab-   ^"''*' 

lislimejit  of  no  wi<le-reaching  charities;  the  spirit  of  the  Church  could 

find  expression   oidy  in  the  relief   of   isolated  cases  of  need,  while 

its  almsgiving  would  also  be  of  a  strongly  individual  character.'^ 

But  the  seeds  of  dissolution  had  already  been  planted  in  the  em- 
pire. Before  tlie  middle  of  the  second  century  the  Adverse  influ- 
evils  of  slavery,  the  eorres])onding  contempt  for  labour,  cuf^^s. 
the  fearful  extravagance  of  the  nobility,  the  vast  sums  S(piandered 
on  the  public  games  and  shows,  the  absence  of  moral  restraint  ex- 
hibited in  the  case  of  divorce,  the  indifference  to  abortion,  infanti- 
cide, and  exposure  of  children,  and  the  fearfully  expensive  and  wasting 
wars,  liad  seriously  weakene<l  the  empire.  From  these  causes  popu- 
lation was  seriously  decreasing,  and  poverty  set  in  where  a  half 
century  before  had  been  comparative  comfort.  To  pay  the  largely 
increased  taxes  many  fine  estates  had  been  forfeited,  thus  concen- 
trating property  into  fewer  hands,  and  bringing  as  necessary  conse- 
(juences  extravagant  luxury  and  the  oppression  of  the  smaller  traders 
through  excessive  usury.  The  only  means  of  defence  was  in  the 
organization  of  guilds,  which  were  recognised  by  the  state,  and  be- 
came, in  a  sense,  the  servants  of  tlie  government.  In  these  more 
trying  times  greater  demands  were  manifestly  made  upon  the  chari- 
ties of  the  Church.  The  teachings  of  the  Christian  fathers  prior  to 
Cyprian  plainly  reveal  the  nature  atid  extent  of  these  good  works. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  collef/iti,  and  of  the  spirit  wliicli  ani- 
mated them.  It  is  important  to  notice  wherein  the  Christian  Church, 
in  some  res])ects  so  closely  resembling  a  lu'athcn  religious  guild, dif- 
fered from  it  in  its  method  of  relief  of  the  unfortunate.  Certainly  the 
uniform  teaching  of  the  first  two  hunib-ed  years  is  to  give  (.,,pi^(,„n  ,.„„r. 
to  those  who  are  in  need,  without  careful  discrimination  iiy  tir.)a(i  and 
as  to  whether  the  recipient  was  a  member  of  the  Church  *''^"*""'^  • 
or  a  heathen.     Justin  Martyr  and  Clement  of  Alexandria  are  in  en- 

'  SittengescMchte  Rums,  Bd.  iii,  83.  11-14.  *  Uhlliorn :    Op.  cil.,  p.  105. 


494  ARCHEOLOGY   OF  CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

tire  accord  touching  the  duty  of  a  common  charity.  Many  passages 
from  these  and  other  writers  are  plain  and  positive.  In  the  Shep- 
herd of  llermas  occurs  this  characteristic  teaching:  "  Practice  good- 
ness; and  from  the  rewards  of  your  labours,  which  God  gives  you, 
give  to  all  the  needy  in  simplicity,  not  hesitating  as  to  whom  ^^ou 
are  to  give  or  not  to  give.  Give  to  all,  for  God  wishes  his  gifts  to 
be  shared  amongst  all.  They  who  receive  will  render  an  account  to 
God  why  and  for  what  the}'  have  received.  For  the  afflicted  who 
receive  will  not  be  condemned,  but  they  who  receive  on  false  pre- 
tences will  suffer  punishment.  He,  then,  who  gives  is  blameless."  ' 
This  injunction  plainly  has  reference  to  private  almsgiving,  and 
seems  to  have  no  application  to  that  more  systematic  beneficence 
which  was  bestowed  upon  the  needy  members  of  the  Chui'ch 
through  organized  channels.  The  giving  was  spontaneous,  free,  not 
of  their  abundance,  but  from  their  scanty  earnings. 

The  peculiar  organization  of  the  Churches  also  provided  for  sys- 
tematic and  widereachinw  charities.     Not  only  were  the 

Also   wide-ex-  .       .  *  .  .  "^ 

tended  til roush  needy  of  individual  congregations  relieved  by  the  obla- 
organization.  ^^^^^  offered  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  special  collections 
were  made  for  the  relief  of  distress  in  distant  provinces.  Already 
in  the  apostolic  age  community  of  interest  was  shown  by  forward- 
ing considerable  sums  of  money,  gathered  from  wide  districts  of 
country,  to  relieve  the  poor  saints  at  Jerusalem  (Rom.  xv,  25,  26; 
1  Cor.  XV,  1-4).  The  expression  "them  of  Macedonia  and  Achaia" 
seems  to  include  mau}^  of  the  most  prosperous  churches  which  had 
been  established  through  Paul's  instrumentality,  and  indicates  the 
nature  and  extent  of  these  offerings.  The  churches  of  the  first  two 
and  a  half  centuries  ma}'  be  regarded  as  so  many  compact  organiza- 
tions for  charitable  work.  Its  oversight  being  entrusted  to  the  bish- 
ops, there  was  an  immediateness  and  directness  of  relief  which 
otherwise  were  not  possible.  The  close  affiliations  of  the  bishops 
Giftseasiiyeon-  witli  each  Other,  and  the  system  of  circular  letters  which 
relief  of  dis-  ^^'^^  been  adopted,  enabled  the  entire  Church  to  concen- 
•^•■ess.  trate  its  gifts  upon  a  single  locality  which  had  been  vis- 

ited with  sudden  or  peculiar  distress.  Moreover,  the  association  of 
the  bishop  with  sub-helpers,  as  elders,  deacons,  the  widows  and  the 
deaconesses,  allowed  of  faithful  and  minute  supervision,  and  of  a 
consequent  Avise  and  economical  administration  of  the  charities.     It 

is  plain  that  the  deaconesses  had  other  duties  than  those 
Deaconesses.  ' 

01  keepers  of  the  entrances  of  the  church  appointed  for 

women,  or  even  as  assistants  in  baptism,  or  instructors  of  candidates; 

they  were  employed  in  those  works  of  charity  and  relief  Avhere  hea- 

'  Book  ii,  Mandata,  ii. 


CHARITIES  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH.  405 

then  public  opinion  would  not  i)«.'rinit  the  presence  of  the  deacons. 
"  Ordain  also  a  deaconess  who  is  faithful  and  holy,  for  the  ministra- 
tions toward  women.  For  sometimes  he  cannot  send  a  deacon,  who 
is  a  man,  to  the  women,  on  account  of  unbelievers.  Thou  shalt 
therefore  send  a  woman,  a  deaconess,  on  account  of  the  imat^inations 
of  the  bad.'"  Thus  the  number  and  variety  of  officers  enabled  the 
early  Church  to  reach  all  classes,  and  to  have  complete  knowledge 
of  the  personal  needs  of  its  members. 

Another  question  which  has  been  earnestly  discussed  is  tlie  inllu- 
ence  of  the  early  Christian  S3\stem  of  charities  upon  pan-  inniM-nce  of 
l)erism  and  self-help.  It  has  been  charired  that  it  fostered  P"''*'*""  '="»'- 
dependence,  and  that  its  ultimate  result  was  to  add  to  ism. 
the  pauper  population.  The  question  is  beset  with  difficulties,  be- 
cause of  insutKcient  data  from  which  to  form  a  judgment.  The  lack 
of  official  statistics,  with  reference  both  to  the  Roman  government 
and  to  ecclesiastical  activities,  renders  the  question  wellnigh  insolu- 
ble. That  j)romiscuous  relief  of  the  poor,  disconnected  from  a  tlior- 
ough  knowledge  of  the  needs  of  the  beneficiary,  tends  to  helplessness 
and  increasing  poverty  is  everywhere  confessed.  The  presumption 
is  certainly  very  strong  that  this  defect  could  not,  however,  attach 
to  the  early  Christian  charities.  While,  as  has  been  noted,  a 
generous  and  helpful  sjiirit  toward  all  was  clearly  taught,  the  thor- 
oughness of  organization  and  administration  afforded  the  best  possi- 
ble guarantee  of  worthy  bestowment  of  aid.  First,  accurate  lists 
Avere  kept  of  those  who  received  stated  assistance,  so  Guards  apainst 
that  immediate  and  thorough  inspection  was  possible.  of*seiMewn"- 
Second,  the  aid  afforded  was  usually  of  the  necessaries  ence. 
of  life.  Third,  the  support  of  such  as  had  abandoned  a  trade,  or 
otherwise  suffered  peculiar  hardshii*  for  the  sake  of  Christ, was  of  a 
simple  and  inexpensive  nature,  thus  reducing  to  a  minimum  the 
temptation  to  deception  and  fraud.  Fourth,  the  special  pains  to 
have  orphans  of  Christian  parents  adopted  by  childless  couj)les,  and 
trained  in  habits  of  industry,'  was  a  most  beneficent  provision  which 
kept  alive  the  spirit  of  purest  charity,  and  most  effectually  guarded 
against  the  increase  of  pauperism.  Fifth,  the  solemn  charge  to 
bishops  that  they  be  solicitous  to  aid  the  truly  needy,  but  at  the 
same  time  do  all  in  their  power  to  place  every  body,  so  far  as  possi- 
ble, in  a  condition  of  self-heli>.  The  language  of  the  Constitutions 
is  noteworthy:  "O  bishops,  be  solicitous  about  their  rimrire  to  the 
maintenance,  being  in  nothing  wanting  to  them;  exhib-  bishops, 
iting  to  orphans  the  care  of  parents;  to  the  widows  the  care  of  hus- 
bands; to  those  of  suitable  age,  marriage;  to  the  artificer,  work;  to 
'Const.  Apost.,  1.  iii,  c.  15.  '  Const.  Apost,  1.  iv,  c.  1. 


493  ARfH.EOLOGY    OF    CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

the  disabled,  comiuiseration;  to  the  strangers,  a  house;  to  the  hun- 
gry, food;  to  the  thirsty,  drink;  to  the  naked,  clothing;  to  the  sick, 
visitation;  to  the  ))risoners,  assistance;  .  .  .  to  the  young  man,  assist- 
ance tliat  he  may  learn  a  trade,  and  may  be  maintained  hy  the  advan- 
tage arising  from  it,  .  .  .  that  so  he  may  no  longer  burden  any  of  the 
brethren;  ,  .  ,  for  certainly  he  is  a  happy  man  who  is  able  to  support 
himself,  and  does  not  take  up  the  place  of  the  orphan,  the  stranger, 
and  the  widow."  '  These  considerations,  among  many  others,  would 
seem  to  show  that  the  methods  of  the  Christian  Church,  prior  to  the 
rise  and  prevalence  of  monasticism,  were  well  calculated  to  keep  alive 
a  genuine  charity,  and  foster  a  spirit  of  independence  and  self-help. 
Probably  the  times  of  persecution  and  of  public  misfortune 
....  afforded  the  occasions  for  the  most  impressive  exemiili- 
for  Christian  fication  of  the  Christian  law  of  love.  While  the  perse- 
c  drities.  cations  of  the  Church  were  for  the  most  part  local,  and 

grew  out  of  a  peculiar  combination  of  circumstances,  they  were 
often  sharp  and  peculiarly  afflictive.  The  suffering  arose  from  the 
confiscation  of  property,  from  its  ruthless  destruction  through  poj)- 
ular  outbreaks,  from  loss  of  business,  and  often  from  exile,  imprison- 
ment, or  death  of  tliose  who  were  the  natural  guardians  of  families. 
The  records  and  the  inscriptions  alike  tell  a  story  honourable  to  the 
heroism  and  to  the  patient  sacrifice  of  the  Church.  In  the  Decian 
persecution,  Avhich    proved   so   disastrous,    those    who 

Iq  DGrsGcutions.    ^  ^  *-  ^ 

were  banished  to  the  mines,  or  immured  in  prisons 
in  Carthage,  were  tenderly  cared  for  by  the  whole  body  of  be- 
lievers. Cyprian  is  most  earnest  in  his  words  and  labours  to  re- 
lieve the  wants  of  such  as  were  under  special  temptation  to  aposta- 
sy. Persons  cast  into  prison  on  account  of  their  faith  -were  visited, 
and  supplied  with  necessary  provisions.  The  unfortunate  men  M'ho 
were  condemned  to  the  mines,  and  who  were  compelled  to  submit 
to  the  cruelt}^  of  harsh,  unfeeling  masters,  wei-e  not  forgotten  by 
the  sympathizing  Church.  The  deeper  the  misery  and  the  greater 
the  peril  the  more  brightly  shone  the  light  of  charity,  and  extraor- 
dinary care  was  bestowed  upon  those  whose  lot  was  peculiarly  trjdng. 
The  charities  at  such  times  Avere  generous  and  methodical.'' 

So,  too,  in  times  of  great  public  misfortune.  During  the  third 
intimesofpub-  ecntury  the  empire  was  visited  by  a  series  of  fearful  ca- 
lic  misfortune,  lamities,  in  Avhich  the  contrast  between  Christian  and 
heathen  charity  was  made  most  conspicuous.  The  fatal  pestilence 
inCarthaRe  ^"^'liich  appeared  indifferent  districts  dissolved  all  nat- 
ural ties.  In  Carthage  there  was  a  general  panic.  "All 
were  shuddering,  fleeing,  shunning  the  contagion,  impiously  ex- 
'  Const.  Apost.,  1.  iv,  c.  2.  «  Cyprian :  Epist.  xxxvi,  ad  Clerum. 


CHARITIES  IN  THE  EAULY  CHUUCH.  497 

posing  their  own  friends, ns  if  witli  exclusion  of  the  person  who  was 
sure  to  die  of  the  phigue  one  could  exclude  death  also.  .  .  .  Ko  one 
regarded  any  thing  besides  liis  cruel  gains.  .  .  .  No  one  did  for  an- 
other what  he  himself  wished  to  experience."  '  The  biographer  of 
Cjqnian  speaks  of  his  exhortations  in  the  midst  of  the  pestilence: 
that  the  Christians  should  not  succour  their  own  brethren  alone,  but 
all  alike;  that  this  was  the  Father's  method,  and  the  children  must 
be  like  the  Father.''  In  conformity  to  this  spirit  the  Christians  ral- 
lied to  assist,  some  by  their  money,  many  more  by  their  labours,  in 
caring  for  the  sick  and  burying  the  dead,  until  tlie  calamity  was 
stayed.  Like  scenes  were  witnessed  in  the  midst  of  the 
pestilence  at  Alexandria.  The  letter  of  Dionysius,  then 
bishop,  as  found  in  Eusebius,  gives  a  most  graphic  picture  of  the 
difference  of  the  behaviour  of  Christians  and  heathen  in  the  midst  of 
this  awful  visitation.  "  They  (the  CMiristians)  took  up  the  bodies  of 
the  saints  with  their  open  hands,  and  on  their  bosoms,  cleansed  their 
eyes  and  closed  their  mouths,  carried  them  on  their  shoulders,  and 
composed  their  limbs,  embraced,  clung  to  them,  and  prepared  them 
decently  with  washing  and  garments;  and  erelong  they  themselves- 
shared  in  the  same  otiices.  Those  that  survived  always  followed 
those  before  them.  Among  the  heathen  it  was  just  the  reverse. 
They  both  repelled  those  who  began  to  be  sick  and  avoided  their 
nearest  friends.  They  would  cast  them  out  into  the  roads  half  dead, 
or  throw  them,  when  dead,  without  burial,"  etc'  These  deeds  of 
mercy  and  of  charitable  relief  were  found  in  all  departments  of 
activity,  and  the  teachings  and  practice  of  the  Church  were  such  as 
to  profoundly  impress  the  most  stubborn  opponents. 

Few  can  doubt  that  the  nature  of  Christian  charities  was  changed 
both  bv  the  conflict  with  Montanism,  and  by  the  growth   „  .    ,  ,       . 

-  _  '  »'  -^  Principles  ad- 

of  the  princij)le  of  the  merit  of  good  works  which  had   verse  to  tiirist- 

taken  firm  root  in  the  Church  by  the  middle  of  the  third  '"""^  '"' ''' 
century.  With  all  its  wild  extravagance,  ^Montanism  was  also  a  pro- 
test against  the  prevailing  laxil-y  of  discipline,  and  the  easy  morals 
wliich  had  begun  to  rob  the  Church  of  her  greatest  efficiency.  In  so^ 
far  3Iontanisni  contained  a  valuable  element.  But  in  the  attempt  to 
purif  V  the  Church  by  simple  discipline  lay  a  radical  error.  In  merely 
withdrawing  from  the  world,  in  forbidding  any  commingling  with 
sinful  humanity,  in  regarding   all   tilings   forbidden  nhicli   arc    not 

I'vpresslv  allowed,  ]\Iontanism  was  introducing  into  the 

'  l  ^  '  ..',.,         Montanism. 

Church  what  is  contradictory   to   the   ))nnciples  wliicli 

Christ   had    most  clearly   inculcated.     The    lofty   excliisiveness   <»f 

this   heresv  savoured  of  a  spiritual  pride,  and    woidd  separate  its 

'   Viki  Oypriani,  C.  9.  '^  Ibid.,  c.  10..  *  Euseliiii.s:    Hist,  tkcl.,  1.  7,  c.  22. 


408  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF   CHRISTIAN   LIFE. 

votaries  from  a  fallen  world  which  it  was  the  real  mission  of  Chris- 
tianity to  restore.  In  its  conflict  with  this  stubborn  heresy  the 
Church  passed  beyond  the  sober  mean  into  the  opposite  extreme.  In 
the  attempt  to  meet  the  social  and  intellectual  forces  of  the  empire, 
and  bring  them  into  subjection,  the  strictness  of  discipline  was  re- 
laxed, and  the  Church  became  more  and  more  conformed  to  the  preva- 
lent spirit,  until  she  was  too  often  content  with  the  mere  ceremonial 
Doctrine  of  without  the  inspiring  spirit  of  worship.  The  growing 
{rood  works.  strength  of  the  doctrine  of  good  works,  which  finds  ex- 
pression in  Origen  and  Cj^prian,  and  the  substitution  of  a  special 
priesthood,  whose  functions  were  of  peculiar  sanctity,  for  the  doc- 
trine of  the  priesthood  of  all  believers  who  were  each  and  all  called  to 
a  high  and  holy  calling,  tended  to  tarnish  the  charities  of  the  Church. 
No  longer  was  the  simple  love  of  Christ  the  inspiration  of  Christian 
beneficence;  but  the  motive  of  personal  advantage  to  the  giver  in- 
troduced into  the  work  of  the  Church  that  selfish  clement  which  had 
tainted  the  charities  of  the  heathen  guilds.  Thus  the  gifts  Avhich  had 
before  been  so  bountifully  bestowed  by  individuals  Avere  now  left  to 
the  care  of  the  Church  ofticiarv,  and  almsgiving  was  now  practised 
for  the  benefit  Avhich  might  inure  to  the  donor.  Also  the  transition 
from  the  simple  congregational  episcopacy  to  the  more  formal  and 
stately  diocesan  government,  tended  to  confound  pure  charity 
with  a  kind  of  perfunctory  service  which  was  delegated  to  chosen 
officials  who  must  deal  with  masses  rather  than  with  individual 
suft'erers. 

The  recognition  of  the  Church  by  the  State  was  a  most  important 
infiuenceofun-  ^^^^  ^"  ^^^^  histor}'  of  Christian  charities.  Constantine 
ion  of  riuirph  had  become  convinced  of  the  superiority  of  the  work  of 
the  Church,  and  had  largely  added  to  her  availaljle  re- 
sources. As  the  churches  became  more  magnificent,  and  public  wor- 
ship more  statelv  through  the  use  of  imposing  liturgies,  so  the  means 
for  beneficent  work  were  greatly  multiplied.  But  this  increase  of 
the  wealth  of  the  Church  was  at  the  expense  of  the  State.  The  finan- 
cial condition  of  the  empire  was  deplorable.  Industries  were  in  a 
state  of  decline.  The  later  retirement  of  multitudes  to  the  monastic 
life  withdrew  an  immense  productive  force  from  society,  and  the  fui-- 
ther  exemption  of  the  Church  properties  from  taxation  added  to  tlie 
burdens  of  the  remaining  citizens.  Resistance  to  the  inroads  of  the 
barbarian  tribes  brought  a  further  strain  upon  the  tottering  empire, 
Avhile  in  the  track  of  these  invading  hordes  were  ruin  and  appalling 
want.  The  opportunities  for  the  charitable  work  of  the  Church  thus 
multiplied  on  every  hand.  Nor  Avere  the  means  wanting.  Immense 
sums  were  poured  into  her  treasuries,  but  these  were  largelv  in  the 


CHARITIES  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH.  499 

form  of  alms,  and  did  not  come, as hcfore, from  the  free  Decay  of  pure 
ol)lati(nis  made  at  tlie  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  charities. 
The  decay  of  spiritual  life  caused  the  churches  to  be  unvisited  by  the 
masses  of  the  people,  so  that  in  the  writings  of  the  great  leaders  and 
preachers  are  found  bitter  complaints  that  the  eucharist  was  neg- 
lected for  the  sake  of  the  circus  or  the  theatre,  and  that  the  oblations 
were  greatly  diminished. 

The  theory  that  the  property  of  the  Church  is  for  the  good  of 
the  poor  was  still  recognised,  and  many  of  the  high  officials  gave 
all  their  private  fortunes  into  lier  coffers.  The  constantly  strength- 
ening doctrine  that  almsgiving  ranked  with  fasting  and  prayer 
as  a  means  of  salvation,  and  had,  therefore,  a  highly  meritorious 
power,  further  a<lded  to  the  resources  available  for  Church  charities. 
Nor  was  the  Church  an  unfaithful  steward.  A  new  species  of  char- 
ities, in  the  form  of  hospitals,  appeared  during  the  reign  Ris^  of  hospi- 
of  Constantino.  The  exact  time  of  their  origin  is  not  ^'*- 
known ;  but  the  presumjjtion  is  strong  that  the  establishments 
ordered  bj'^  Julian, during  his  attempt  to  restore  heathenism,  were  in 
imitation  of  what  had  already  become  familiar  to  the  Christians. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  from  the  last  half  of  the  fourth  to  the 
sixth  century  great  numbers  of  these  charities  were  founded,  and 
were  the  means  of  alleviating  the  distresses  of  multitudes  of  the 
poor  and  impotent.  They  spread  from  the  east  to  the  west,  where 
they  at  first  seem  to  have  been  much  fewer,  and  to  have  been  held 
in  lower  esteem.  So  numerous  and  varied  were  the  hospitals  in 
the  Eastern  Empire  that  special  legislation  was  required  for  their 
regulation  and  control.  Though  sometimes  the  centres  of  fearful 
immoralities,  they  often  furnished  opportunities  of  labor  for  worthy 
men  and  women,  and  were  places  of  refuge  for  the  unfortunate  in 
the  chaotic  times  succeeding  the  downfall  of  the  Empire. 


500 


ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

THE  RELATIONS  OF  THE  EARLY  CHURCH  TO   EDUCATION  AXD  GEN- 
ERAL CULTURE. 

What  were  the  intellectual  training-  and  attainments  of  "the 
The  culture  of  Twelve,"  and  of  Christ's  immediate  disciples,  it  is  diffi- 
the  apostles.  (>^lt  to  determine.  It  has  been  quite  common  to  repre- 
sent them  as  obscure  and  unlettered  fisheraien,  or  common  toilers 
who  belonged  to  a  despised  province,  were  unacquainted  with  human 
philosophy,  and  were  untouched  by  the  current  discussions.  Some 
facts  of  the  gospel  history,  and  some  expressions  of  Christ  and  of 
Paul,  seem  to  justify  this  view.  "  For  ye  see  your  calling,  breth- 
ren, how  that  not  many  wise  men  after  the  flesh,  ov  ttoXXoI  GO(f)oi 
Kara  odprca,  not  many  might}^,  not  many  noble,  evyevecg,  are  called. 
But  God  has  chosen  the  foolish,  ra  fiuypa,  things  of  the  world  to  con- 
found the  wise,  rovg  <To0oi>f,"  etc.  (1  Cor.  i,  26-28),  This  expression 
would,  however,  imply  that  some  of  "  the  called  "  were  of  another 

„  . ,    type:  and  in  the  history  of  the  apostolic  Church  are 
Some    ofHcials     -^  ^      .  •  .  \ 

were     Christ-  mentioned  a  few  men  of  high  position,  Ijoth  in  the  em- 

*'*"^'  pire  and  in  the  Jewish  Church,  who  had  accepted  Chris- 

tianit}'  (Acts  xiii,  12;  xviii,  8;  xxii,  3;  Rom.  xvi,  23),  While  the 
Gospel  was  indeed  "  good  news  "  to  the  uneducated,  the  low-born, 
and  the  obscure,  who  felt  the  need  of  a  deliverer,  it  should  not  be  too 
hastily  inferred  that  the  first  called  apostles  were  necessarily  illiter- 
couid  read  the  'ite.  "^Flie  frequent  appeals  of  Christ  to  the  law  show 
''^"'-  that  his  apostles  were  familiar  with  and  able  to  read  it. 

Josephus  and  Philo  agree  in  saying  that  great  importance  was 
attached  to  the  readimj  of  the  law.  The  noted  expression  of  Jose- 
phus, "  If  any  one  should  question  one  of  us  concerning  the  laws,  he 
Avould  more  easily  repeat  all  than  his  own  name,"  shows  that  his 
further  statement  must  be  true,  that  "  from  our  first  consciousness 
we  have  them,  as  it  were,  engraven  on  our  souls." '  He  fre- 
<piently  mentions  the  zeal  manifested  by  the  Jews  in  the  instruction 
of  their  children  in  the  law,  and  claims  that  Moses  commanded  to 
teach  them  in  the  elements  of  knowledge,  that  they  might  walk 
according;  to  the  holy  statutes,  and  not  transgress  them.     At  the 

'  Aipion,  ii,  18 


RELATIONS  TO  EDUCAITON  AND  GENERAL  CULTURE,     noi 

advent  of  Chi'ist,  .scliools  liad  been  fouiulcd  by  tlie  Jew-  schools  in  th*- 
isli  communities  for  the  instruction  of  the  children  in  ""^'^  "^  Christ, 
the  elements  of  knowledge;  but  the  ultimate  object  of  these  was  to 
teach  the  law.  The  purpose  of  the  elementary  school  was,  there- 
fore, to  prepare  the  pupils  to  read  it,  since  great  stress  was  laid  upon 
the  reading  in  contradistinction  from  mei'e  oral  instruction.'  The 
further  duty  of  children  to  keep  the  Sabbath,  to  ob.serve  the  great 
fasts,  to  join  in  tlie  i)rayers  in  the  family  worship  and  at  the  table, 
and  to  attend  the  national  festivals,  necessarily  furnished  invaluable 
opportunities  for  a  knowledge  of  the  law,  and  for  familiarity  with 
the  national  history. 

The  education  thus  carefully  begun  was  continued  by  means  of 
the  services  of  the  synagogue.  This  becomes  more  im-  The  synagogue 
portant  from  the  fact  that  the  synagogues  were  prima-  'H^^^  iustltu- 
rily  places  for  religious  instruction,  and  not,  in  the  strict  tiou- 
sense  of  the  term,  for  worship.  Hence  Pliilo  calls  them  "  houses  of 
instruction,"  where  the  law  and  its  sacred  observance  were  incul- 
cated. The  further  fact  that  in  the  smaller  towns,  where  the  Jew- 
ish element  was  largely  in  excess,  the  town  senate  probably  united 
in  themselves  both  religious  and  civil  authority,  would  add  to  the 
importance  of  the  synagogues  as  educational  institutions.  More- 
over, the  free  method  of  conducting  the  services  in  these  places  of 
meeting  must  have  been  a  further  means  of  stimulating  thought  and 
of  disseminating  knowledge.  While  there  was  a  chief  officer,  dp^;'- 
ovvdycjyog,  who  cared  for  the  general  order  of  services,  preaching, 
and  prayer,  no  officials  were  appointed;  any  one,  even  minors,  might 
read  the  Scriptures,  and  every  adult  member  of  the  congregation 
was  competent  to  lead  in  prayer  and  expound  the  lessons.  On  Sab- 
bath days  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue  was  accustomed  to  invite  sev- 
eral, generally  not  less  than  seven,  to  take  part  in  the  reading,  thus 
increasing  the  number  of  interested  partakers  in  the  service,  and  of 
persons  who  were  able  to  pronounce  the  sacred  text;  while  either 
the  readers  themselves,  or  some  competent  members  of  the  congre- 
gation, accompanied  the  reading  with  a  continued  translation  into 
the  Aramaic,  which  was  the  dialect  understood  by  the  bulk  of  the 
common  peoi)le. 

The  importance  which  is  attached  to  teaching  in  the  writings 
of  Paul  is  pertinent  to  an  inquiry  respecting  the  The  leaciiing 
d'jgree  of  intelligence  among  the  early  CMiristians.  It  fu'n'ti*'". 
is  interesting  to  notice  the  emphasis  which  is  laid  upon  this 
function,  6i6daKetv,  didaaKaXia,  in  the  writings  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament.     ]>y   Paul   it  is   mentioned    with    i)rophecy,    ministering, 

'  p.  Shurer:   The  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Chriat,  vol.  ii,  div.  ii,  p.  50. 


502  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

exliortation,  giving,  and  ruling  (Rom.  xii,  6-8).  Teaching,  6i- 
daoKaXia,  is  el^sewhere  (1  Cor.  xii,  28)  third  in  the  enumeration  of 
special  charisms,  outranking  even  miracles,  dwdixeig,  gifts  of  heal- 
U10-,  helps,  governments,  and  diversities  of  tongues.  This  is  not  to 
be  accounted  as  merely  the  opinion  of  an  apostle  whose  oppor- 
tunities for  understanding  contemporary  thought,  both  Jewish  and 
chrisfs  meth-  P^gan,  had  been  exceptional,  but  rather  it  is  in  accord 
I'U.  with  the  method  of  Christ  himself,  whose  ministry  was 

largely  a  nunistry  of  teaching.  Whether  going  about  all  Galilee 
(Matt,  iv,  23;  Luke  xiii,  10),  or  through  all  Jewry  (Luke  xxiii,  5), 
or  sitting  daily  in  the  temple  (Matt,  xxvi,  5;  John  vii,  14),  or  ad- 
dressing his  more  immediate  disciples  on  the  deeper  meaning  of  the 
law  (Matt.  V,  2),  or  in  the  more  astounding  miracles  which  he 
wrought,  or  in  the  foremost  place  given  to  teaching  in  the  great 
commission,  Jesus  everywhere  recog-nises  the  prime  importance  of 
mstructing  men  in  regard  to  the  truths  pertaining  to  his  kingdom. 

Closely  connected  with  this  is  the  character  of  the  epistles  which 
Exalted  char-  the  apostles  addressed  to  the  various  churches  respect- 

acter   of   the  ^       doctrines  and  duties.     It  must  be  recollected  that 

apostolic  writ-        c 

ings.  most  of  these  letters  were  written  to  infant  societies 

within  a  generation  from  the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  that  they  were 
addressed  to  men  and  women  who  may  represent  the  average  cult- 
ure of  the  Church,  before  it  was  compelled  to  adjust  itself  to  the  new 
conditions  wliich  persecutions  or  imperial  patronage  afterward  cre- 
ated. It  is  true  that  the  great  bod}^  of  the  matter  of  these  epistles 
is  truth  of  an  eminently  practical  character,  easily  understood,  and 
Avell  suited  to  establish  the  community  of  believers  in  faith  and  all 
holy  living.  But  when  we  study  some  portions  of  Paul's  letters  to 
the  Romans,  to  the  Galatians,  and  to  the  Corinthians,  or  the  epistle 
to  the  Hebrews,  we  are  confronted  with  discussions  of  some  of  the 
most  abstruse  problems  of  religious  philosophy,  to  whose  interpreta- 
tion the  best  minds  of  the  Christian  centuries  have  been  devoted. 
The  profound  teachings  of  this  apostle  respecting  the  relation  of  the 
Jewish  economy  to  the  kingdom  of  heaven  among  men,  the  failure 
of  natural  religion  to  bring  salvation,  the  bondage  of  the  fallen  man 
to  sin,  the  relations  of  law  to  grace,  the  justification  of  the  soul  by 
faith,  the  subtle  truths  pertaining  to  the  resurrection  body,  and  the 
final  triumph  of  the  redeemed  man,  must  be  accounted  among  the 
most  important  and  difficult  themes  Miiich  can  engage  human 
thought.  Peter  speaks  of  some  things  in  these  letters  as  "  hard  to 
be  understood,  Svavorjra,  which  they  that  are  unlearned,  ol  dimdelg, 
and  unstable  wrest,  as  they  do  also  the  other  Scriptures,  unto  their 
own  destruction"  (2  Pet.  iii,  16).     But  it  is  not  presumable  that  an 


RELATIONS  TO  EDUCATION  AND  GENERAL  CULTURE.      503 

M})0.stle  would  write  in  language  not  capable  of  being  appreciated 
either  by  the  mass  of  the  disciples,  or  by  those  who  had  special 
direction  of  their  religious  education,  thus  defeating  the  very  pur- 
pose of  the  ejjistles.  Hence  we  are  led  to  believe  that  in  the  apos- 
tolic Cliuich  there  must  have  been  a  fair  proportion  (jf  men  and 
women  to  wlioni  the  deeper  and  more  abstruse  discussions  of  Paul 
were  not  only  intelligible,  but  were  the  means  of  moral  and  religious 
edification. 

In  the  examination  of  a  question  respecting  wliich  so  little  evi- 
dence survives,  the  Christian  idea  of  the  faniilv,  and  the     ^.    „.  .  ,. 

/  .  .  .  •  '  The  Christian 

sacred  duty  of  care  for  children,  to  which  reference  has  duty  to  the 
elsewhere  been  made  (Book  IV,  chap,  i),  must  not  be  ''"""y- 
omitted.  The  effect  of  Christianity  was  the  awakening  and  (piick- 
ening  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  powers.  With  new  views  of  duty 
and  destiny  came  new  motives  to  care  for  the  young.  The  very  at- 
mosphere of  the  Christian  household  was  redolent  of  influences  most 
truly  stimulating  and  ennobling.  The  mother  nourished  the  child, 
the  community  cared  for  the  orphaned.  The  simi)licity  of  tastes,  so 
uniformly  inculcated  by  the  Christian  fathers,  turned  the  thoughts 
from  the  merely  outward  and  accidental  to  the  spiritual  and  essen- 
tial. The  family  education  must,  therefore,  have  been  of  extreme 
importance,  and  had  its  root  in  the  very  genius  of  the  Christian  sys- 
tem. The  duty  to  behave  toward  each  other  in  a  manner  mutually 
helpful  and  saving,  because  each  belonged  to  a  family  w-ith  God  as 
fath'-r,  was  solemn  and  imperative,  thus  furnishing  the  necessary 
couilitions  of  the  truest  and  fullest  education. 

For  merely  secular  education  the  Christians  of  the  first  and  sec- 
ond centuries  depended  upon  heathen  schools.  These  xhe  secular 
were  accessible  to  those  who  could  pay  a  moderate  price  schools. 
for  instruction,  since  the  calling  of  a  common  teacher  in  the  second 
century  was  regarded  as  one  of  great  toil  and  of  very  limited  in- 
come. Liberal  emperors  had  encouraged  education,  and  numerous 
scIkjoIs  had  been  established  under  their  auspices.  Julius  Ctiesar 
had  attracted  many  Greek  teachers  to  Home,  where  instruction  in 
the  language  was  greatly  coveted,  and  Augustus  became  a  liberal 
|)atron  of  polite  learning.  In  the  second  century  Antoninus  Pius 
iiad  provided  for  the  establishment  of  schools  in  all  parts  of  the  em- 
pire, sustaining  at  the  ]niblic  expense  ten  teachers  of  medicine,  live 
rlietoricians,  and  five  grammarians  in  the  largest  cities;  seven  teach- 
ers of  medicine,  four  rhetoricians,  and  four  grammarians  in  thosi-  of 
medium  po))ulation;  and  five  teachers  of  medicine,  three  rheto- 
ricians, and  three  grantmarians  in  the  smaller  towns.'  While  these 
>  Friedlander:  Bd.  i,  s.  28L 


504  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

provisions  were  entirely  inadequate  to  satisfy  the  public  needs,  they 
nevertheless  encourag-ed  the  citizens  of  the  empire  to  greater  efforts 
Education  de-  ^or  the  care  of  their  cliildren.  But  the  interest  in  edu- 
tiiniag.  cation  was  already  declining.     There  had  been  a  marked 

decadence  since  the  beginning  of  the  first  century.  The  military 
and  civil  service  had  fallen  more  and  more  into  the  hands  of  the 
low-born,  and  thus  the  need  of  culture  as  a  preparation  for  public 
life  was  felt  to  be  less  urgent  In  the  West  a  vicious  pronunciation 
became  increasingly  prevalent,  and  many  proofs  of  growing  illiter- 
acy and  vulgarity  are  still  preserved  in  the  literature  and  in  the  in- 
scriptions. It  is  said  that  while  quaestor,  Hadrian,  during  the  read- 
ing of  an  address,  was  derided  by  the  senators  on  account  of  his 
blundei's  in  the  use  of  the  language,  and  that  M.  Aurelius  was  not 
understood  when  he  gave  commands  in  Latin,  because  his  elegant 
pronunciation  was  entirely  foreign  to  his  officers.^ 

The  feelings  of  the  Christians  respecting  the  attendance  upon  the 
„    ^  pagan  schools  were  various.     It  Avas  impossible  for  their 

Embarrass-    ^    ®  _  '■ 

iiifnts  of  ttie  children  to  gain  the  elements  of  a  secular  education  else- 
(hiistians.  ^vhere,  since  the  condition  of  the  first  Christians  forbade 
the  establishment  of  separate  schools.  The  slender  testimony  extant 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  Christian  parents  were  accustomed  to 
patronize  the  heathen  teachers.  Yet  the  early  fathers  are  perplexed 
Tertiuiian's  with  the  problem.  Especially  Tertullian  recognises  the 
views.  serious  embarrassments  felt  by  both  pupils  and  school- 

masters. He  sees  in  the  teaching  of  the  schools,  as  in  other  kinds  of 
business,  the  taint  of  idolatry.  He  discriminates,  however,  between 
teaching  and  learning  the  heathen  literature.  "  Learning  literature 
is  allowable  for  believers,  rather  than  teaching,  for  the  principle  of 
learning  and  of  teaching  is  different.  If  a  believer  teach  literature, 
while  he  is  teaching  doubtless  he  commends,  while  he  delivers  he 
affirms,  while  he  recalls  he  bears  testimony  to,  the  praises  of  idols 
interspersed  therein.  .  .  .  But  when  a  believer  learns  these  things, 
if  he  is  already  capable  of  understanding  what  idolatry  is,  he  neither 
receives  nor  allows  them;  much  more  if  he  is  not  yet  capable."* 
He  therefore  hesitates  to  condemn  the  ]iatronizing  of  the  heathen 
schools  by  the  Christian,  because  "to  him  necessity  is  attributed 
as  an  excuse,  because  he  has  no  other  way  to  learn." '  Cyprian  is 
firm  in  enforcing  the  differences  between  Christian  and  heathen 
morality;'  and  it  is  clear  from  the  taunts  of  Celsus  that  in  his 
"lay  there  was  a  wide-spread  inattention  and  even  repugnance  to 
heathen  learning  among  the  Christians. 

'  Friodlilnder:    Op.  cit,  Bd.  iii,  ss.  352   353. 

^  (k  Idol,  c.  10.  3  jijI^i  4  ^^fl  Anton,  c.  16. 


RELATIONS  TO  EDUCATION  AND  GENERAL  CULTURE.     505 

The  earliest  educational  institution  in  the  Church  was  the  cate- 
chumenate.  This  was  not  intended  for  children  only,  The  catechu- 
but  for  all  who  would  be  admitted  to  full  inenibershi]),  n'^u^it*- 
and  to  a  complete  enjoyment  of  Church  privileges.  Primarily  this 
had  reference  to  instruction  in  the  principles  of  the  Christian  faith, 
and  it  is  probable  that  little,  if  any,  strictly  secular  education  was 
at  first  connected  with  it.  The  bishops  regarded  it  as  incumbent 
upon  them  to  care  for  the  training  of  their  flocks  in  the  principles  of 
their  religion ;  yet,  from  some  of  the  works  which  have  been  preserved, 
it  is  evident  that  the  discussions  sometimes  involved  tlie  highest 
problems  which  can  engage  human  attention, — the  doctrines  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  the  Incarnation,  Divine  Providence,  the  last  Things, 
etc.  From  this  it  may  be  safely  inferred  that  the  hearers  must  have 
passed  far  be^'ond  the  stage  of  elementary  training,  and  wei-e  able 
to  discuss  and  master  these  high  themes.  The  ac('ei)tance  of  Chris- 
tianity by  some  men  well  versed  in  the  i)agan  j^hiloso- 
phy  led  the  earliest  apologists  to  emi)loy  Greek  learning  Greek  leam- 
in  the  defence  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Christian  sys-  '"*'' 
tem.  Such  Avas  Justin  Martyr,  who,  after  conversion,  devoted  his 
])owers  to  the  preparation  of  Apologies  for  Christianity,  addressing 
l)()th,  as  now  appears,  to  Antoninus  Pius,  one  of  the  most  cultivated 
emperors  of  the  century.  His  thought  and  method  are  distinctively 
Greek.  Christianity  is  the  highest  reason,  and  he  who  lives  in  con- 
formity to  reason  is  a  Christian.  Whatever,  therefore,  is  rational 
is  Christian,  and  whatever  is  Christian  is  in  accordance  with  the 
best  reason.  He  even  goes  so  far  as  to  declare  that  all,  in  ever}'-  dis- 
pensation, who  have  thus  lived  in  conformity  to  the  deepest  reason, 
are  Christians  in  every  thing  but  name.  Justin  thus  endeavours  to 
reconcile  the  Christian  system  with  the  best  teaching  of  the  Platonic 
philosophy,  and  is  the  first  one  of  the  fathers  to  suggest  the  method 
for  the  harmony  of  reason  and  revelation,  and  for  the  use  of  (xreek 
learning  in  tlie  Cliristian  schools. 

The  most  famous  catechetical  school  was  that  of  Alexandria, 
which  had  a  sutrcession  of  noted  teachers  wlio  deeply  in-  ^ue  school  ot 
fluenced  the  theology  of  the  Church,  ^\^lile  trailition  Alexandria, 
ascribes  its  founding  to  St.  Mark,  its  first  authentic  teacher  was 
Pantt^nus,  who  flourished  about  A.  D.  180.  He  was  succeedid  l)y 
a  long  line  of  instructors,  of  whom  Clement  and  Origen  weie  tli  ■ 
most  conspicuous.  This  school  was  not  for  children;  ratlur  it  was 
after  the  type  of  the  schools  of  the  Jewish  rabbis  and  of  the  (xreek 
philosophers.  It  was  a  place  of  iiKpiiry  and  discussion.  The  room 
or  hall  stood  oi)en  from  morning  to  night,  and  probably  all  who 
wIsIkmI  had  free  access  to  the  master.      In  addition  to  conversations, 


506  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

and  free  question  and  answer  to  any  who  might  come, 
Us  nieiho  .  ^in^j-e  appears  to  have  been  a  progressive  course  for  those 
who  desired  more  systematic  ti-aining  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Christ- 
ian religion.  This  is  suggested  by  the  treatises  of  Clement  and  Ori- 
gen.  They  seem  to  have  been  arranged  on  the  plan  of  a  progressive 
unfolding  of  the  truth,  and  a  growing  experience  of  its  saving 
power.'  Since  this  school  was  free  of  charge  for  tuition,  it  was  vis- 
ited by  multitudes  of  both  men  and  women,  and  became  the  means 
of  instructing  many  thoughtful  pagans  in  the  fundamental  doctrines 
of  Christianity.  Especially  under  the  direction  of  Origen,  who  at  a 
later  period  devoted  his  entire  attention  to  advanced  instruction, 
were  eminent  heathen  persuaded  of  the  truth  of  Christianity,  who 
also  made  valuable  gifts  to  the  school.  Prominent  among  these  was 
Ambrosius,  a  Gnostic,  who  contributed  a  valuable  library,  and  pro- 
moted the  exegetical  studies  of  Origen  by  the  aid  of  copyists,  read- 
ers, and  secretaries.  In  connection  with  theology  and  philosoph}', 
rhetoric  and  mathematics,  physics  and  astronomy,  and  even  gram- 
mar and  music,  were  taught. 

But  the  attempt  of  the  Alexandrian  theologians  to  reconcile 
This  fraught  the  supematuralism  of  the  Gospel  with  the  pagan  phi- 
with  dangers,  losophy  was  attended  with  peculiar  dangers.  Not  only 
did  the  Christian  teachers  encounter  the  purer  and  nobler  principles 
of  Platonism,  but  the  eclecticism  of  the  Neo-Platonic  school,  and 
the  bewildering  syncretism  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Gnosticism. 
The  earnest  desire  of  Origen  to  reconcile  these  conflicting  elements, 
within  and  without  the  Church,  led  him  to  embrace  some  extrava- 
gant doctrines  which  had  but  slender  scriptural  authority,  and  to 
originate  an  allegorical  method  of  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures 
whose  threefold  sense,  literal,  moral,  and  spiritual,  might  lead  to 
conclusions  as  untenable  as  the  wildest  vagaries  of  Gnosticism. 

At  a  very  early  date  an  important  institution  was  established  at 
The  school  of  Antioch.  This  differed  somewhat  from  the  catechetical 
Antioch.  school  of  Alexandria,  inasmuch  as  it  was  not  under  the 

direction  and  official  oversight  of  the  bishop,  but  was  rather  a  col- 
lection of  cloister  schools,  inside  and  outside  the  city,  for  the  special 
training  of  the  monks  and  clergy.  Their  curriculum  of  studies  was 
much  narrower.  Instead  of  philosophy  and  nearly  the  whole  round 
of  human  knowledge,  as  taught  at  Alexandria,  the  schools  of  Anti- 
och were  almost  exclusively  engaged  in  the  study  of  the  Scriptures. 
The  eminent  teachers,  Dorotheus  and  Lucian  of  Samosata,  intro- 

'  Notice  especially  the  difference  of  teachinu:  in  Clement's  GolwrtaUo  ad  Gnvcos. 
Piedurjogm,  and  Slromata.  These  prosxess  from  the  elements  of  a  Christian  life  to 
the  more  advanced  stages  of  thought  and  experience. 


RELATIONS  TO  EDUCATION  AND  GENERAL  CULTURE.  .j07 

cluceJ  a  more  just  and  rational  interpretation,  and  became  the 
instructors  of  some  of  the  ablest  bishops  of  the  Church.  Also 
at  Edessa,  Ciesarea,  Nisibis,  etc.,  were  Nourishing  schools,  whose 
influence  upon  the  thought  and  doctrines  of  the  Church  was  most 
important. 

The  recognition  of  the  Church  by  Constantine  brouglit  no  immedi- 
ate cliange  in  the  feeling  of  the  leading  fathers  respectintr 

"^  T  ,      .  '■  °    More     favour- 

iieathen  philosophy,  or  in  relation  to  the  propriety  of  pa-  able  opinion  of 
tronizing  heathen  schools.  There  is  abundant  evidence  ^^''"'"  '^^'"^'''^• 
that  some  of  the  mostdistinguished  Christian  theologians  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  received  much  of  their  training  under  pagan  mas- 
ters. The  education  of  Jerome,  Augustine,and  Chrysostom,as  well  as 
that  of  Gregory  Nazianzen  and  Basil  with  Julian  in  the  schools  of 
Athens,  is  illustrative  of  the  oi)inion  of  the  best  Christian  families 
respecting  the  excellent  discipline  of  the  heathen  teachers.  Never- 
theless, there  is  noticed  a  feeling  of  the  importance  of  a  distinctively 
Christian  education  under  the  direction  of  the  Church.  By  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourtli  century  this  conviction  had  greatly  strengthened, 
and  the  Christian  teachers  had  become  so  numerous  and  influential 
as  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  Emperor  Julian  to  these  schools, 
wiiich  were  regarded  by  him  as  most  serious  hinderances  to  his 
efforts  to  restore  tlie  pagan  religion.  The  attempt  to  remove  these 
teachers  from  the  public  schools,  and  its  influence  on  the  develop- 
ment of  a  distinctive  Christian  poetry,  have  been  elsewhere  traced.' 
The  further  effect  was  to   develop  a  theory  of  education  which 

may  l)e  liroijerly  denominated  Christian.     Its  chief  ele- 

•^  ^     /        •;  .  .  .  AChristianthe- 

ments  are  found  in  the  writings  of  Chrysostom,  but  it  is  ory  of  educa- 

more  completely  systematized  by  Basil.  Both  these  *'*'"' 
fathers  placed  a  very  high  value  upon  education.  "  Do  not  attempt 
to  make  your  son  a  mere  orator,  but  train  him  in  Christian  wisdom. 
Every  thing  depends  U})on  character,  not  ui)on  words;  this  alone 
will  make  him  strong  in  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  secure  for  him 
the  true  riches.  Do  not  be  over  careful  respecting  his  language,  but 
purify  his  heart.  I  do  not  say  this  to  hinder  you  from  giving  your 
son  a  literary  training,  but  to  guard  against  expending  all  energy 
and  thought  on  this  alone."  Such  is  the  wise  advice  of  Chrysostom 
to  Christian  parents.  Placing  a  high  estimate  upon  the  powpp  of  ex- 
influence  of  exam))le,  he  exhorts  parents  and  guardians  i"ip'L'- 
to  see  to  it  that  their  children  and  wards  are  placed  under  teachers 
whose  pure  lives  will  in  themselves  be  the  best  educating  power. 
"Much  of  the  evil  in  children  comes  from  our  neglect,  from  the  fact 
that  we  have  not  from  the  first  inculcated  the  fear  and  love  of  God. 

'  V.  Book  I,  chap.  viii. 


508  ARCHEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

We  interpose  no  objection  to  the  son's  attending  the  theatre,  and 
make  no  effort  that  he  visit  the  church;  if  one  now  and  then  is 
found  at  the  public  services  it  is  more  as  an  amusement  than  for 
purposes  of  worship."  By  Chrysostom  the  mother  is  regarded  as 
the  best  teacher,  and,  next  to  her,  the  cloister  schools  are  the  most 
important  means  of  Christian  education. 

Basil  shows  about  an  equal  enthusiasm  for  Greek  culture  and  for 
Basil's  teach-  ^^^^  monastic  life.  "The  Christian  must  seek  the  treas- 
inff-  ures  of  the  life  to  come.     To  this  life  the  Scriptures  are 

designed  to  lead  by  instructing  us  in  the  deep  mysteries  of  the  faith. 
But  in  order  to  understand  these  our  powers  must  be  cultivated  by 
every  possible  means — by  intercourse  with  the  poets,  the  orators, 
the  grammarians,  and  Avith  every  one  Avho  may  give  us  insight  into 
the  deeper  truths  pertaining  to  the  kingdom  of  God."  The  princi- 
ples which  Basil  formulated  for  the  government  of  the  monks  in 
their  schools  contain  much  of  permanent  value. 

The  teachings  of  Jerome  respecting  the  value  of  pagan  writings 

were  still  more  influential.  Notwithstanding  his  ex- 
Jerome  s   par-  ..  i-i  ci-  !•• 

tiaiity  for  das-  treme  asceticism,  the  influence  of  his  early  training  is 

manifest  in  his  own  studies,  and  in  the  high  value  which 
he  places  upon  the  literature  of  pagan  antiquity.  His  severe  strict- 
ures on  the  ecclesiastics  of  his  day  for  neglecting  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  for  passing  their  time  in  reading  low  comedies  and 
love-songs,  cannot  be  construed  as  condemning  the  study  of  the 
best  heathen  classics,  since  even  after  his  retirement  to  Bethlehem 
he  established  a  school  in  connection  with  the  monastery,  and  gave 
instruction  in  grammar  and  in  the  Roman  poets.'  The  later  views 
of  Jerome  Avere  influenced  by  his  ardent  devotion  to  the  monastic 
life,  and  probabl}^  by  his  alarm  at  the  fearful  decadence  of  faith 
and  morals  throughout  the  empire.  His  views  respecting  the  edu- 
His  later  pe-  cation  of  daughters  are  characterized  by  excessive  se- 
venty, verity,''  and  his  condemnation  of  high  Church  oflicials, 
who  instruct  their  sons  in  the  heathen  authors  and  in  low  comedy 
at  the  neglect  of  the  teachings  of  the  Church,  is  most  unsparing.' 

The  contributions  of  Augustine  to  the  work  of  education  were 
Augustine's  many  and  valuable.  His  own  training  had  l)een  most 
^'®^^'^'  thorough;  and  while  in  some  of  his  writings  he  regrets 

the  time  wasted  in  reading  the  trivial  and  debauching  works  of  pa- 
gan authors,  he  elsewhere  recommends  the  classics  for  the  valuable 

'  V.  Ehert:    Geachichte  der  Christlicli-lateinifichen  Literatur,  s.  182. 
"v.  Selimidt:  Die  GeschicJite  dtr  Erzkhung  und  des   Unterriclits,  Colheii,  ISG.^,  ss. 
136,  137. 
^  V.  Com.  in  Ephes.  vi,  4. 


RELATIONS  TO  EDUCATION  AND  GENERAL  CULTURE.     509 

truths  tlierein  found,  wliich  are  in  accord  with  tlie  Christian  system, 
and  the  study  of  the  rhetoricians  for  the  benetits  experienced  in  tit- 
ting  the  preacher  for  his  work. 

In  the  West  the  destructive  barbarian  invasions  had  almost  cora- 
pletelv  annihihxted  the  i)ublic   institutions   which   had   ^„   ,     ,    , 

'  ''     ,         _  ^  EfTccts  of   the 

been  maintained  by  the  government;  hence  the  stand-  barbarian  ia- 
ard  of  education  became  low  in  the  extreme.  Instead 
of  the  imperial  schools,  the  cathedral  schools,  under  the  direction  of 
the  bishops, then  undertook  the  training  of  the  youth.  The  general 
result  was  a  further  inattention  to  the  works  of  pagan  authors,  a 
growing  distrust  of  secular  learning,  and  a  narrow  and  inadequate 
training  in  most  of  the  monastic  institutions  of  the  West.  "  Sci- 
ence became  the  servant  of  theology,  and  thereby  lost  its  freedom 
and  independent  activity."  '  The  inscriptions  of  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries  reveal  the  growing  illiteracy.  Their  wide  departure  froju 
classic  forms,  the  many  gross  errors  in  orthograph}^,  the  interchange 
of  labials,  etc.,  the  inattention  to  grammatical  laws,  the  barbarous 
commingling  of  Greek  and  Latin  characters  and  words,  furnish 
painful  evidence  of  educational  and  literary  decadence." 

In  the  Bj'zantine  Empire  and  in  the  Oriental  Church  the  culture 
and   training   were    largely    influenced   by   theological     „,     ..     . 

^,  .  .  Education  in 

thought,  while  the  education  of  the  masses  was  far  the  Kasteru 
below  what  the  liberal  provisions  of  the  emperors 
should  have  realized.  The  doctrinal  controversies  and  the  fierce 
rivalries  of  factions  diverted  attention  from  the  care  of  the  people. 
The  schools  and  libraries  supported  by  the  imperial  government 
had  been  professedly  reared  on  classic  and  Christian  foundations, 
but  the  old  Greek  spirit  had  departed,  and  Christianity  had  degen- 
erated into  a  lifeless  form.  Tlie  grandest  s€M'vice*  done  by  the  later 
Oriental  Church  was  to  preserve  the  pagan  classics  and  the  ancient 
works  of  art,  which  at  a  later  period  were  to  be  most  important 
aids  in  the  revival  of  learning  in  Western  Euro],)e. 

>  Sclimidt:   Oj).  cit,  s.  145. 

2  See  tlie  iiisciiptions  contained  in  Plates  iii,  iv,  v,  vi,  vii,  viii  and  their  translation 
in  Appondi.x.  These  will  supply  a  most  viiliinblc  comment  on  the  condition  of  lit- 
erature and  education  for  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries. 


510  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 


CHAPTER  YI. 

CARE  FOR  THK  DKAD  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH. 

From  time  immemorial  the  peoples  from  whom  the  converts  of 
the  ear'y  Church  were  di-awn  had  shown  careful  thought  for  their 
dead.  They  manifested  deep  interest  in  the  repose  and  destination 
of  the  soul,  and  maintained  a  close  relationship  between  the  living  and 
the  departed.  The  Old  Testament  Scriptures  contain  many  touch- 
ing accounts  of  the  anxiety  of  the  Jews  relative  to  the  places  of 
their  sepulture.  The  embalming  in  the  case  of  Jacob  and  Joseph, 
the  carrying  of  Jacob  to  his  home  to  be  buried  in  the  cave  of  the 
field  of  Machpelah,  the  grievous  mourning  for  seven  days,  arc  indi- 
T    • ».   u    •  ,   cations  of   burial   customs   which  seem   to   have   been 

Jewish    burial 

customs.  widelv  observed.     The  Avashing  and  embalming  of  the 

bod}^,  the  winding  in  a  cloth,  the  wrapping  about  with  linen  bands, 
the  covering  of  the  face  with  a  napkin,  the  use  of  costly  spices,  etc., 
are  found  in  the  account  of  the  burial  of  Christ.  To  have  this  care 
for  the  dead  was  the  sacred  duty  of  the  living.  To  remain  un- 
buried  was  considered  the  most  dreadful  calamit}^;  hence  the  most 
fearful  curse  pronounced  upon  the  violators  of  God's  hnv  is  that 
their  bodies  shall  be  left  a  prey  for  the  fowls  of  heaven,  or  as  filth 
in  the  streets,  or  as  dung  in  the  fields  (Psa.  Ixxix,  2;  Jer.  ix,  22; 
XV  i,  4).  Even  enemies  and  executed  criminals  received  burial 
before  sunset.  The  custom  of  burial  feasts  seems  to  ha^e  been 
quite  common  among  the  Jews  (Deut.  xxvi,  14;  Jer.  xvi,  7;  Hos. 
ix,  14;  et  al.).  The  lamentations  for  seven  and  even  thirty  days, 
the  rending  of  the  garments,  the  scattering  of  dust  and  ashes  upon 
the  head,  were  common;  yet  the  law  interdicted  certain  excessive 
exhibitions  of  grief,  because  of  their  connection  with  the  practices 
of  the  heathen  nations  around  them  (Lev.  xix,  27,  28;  Deut.  xiv,  1). 
Burial  was  the  almost  universal  custom  among  the  Hebrews. 
Burial  and  not  ^'^^y  i^^  exceptional  cases  was  burning  practiced,  and 
burning.  even  then  the  bones  were  to  be  gathered  and  interred. 

That  burning  was  abhorrent  to  the  Hebrew  mind  appears  from  the 
fact  that  it  was  adjudged  a  punishment  to  be  visited  upon  those 
wiio  had  been  guilty  of  heinous  crimes  (Lev.  xx,  14;  xxi,  9).  Since 
the  law  regarded  the  dead  body  as  a  source  of  ceremonial  defilement, 
the  places  of  burial  were  somewhat  removed  from  the  dwellings  of 


CARE  FOR  THE  DEAD  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH.     511 

the  living.  While  tliere  was  a  cemetery,  or  place  of  public  interment, 
there  was  ever  a  great  desire  among  the  Jews  to  gather  the  deccasecl 
members  of  the  family  into  ch)se  proximity ;  this  is  seen  from  the 
fact  that  "  to  be  gathered  to  his  fathers "  is  equivalent  to  one's 
death  and  burial.  Hence,  even  after  the  dispersion,  the  Jews  strove 
to  have  separate  cemeteries,  and  this  desire  measurably  continues  to 
the  i)resent  <hiy. 

The  location  and  form  of  the  grave  depended  upon  circum- 
stances. Frequently  in  Palestine  the  numerous  natural  grottos  in 
the  limestone  rock  afforded  a  place  of  sepulture,  either  by  hewing 
out  spaces  in  the  face  of  the  rock,  or  by  making  ])eri»endicular  ex- 
cavations. Three  kinds  of  graves  have  been  distin-  Three  kinds  of 
guished  l)y  investigators:  the  body  was  either  laid  upon  g'^^ves. 
a  bench  <ir  shelf  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  over  which  an  arch  was  con- 
structed, or  placed  in  a  box-like  cavity  made  in  the  Avail,  or  laid 
away  in  an  excavation  in  the  floor  of  the  grotto.'  Tlie  marking  of 
these  places  of  sepulture  by  monuments  of  a  costly  and  artistic  nature 
was  not  common  among  the  early  Hebrews.  A  few  ac-  jp^jsh  momi- 
counts  of  the  erection  of  a  stone  or  pillar  are  met,  and,  n"''"^-'- 
in  later  times,  of  monuments  possessing  some  artistic  merit,  also 
some  attempts  at  ornamentation.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in 
the  Jewish  catacombs  upon  the  Appian  Way  in  Rome.  In  these 
are  galleries  and  chambers,  and  some  attempts  at  artistic  adorn- 
ment by  painting,  and  the  incorporation  into  the  monuments  of 
elements  which  are  plainly  heathen,  thus  showing  that  the  Jews 
of  the  dispersion  were  more  ready  to  admit  into  their  art  princijiles 
Avhich  were  interdicted  during  their  independent  national  life. 

Among  the  Greeks  there  was  an  equal  care  for  the  dead.  In 
Athens,  by  statutory  provision,  one  seeking  to  fill  high  public  oflice 
must  first  show  that  he  had  been  guilty  of  no  neglect  ,jrppk-  scnti- 
with  respect  to  the  burial  of  his  parents.  The  refusal  "'*""'■ 
of  enemies  to  permit  the  burial  of  those  who  had  fallen  in  battle 
was  terribly  avenged.  When  the  body  could  not  be  secured,  it  was 
regarded  as  a  duty  to  erect  some  monument,  and  over  any  corpse 
found  in  the  way  at  least  a  handful  of  earth  must  be  stivwn. 
The  preparation  of  the  body  for  buiial  was  somewhat  similai-  to 
that  practiced  by  the  .Tews.  To  close  the  eyes,  to  wash  and 
anoint  the  body,  to  array  in  white  garments,  and  to  bedeclc  it 
with  flowers  and  wreaths  were  the  usual  practices  ^^^^  hnrvinp 
among  the  Greeks.  The  mode  of  sepulture  differed  at  an«i  i.nniinp 
different  periods  of  their  history.  In  the  historic  period  "^"^"^  "' 
burial  was  most  usual,  although  burning  was  also  practiced.  In 
'  V.  Toblcr:    Gohjutha,  s.  201.  Wilson:  ridxire-'que  Pak-stine,  pp.  95.  9G, 


512  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

Sparta  alone  cremation  was  common,  and  this  only  during  the 
period  of  Roman  rule.  On  sanitary  grounds  burning  was  instituted 
for  a  season,  but  when  the  extraordinary  circumstances  passed 
away  the  return  to  burying  was  quite  general.  Also  burning 
was  practiced  in  case  of  soldiers  who  had  fallen  in  battle  on  distant 
fields,  in  order  that  their  ashes  might  be  more  easily  transported 
to  their  native  countrj^ 

A  common  burial-plat  was  used  only  by  the  poor;  the  rich  or 
Individual  well-to-do  citizens  had  separate  tombs  either  along  the 
tombs.  most  public   streets,    or   in   grounds  orjiamented   with 

trees  and  works  of  art.  The  tomb  Avas  usualh^  of  the  nature  of  a 
chamber  of  sufficient  size  to  admit  the  friends,  and  the  bodj-- 
was  laid  upon  a  shelf  of  masonry.  The  Greeks  wrought  out  their 
sarcophagi  with  equal  pains  on  every  side,  Avhereas  the  Romans 
only  cared  for  the  front  and  ends  :  this  shows  that  the  Greek  sar- 
cophagus occupied  a  position  in  the  centre  of  the  burial-chamber, 
while  the  Roman  was  designed  to  be  placed  against  the  wall.  The 
purpose  of  the  Greeks  seemed  to  be  to  disarm  death  of  its  terrors. 
Cheerfulness  ^^  ^^^'  ^^  possible,  by  placing  in  the  tomb  objects  which 
attempted.  were  most  familiar  and  dear  to  the  deceased  while 
living,  or  by  decorating  the  burial  chamber  with  various  orna- 
ments, as  vases,  lamps,  weapons,  etc.  The  numei'ous  elegant  vases 
found  in  Greek  graves  now  constitute  a  special  department  of  art 
history.  The  decorations  of  the  monuments  themselves  were  chiefly 
in  plastic;  sometimes,  especiall}^  in  case  of  cenotaphs,  painting  was 
i;sed.  The  subjects  treated  in  these  works  are  chiefly  taken  from 
the  popular  mythology.  They  sometimes  represent  the  ruthless- 
ness  of  death  in  robbing  us  of  our  treasures,  as  when  the  Harpies 
are  sculptured,  but  generally  the}'  are  of  a  more  cheerful  charac- 
ter, and  express  the  leading  thought  of  the  Greek  mind  that  the 
design  of  a  monument  is  to  keep  alive  the  memory  of  the  dead, 
rather  than  to  point  to  a  hereafter,  and  to  describe  the  state  of  the 
departed. 

The  Romans  regarded  burial  as  a  thing  rightfully  due  to  all.  Even 
criminals  who  had  been  put  to  death  were  to  be  cared  for  by  the  sur- 
Roman  cus-  viving  members  of  the  family,  and  in  case  of  those  who 
''°™*-  had  fallen  in  battle  for  their  country  the  state  took  the 

])lace  of  the  family,  and  provided  for  their  decent  sepulture.  This 
concern  is  also  manifested  in  the  fact  that  the  living  were  careful 
to  purchase  plats  and  erect  appropriate  tombs,  and  to  make  testa- 
mentary provision  for  keeping  alive  their  memories  by  the  yearly 
celebration  of  the  burial  feasts.  Rich  patrons  prepared  places  of 
common  sepulture  for  clients,  f reedmen,  and  slaves,  and,  it  was  con- 


CAKE  FOR   THE  DEAD  IN  THE  EARLY  CHUKCH. 


513 


sidered  a  severe  punishment  to  deprive  tliese  persons  of  the  pi'ivile^e. 
The  indigent  chisses  and  small  traders  also  organized  thenibclves  into 
clubs,  collef/ia,  for  social  or  other  i)urposes,  but  they  were  chiefly 
concerned  for  the  approjjriate  buri.d  of  the  deceased  members. 
The  legal  i)rovisions  for  the  protection  of  the  graves  ip„,ji  provis- 
onh^  embodied  the  average  Roman  sentiment.  Every  i""^- 
si)ot  where  a  body  was  buried  was  judged  sacred.  The  boundaries 
of  the  cemeteries  and  of  the  individual  tombs  were  carefully  de- 
fined. The  ai'ea  was  regarded  as  inalienable,  passing  to  the  heirs  in 
perpetuity.  The  removal  of  the  dead  was  forbidden,  and  oidv  bv 
express  permission  could  this  be  effected.     The  violation  and  rob- 


¥ig.  111.— A  Roman  columbarium. 

bing  of  graves  and  the  mutilation  of  monuments  were  visited  with 
most  severe  penalties,  and  many  inscriptions  indulge  in  fearful  ex- 
ecrations of  those  who  may  profane  the  tombs.' 

The  method  of  disposing  of  the  dead  varied  at  different  periods 
of  Roman  history.  From  numerous  considerations  it  is 
evulent  tliat  I)urial  was  tiie  early  Roman  custom.  Intlie  tionami  imm- 
law  of  the  Twelve  Tables  l)Oth  iidiumatio:i  and  l)urning  '"« i"'''ctici'<J. 
are  recognised.  This  double  practice  continued  into  the  imperial 
period,  but  cremation  had  doubtless  been  promoted  by  the  growinir 
desire  for  display  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  the  certainty 
tliat  thus  a  member  of  a  coller/hdii  \vf)uld  have  an  urn  in 
the  coluuiharinm.  The  Roman  cohnnbarium  (Fig.  1 4 1),  so  named  from 
'  For  c.KnmpIes  on  Cliristian.  tombs,  v.  p.  25G.  n.  3. 


Columbarium. 


514  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

its  iTsemblance  to  a  dove-eote,  consisted  of  a  building  in  whose  in- 
terior walls  were  parallel  rows  of  sem!-cireular  niches,  in  which  were 
placed  the  cinerary  urns.  The  arrangement  in  successive  rows  and 
sections  permitted  the  gathering  of  the  ashes  of  the  members  of  a 
family  or  of  a  club  into  close  proximity,  and  the  easy  identification 
of  their  place  of  sepulture.  Over  the  niches  were  the  names  of  the 
deceased,  either  upon  plates  or  sculptured  in  the  wall,  and  words  as 
"  Eutuchii,"  "  Pancratii,"  etc.,  indicated  the  sodality  to  which  they 
belonged.  Cremation  never  became  a  universal  practice  among  the 
Romans.  Under  the  Antonines,  on  the  contrary,  burial  Avas  very 
frequent,  and  in  the  third  aiul  fourth  centuries  it  became  quite 
common  among  the  best  families  of  Rome. 

The   provision  of   the   Twelve   Tables,  that   nobody    should  be 
,    burned  or  buried  within  the  city  Avails,  Avas  reenacted 

Sepulture  out-  _  _  •'  /  _ 

side  the  city  with  even  greater  stringency''  in  the  imperial  period. 
This  led  to  the  custom  of  arranging  the  graves  along 
the  most  frequented  streets  outside  the  citv  gates,  thus  keeping 
alive  the  thought  of  the  dead  by  placing  their  tombs  Avhere  they 
could  be  vicAved  bj'  the  passing  multitudes.  Thus  opportunity  Avas 
also  given  to  gratify  the  groAving  desire  for  luxurA^  Since  the  Ro- 
mans avoided,  so  far  as  possible,  a  common  cemeter}^,  but  aimed  to 
be  grouped  into  families  or  sodalities,  the  building  of  imposing 
tombs  along  the  highAA^ays,  and  the  careful  decoration  of  the  areas, 
Avere  the  natural  results  of  the  attempt  of  the  great  families  and  col- 
legia to  rival  each  other  in  magnificent  display.  The  tombs  af- 
Monumentson  f<^'i*<lpcl  the  best  exam])les  of  Roman  art,  hence  the  Via 
main  streets.  Api^ia  and  the  Yia  Latino  became  the  favorite  drives 
of  the  Roman  nobility.  Nor  Avas  this  practice  confined  to  the 
capital.  The  excaA'ations  at  Pompeii  rcAeal  a  like  arrangement  in 
a  comparatively  small  provincial  toAvn.  These  have  brought  to  light 
the  street  leading  from  Pompeii  to  Herculaneum.  It  {v.  Fig.  142) 
proves  to  be  the  Via  Appia  of  Pompeii,  since  it  is  bordered  with 
tombs  in  the  best  art  of  the  period,  not,  indeed,  equalling  in  magnif- 
icence the  gorgeous  mausoleums  of  Rome,  yet  clearl^^  illustrating 
the  Roman  conception  of  the  use  of  mortuary  monuments.  Such, 
briefl}^,  Avere  tht^  burial  customs  of  the  peoples  from  whom  early 
Christianity  gained  its  converts.  It  is  presumable  that  here,  too, 
as  in  other  questions  Avhich  have  come  under  examination,  the  neAV 
religion  would  not  so  much  create  absolutely  ncAA^  customs  as  adopt 
those  at  hand,  and  giA^e  to  them  a  deeper  significance  in  accordance 
Avith  the  clearer  revelations  of  truth  Avhich  Avere  vouchsafed  hx 
Christ  to  his  Church. 

The  Christians  shared  the  common  desire  to  care  for  their  dead. 


CARE  FOR  THE  DEAD  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH. 


515 


Christian  care  ^^' liile  the  early  Christian  literature  furnishes  no  formal 
for  the  dead,  treatise  on  the  method  of  burial,  the  scattered  notices 
are  so  numerous  as  to  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  Christian  practice. 
In  common  with  the  non-Christian  jjcoples,  they  rei^arded  the  neglect 
of  the  dead  with  special  horror.  This  is  clearly  seen  from  the  fact 
that  the  refusal  of  the  civil  authorities  to  deliver  to  their  friends 
the  bodies  of  those  who  had  suffered  martyrdom  was  felt  to  be  a 
matter  of  peculiar  hardship.' 

There  seems  to  have  been  in  the  minds  of  some  of  the  Church  an 
apprehension  that  the  appropriate  burial  of  the  body  was  neces- 
sary in  order  to  a  share  in  the  resurrection;  this  greatly  added  to 
the  affliction  felt  when  the  ashes  of  friends  were  widely  scat- 
tercil.      S(»  M-ivnflv  (li^tiirbcil  were  nian\',  tl»;it  the  Cliristian  ti'ivlKTs 


Fig.  1-12.—^  stiVL-t  (if  Idiiilis  IciiiUiiL'-  if lli^rculaiKMiii  (iat^^  Pitiiipi-ii, 

wore  constrained  to  correct  this  false  notion  by  careful  instruction 
respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection.  Nevertheless,  tlie 
Church  insisted  upon  decent  burial  whenever  possible,  and  strongly 
condemned  neglect  of  tliis  sacred  duty.'  The  importance  attaching 
to  Christian  burial  is  also  illustrated  by  the  system  Of  penitential 
discipline.  Interment  in  Christian  cemeteries  was  absolutely  re- 
fused to  unbelievers,  and  those  under  the  ban  of  the  Church  looked 
with  peculiar  horror  upon  their  exclusion  from  the  common  resting- 
place. 

'  V.  Ensebiiis:  HisK  Ecd.,  1.  v,  c.  1,  wlici-c  the  account  of  the  persocntion  in  L.vons 
and  Vienne  is  given,  and  the  casting  of  llic  ashes  of  llie  martyrs  into  the  Rlione. 

'  This  is  exemplified  in  tlie  cnndnct  of  the  Alexandrian  Cliristians  during  the  fear- 
ful pestilence  in  that  city,  to  which  reference  lias  elsewhere  been  made. 


516  ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

Tlie  Christians  buried  their  dead,  never  burned  them.     It  is  plain 
that  this  practice  was  influenced  bv  their  faith  in  the 

Inhumation  /  n         i         i       j?         '  i  i 

and  not  bum-  resurrection,  as  well  as  by  tlie  tact  that  they  shared  the 
'"'■  common  belief  of  antiquity  that  man  could  have  no 

separate  spiritual  existence  independent  of  corporeal  substance.  In 
most  respects  the  Christians  accepted  the  common  methods  of  pre- 
paring the  dead  for  burial,  but  a  notable  difference  is  seen  in  the 
The  family  f^ct  that  while  the  Roman  separated  the  classes,  or  at 
idea  preserved,  j^^ost  allowed  Only  men^bers  of  the  same  family  or  so- 
dality to  be  buried  near  each  other,  the  Chi-istian  burial  places 
recognised  no  such  distinctions.  All  classes  of  the  Christian  society 
perjjetuated  after  death  that  fellowship  which  they  had  realized 
while  living.  This  is  noticed  more  especiall}^  in  the  West,  while 
in  the  East  and  in  Egypt  single  graves  were  usual. 

The  earlier  view,  that  the  Christians  Avere  compelled  to  find  secret 
NosRcrecynec-  pl^ces  for  the  interment  of  their  dead,  has  been  shovrn 
essary.  ^^   ]jq   quite   erroneous.       At    first    they    Avere  looked 

iipon  by  the  government  as  only  a  particular  school  of  the  Jews  ; 
hence  they  shared  all  the  privileges  and  immunities  which  had 
from  time  to  time  been  granted  to  the  Jews.  Their  bui'ial  places 
were,  therefore,  adjudged  equally  sacred  Avith  others.  At  a 
later  period,  Avhen  the  distinction  betAveen  Jcavs  and  Christians 
Avas  more  clearly  recognised,  the  latter  were,  at  Rome  esj^ecially, 
looked  upon  as  one  of  the  mauA"  collegia,  banded  to- 
gether for  special  objects,  but  most  of  all  to  care  for 
the  decent  burial  of  their  fellow-members.  Such  burial  clubs  Avere 
specially  encouraged,  and  Avere  granted  areas  in  Avhich  their  dead 
could  be  interred,  and  Avhere  proper  eellcB  could  be  built  for  the 
celebration  of  the  funeral  feasts.'  It  is  only  in  harmony  Avith  the 
Roman  reverence  for  the  dead  that,  while  many  of  the  collegia  Avere 
suppressed  from  political  considerations,  the  turial  clubs  Avere 
never  disturbed. 

The  origin  of  the  catacombs,  at  Rome  and  elscAvliere,  was  most 
^  .  ,      ,   .^     simi)le  and  natural.     Like  other  burial  clubs  the  Christ- 

Ongin  of    the    .       ^  . 

Roman  cata-  lans  obtained  an  area  which  was  devoted  to  sacred  pur- 
*^°™  ^'  poses,  and  the  excaA'ations  beloAV  that  area  Avere  begun 

and  increased  as,  the  Church  multiplied.  The  entrance  to  the  cata- 
combs AA'as  iisually  Avell  knoAvn.  Xo  concealment  Avas  necessary, 
since  the  law  judged  all  burial  areas  sacred.  It  has  been  satisfac- 
torily established  that  among  the  Roman  Christians  of  the  first  and 
second  centuries  Avere  persons  of  social  position  and  Avealth,  Avho 

'  Under  Alexander  Severus,  about  A.D.  230,  the  Chrisfums  of  Rome  were  granted 
the  privileges  of  a  burial  association,  collegium  funeraticium. 


CARE  FOR  THE  DEAD  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH. 


517 


gave  land  for  purposes  of  Christian  Inirial,  The  cemetery  tlius 
founded  wouKl  take  the  name  of  its  chief  patron.  It  is  believed 
that  the  grounds  on  Avliich  most  of  the  Roman  catacombs  were  ex- 
cavated originally  belonged  to  private  persons,  whose  names  would 
in  themselves  afford  partial  ])rotection  against  abuse. 

The  entrance  to  them  was  usually  by  an  excavation  in  tlie  side  of 
a  hill,  or  by  a  staircase;  in  that  to  Santa  Domitilla  (t'ig.  143),  these 
are  combined.  For  burial  pur[>oses  narrow  passages  Description  of 
from  two  and  a  half  to  four  feet  wide,  and  from  seven  to  catacombs. 
ten  feet  high,  were  made  in  the  soft  tufa  rock,  in  the  faces  of  which 
rectangular  cavities,  each  large  enough  to  receive  a  body,  Avere 
hewn.  These  ran  lengthwise  of  the  passages,  and  may  be  likened  to 
so  many  shelves  upon  which  bodies  might  rest.     Several  rows  or  tiers 


«i«a*^B«^---^^=        -^' 


Fig.  143.— The  entrance  to  Santa  Domitilla  at  Rome. 

of  graves,  locull,  sometimes  as  many  as  seven,  rose  one  above  an- 
other (Fig.  144).  As  the  demands  for  space  increased,  from 
the  main  corridors  side  aisles  were  constructed,  thus  making  a  com- 
plicated net-work  of  passages  wliich  none  but  the  initiated  were 
able  to  thread.  In  some  of  the  catacombs  these  aggregate  several 
miles  in  length.  The  acconi])anying  i>lan  (Fig.  145)  of  a  portion  of 
the  Catacomb  of  St.  Agnes,  at  Kome,  will  enable  the  reader  to  foi-m 
some  conception  of  the  complexity  of  the  system,  Besich's  the 
multiplicity  of  aisles,  the  capacity  of  the  catacombs  was  furtlur 
enlarged  by  excavations  at  different  levels,  thus  forming  several 
stories  (jyiinii),  in  some  cases  as  man}^  as  five,  communicating  with 
each  other  by  staircases  cut  in  the  rock  ;  in  each  story  Extent  of  cata- 
was  a  like  comjilexity  of  passages.  Thus  the  entire  co">^s- 
area  was  honeycombed  with  graves  to  the  depth  of  from  twenty 


518 


ARCHAEOLOGY  OF  CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 


to  forty  feet.    Tlie  number  of  Christian  catacombs  already  explored 
at  Rome  is  lif  ty-f  our.    It  is  impossible  to  state  the  aggregate  length 


Fig.  144.— A  gallery  with  tombs,  inscriptions,  and  symbols. 

of  the  passages,  or  the   number  of  the  dead  therein  interred.     It 
has,  however,  been  estimated  that  there  are   between   three   and 


"t; 

"«>■. 


'-'4 


Fig.  145.— Plan  of  ;i  part  of  the  Catacomb  of  Santa  Agnese,  Rome. 

four  hundred  miles  of  these  narrow  streets,  which  contained  from 
five  to  six  millions  of  graves. 


CARE  FOR  THE  DEAD  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH.     519 

TIk'  uK'tuocl  of  Cliristiiin  burial  diffeivtl  from  that  of  tlie  lieathen, 
in  tliat  tiiL'  latter  allowed  the  body  to  be  iu  view,  while      T|,g  ^^3^^, 
the  former  closed  the  grave,  loculus,  with  a  slab  of  marble      closed. 
carefully  set  iu  cement.     Thi.s  practice  of  the  Christians  came  from 
the  fact  that  the  catacombs  were  often  visited,  and  the  effluvium 
from  the  dead  botlies  must  be  guarded  against.    At  the 
intersections  of  the  main  passage-ways,  rooms  of  consid- 
erable dimensions  were  formed,  which  often  became  the  burial  places 
of  noted  families,  or  of  persons  of  peculiar  sanctity.     These  were 
sometimes  enlarged  and  decorated  with  paintings  in  fresco,  or  adorned 
with  sculptured   sarcophagi.     Sometimes,  also,  a  doorway  led  into 
an  independent  chamber  or  succession  of  cliambers,  (^uhlrnhun,  ctil>i- 
CAila,  which  seem,  for  the  most  part,  to  have  been  family  vaults. 
The   size  and  arrangement  of  these  rooms  would  suggest  a  place 

for  the  gathering  of  a  family  to  keep  the  funeral  feasts,   „  .        ^  ^ 

^  "  .  .  .  Not    used   foi 

rather  than  a  common  meeting  for  the  celebration  of  public      wui- 

the  eucharist.    There  can    be   little   doubt   that  during  *"'^' 

times  of  severe  persecution,   when   Christians  were   forbidden  to 


Fig.  14j.— .^11  arcosoliuin  from  Uie  (.•atacoinb.s. 

visit  the  cemeteries,  the  entrances  to  the  catacombs,  which  were 
before,  well  known,  were  concealed,  and  the  larger  chambers  were 
sometimes  used  for  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  But  the 
limited  space  in  these  rooms  forbids  the  supposition  that  the  cata- 
combs could  have  been  used  as  ))laces  of  assembly  for  ordinary 
worship  by  the  large  numbers  of  Christians  in  Rome. 

The  tombs  were  of  different  sizes  and  forms,  according  to  the  abil- 
ity of  the  family  or  the  prominence  of  the  deceased.  The  ordinary 
form  was  the  shelf,  hewn  into  the  face  of  tlie  rock.  ^Vt  times  tombs 
were  built  up  with  nasonry  and  covered  with  slabs  of  marble,  as 
may  now  be  seen  in  some  modern  churches.  Again,  an  arched  recess 
was  excavated,  and  then  a  vault  was  hewn  in  the  rock  below  to  re- 
ceive one  or  more  bo<lies,  whicli  were  separated  from 
each  other  by  partitions  of  stone.  This  form  of  tomb 
was  called  arcosollio)i  (y.  Fig.  140). 


520 


ARCII.EOLOGY  OF  CimiSTlAN  LIFE. 


To  naturally  light  all  these  intricate  windings  was  evidently  im- 
possible.    From  some  frescos  which  have  been  preserved  it  is  seen 

that    the    fossores,  or  those  who   excavated    the   cata- 
How  lighted.  "^  '  , .    ,         ,  ™,  . 

combs,  worked   by  the  light  ot  torches  or  lamps.      Ihis 

must  have  been  the  usual  method  of  pursuing  their  laborious  task. 

JJut  for  the  purposes  of  ventilation,  as  well  as  of  ligliting  the  larger 

rooms  which  were  used  for  special  services,  shafts  were  extendec 

through  the  soil  to  the  surface.    These  were  called  lianmarla  [v.  Fig, 

147).     When  the  location  of  the  catacombs  must  be  concealed,  these 

were  small,  but  in  times  of  peace  to  the  Church  they  were  much 

enlarged. 

The  many  miles  of  subterranean  passages  hewn  out  of  the  tufa 


Fiijr.  147.— The  section  of  a  cliaminT  uiul  a'  lu:iiiuariuin  in  the  Catacoiub  SS.  Marcelliuo  e 
Pietro,  Rome. 

rock,  the  millions  of  bodies  laid  away  with  tendercst  care  in  these 
natiu-al  sarcophagi,- whose  enclosing  plates  of  marble  were  inscribed 
with  words  and  symbols  indicative  of  the  former  faith  and  present 
happiness  of  disciples  who  wait  the  voice  of  their  Lord  to  awaken 
them  to  eternal  life,  must  continue  to  be  the  never-ceasing  wonder 
of  the  Christian  scholar,  and  remain  as  the  most  impressive  example 
of  the  religious  care  of  the  early  Christians  for  their  dead.  If  we 
Theology  of  cannot  speak  of  "  The  Churcli  of  the  Catacombs,"  we 
the  catacombs,  ^^n  speak  Avith  entire  truthfulness  of  a  "  Theology  of 
the  Catacombs,"  which  may  be  formulated  from  the  evidences 
herein  contained. 

AVhile    the    Roman    catacombs    are    more    extensive    than    any 
elsewhere   found,  thos^   of   Naples,  Milan,  Syracuse,  Alexandrip, 


CAKE  FOR  THE  DEAD  IN  THE  EARLY  CHURCH. 


521 


etc.,  liki'wi.sf  contain  many  objects  wliich  liave  proved  of  great 
value  in  tlie  stiuly  of  early  Christian  art,  life,  and  doctrine.  As 
before  said,  it  was  the  most  usual  custom  of  the  Eastern  churches 
to  use  single  and  isolated  tombs.  The  discoveries  of  de  xombsof  cen- 
Vogiie  have  demonstrated  a  condition  of  great  prosper-  t'iii  ^yi'i- 
ity  among  the  churches  of  Central  Syria  during  the  fourth,  fifth, 
and  sixth  centuries.  Manv  of  the  sinsjle  monuments  are  elejrant 
and  imposing,  while  the  entrances  to  some  of  the  cemeteries  have 
features  reminding  us  of  the  Konian  catacombs.  Fig.  148  is  a 
view  of  tlie  exterior  of  a  tomb  at  El-I>arah,  Central  Syria.'  The 
exterior  somewhat  closely  resembles  that  of  the  Catacomb  of  Santa 
Domitilla  (Fig  14;?)  ;  but  the  interior  consists  of  a  single  chamber, 
in  which  separate  sarcophagi  are  placed  in  arcosolid  hewn  in  the 

..,.)•/        _,., .— ^y^i 


-(j^,.; 


Fig.  148.— Exterior  view  of  roclc-iiewn  tombs  at  El-Barah,  Central  Syria. 


face  of  the  rock.     The}'  generally  lack  the  passages  so  usual  in  the 

Roman  catacombs,  and  more  resemble  the  cubicula.     The  number 

of  these  subterranean  toml)s  in  Syria  is  very  great,  and  they  further 

confirm  our  impression  of  the  scrupulous  care  of  the  Christians  for 

tlieir  dead. 

The    teachings    of    the   syjiibols   and   ins('ri])tinns   lias   elsewhere 

been  treated;''  also  the  marked  resemblance  of  manv  of 

'  •  Conclusions, 

the    heathen    and    Christian    burial    customs  has    been 

noted.     IJut  as  in  the  case  of  symbolism,  sculpture,  painting,  and 

architecture,  so  here,  where  the  Church  used  such  elements  as  were 

not  contaminated    witii  idolatry,    she  gave  to  them    a  (lee])er  sig- 

niticance  through    the    revelation  of   life    and    immortality    in  the 

(iospel. 

'  V.  de  Vogiie:  Syrie  Centrale,  plate  79,  no.  2,  ami  vol.  i,  p.  107. 
2  V.  Book  I,  cliaps.  ii,  iii,  vi,  and  vii. 


ADDENDA 


I. 

GLOSSARY. 


Abacus:  The  crowning  plate  of  the  cap- 
ital of  a  cohimn. 

Abkaxas  Gems:  Applied  to  a  class  of 
objects,  bearing  talisnianic  symbols, 
supposed  to  have  been  prepared  by 
the  Gnostics. 

Agape  :  The  love  feast  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians. 

Al.E:  Sniall  rooms  adjoining  the  atrium 
in  a  Roman  house. 

Alto-kei.ievo  :  Apjilied  to  sculptured 
liiiures  which  stand  out  prominently 
al)ove  liie  gener;il  plane  of  tiie  block 
in  which  they  are  cut,  and  to  vvliich 
they  are  attaciied.  Opposed  to  bass- 
reliefs,  or  bosso-reiievo. 

AilBO :  A  desk  from  which  the  readers 
(kctore.s)  read  iho  gospels  and  epis- 
tles. The  gospel  anibo  stood  on  the 
south  side,  and  the  epistle  ambo  on 
the  north  side. 

AmpulL-E:  Blood-phials  found  in  the 
catacombs. 

Axaphora  :  The  second  or  main  part  of 
a  liturgical  service. 

An'TIPHOXArium:  A  service  book  con  tain- 
ins  tiie  music,  chants,  sentences,  etc. 

AxTii'iiONY :  A  responsive  hymn  or 
chant. 

Apse:  The  semi-circular  recess  in  which 
a  building  terminates,  usually  cov- 
ered by  a  half  dome. 

Arciiitkave:  The  fust  member  of  an 
entablature,  wiiicli  rests  immediately 
upon  tiie  supporting  colinnns  (v.  Kn- 
tal)lature). 

Arcosolil'.m  :  Applied  to  a  grave  in  the 
face  of  the  rock  over  which  an  arched 
recess  is  hewn. 

Area  :  The  groundplat  allowed  by  the 
Roman  government  to  the  cd/er/ia 
for  the  burial  of  their  dead,  and  for 
the  erection  of  suitable  buildings  (or 
the  celebratiou  of  the  memorial 
feasts. 


Atrium  :  Tlie  chief  room  in  the  Roman 
hon^e. 

Baptistery:  A  room  or  building  where 
the  rite  of  baptism  is  administered. 
Sometimes  it  was  a  room  in  a  ciuirch, 
sometimes  a  detached  building. 

Basilica:  A  spacious  hall  for  public 
^business.  Afterv/ard  applied  to  a 
Cliristiau  chiu'cii  of  a  certain  type, 
of  one,  three,  or  five  naves. 

Bema  :  In  Byzantine  architecture  the 
name  of  the  chancel. 

BiBLiA  Paui'erum  :  "  Books  for  the  Poor." 
generally  applied  to  illustrated  leaves 
of  the  Bible,  or  to  Bible  scenes,  by 
which  religious  instruction  might  be 
given  to  the  illiterate. 

Bulla  :  A  small  tablet  of  metal  or  ivory 
attached  to  a  chain  and  worn  around 
the  neck.  Slaves  wore  leather 
bulhe. 

Byzan-tixe  ARCiiiTECirRE:  The  style 
of  architecture  developed  in  the 
Byzantine  Empire  from  about  A.  D. 
328  to  A.  D.  145;!.  First  period 
prior  to  A.  D.  562 ;  second  period 
from  A.  D.  5G2  to  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury; third  period  from  tlie  eleventh 
cenlnry  to  the  conquest  of  Greece 
by  the  Turks. 

Cadexce:  The  fall  of  the  voice  in  read- 
ing, especially  in  ivading  poctiy. 

Calippic  Cycle  :  one  of  seventy-six 
years. 

Cantiiarus:  A  fountain  in  llie  vestibule 
of  a  ("Christian  church. 

Caxtillatiox  :  Singing  as  a  recitation  or 
chant. 

Capital:  The  hoad  or  crown  of  a  column 
or  pilaster.  Each  style  of  archi- 
tecture had  its  distinctive  capital. 

Catac'u.mi!s:  Subterranean  viulis  or  ex- 
cavations used  lor  bin  iai  purposes. 


524 


GLOSSARY. 


Cathedra:  The  chair  of  a  high  official. 
as  bishop  or  teacher. 

Cklla  :  An  enclosed  space  in  a  hypc^etliral 
temple,  where  stood  the  altar.  Also 
applied  to  a  recess  in  a  church,  and 
to  a  building  in  which  burial  feasts 
were  held. 

Cexser:  a  vessel,  to  which  chains  are 
usually  attached,  in  which  incense  is 
burned  in  jjublic  service. 

Ceramics:  The  science  of  pottery. 

Chalice:  Tlie  eucharistic  cup. 

ChariSiM:  An  extraordinary  gift  con- 
ferred on  the  primi'ive  Clir  stians,  as 
the  gift  of  miracles,  of  tongues,  etc. 

Chromatic:  In  music  a  scale  consisting 
of  thirteen  intervals,  eiglii  scale 
tones  and  five  intermediate  tones. 

CiBORlUM:  A  domed  covering,  supported 
b}'  pillars,  rising  above  the  high  altar. 

COLLicGiUM:  An  association,  a  guild,  a 
club,  a  fraternity. 

Coloxnade:  a  series  of  columns  at  regu- 
lar intervals. 

COLUJIBARIUM :  A  place  of  sepulture 
where  the  urns  containing  the  ashes 
of  the  dead  were  placed  in  niches, 
resembling  a  dove-cote 

CoiiPLUViUM:  The  opening  in  the  roof  of 
a  Roman  house. 

CoNFESSio:  A  space  beneath  the  high 
altar,  where  relics  or  a  sarcophagus 
might  be  ))laced. 

Coroxa:  Applied  to  the  jeweled  halo  en- 
circling the  head  of  a  saint  or  of 
Christ. 

Crypt:  A  vault  beneath  a  building,  or  a 
porUon  of  a  catacomb. 

CuBicuLUM:  A  sleeping  or  lodging-room 
in  a  Roman  liouse ;  also  a  burial 
chamber  in  the  catacombs. 

Cupola:  Tiie  convex  roof  of  a  building, 
eitlier  circular  or  polygonal. 

Cursive:  When  applied  to  inscrijitions 
it  means  running  writing,  or  where 
tlie  letters  are  joined  together. 

Diatonic:  In  music,  a  scale  consisting  of 
eight  sounds  with  seven  intervals,  of 
which  five  are  whole  tones  and  two 
are  semitones. 

DiPiNTi:  Inscriptions  painted  in  colours. 
'    as  red,  or  with  coal,  etc. 

Diptych:  Any  thing  folded  together 
twice.  Applied  to  tablets  of  metal 
or  ivory  covered  witii  wax,  u«ed  liy 
the  ancients  for  writing  with  "a 
stylus. 

DisciPLiNA  Arcani:  Privileges  enjo}'ed 
oidy  by  tho.se  who  had  been  initiated 
imo  the  inner  mysteries  of  a  scliool 
or  society.  | 


Dome:  Literally,  a  cathedral;  more  prop- 
erly a  cupola,  specially  used  in  Byz- 
antine architecture. 

Dominant:  -In  music,  the  note  on  -which 
tlie  recitation  was  made  in  each  psalm 
or  canticle  tune. 

Enharmonic:  The  musical  scale  which 
Was  used  by  llie  ancient  Greeks. 

Entablature:  The  portion  of  a  building 
which  is  immediately  supported  by 
columns;  it  consists  of  archciruve, 
frieze,  and  cornice. 

Epigraphy:  The  science  of  inscriptions. 

Epithalamium  :  A  wedding  song  or  hymn. 

ExEDR^:  V.  Cella.  Also  applied  in  Byzan- 
tine arcliiiccture  to  the  recesses  on 
either  side  the  higli  altar  which  were 
occupied  by  tlie  deacons. 

Extra-mural:  Situated  outside  the  walls 
of  a  town. 

Facade  :  The  front  view  or  elevation  of 
a  building. 

Font:  The  vessel  containing  the  conse- 
crated water  to  be  used  in  b.iptism. 

Formative  Arts  :  Those  fine  arts  which 
appeal  to  the  eye,  as  sculpture,  paint- 
ing, and  arciiitecture,  in  distinction 
from  those  arts  which  appeal  to  the 
ear. 

Fossores:  Literall}'',  diggers.  Applied  to 
a  class  of  men  who  prepared  llie 
graves  for  the  biu'ial  of  Christians. 

Fresco:  A  paintinii'  executed  in  mineral 
or  earthy  pigments  upon  fresh  or 
wet  phisler  walls. 

Frieze:  Tiie  middle  member  of  the  En- 
tablature: it  lies  between  the  aichi- 
trave  and  the  cornice.  Its  character 
depended  upon  tiie  style  of  architec- 
ture. 

Glyptics:  The  science  of  engraving  on 
precious  stones. 

Graffito:  A  rude  inscription  or  figure 
scratched  upon  a  soft  rock  or  stuc- 
coed surface. 

Gy'Neceum:  The  portion  of  a  cliurch  edi- 
fice for  the  exclusive  use  of  women. 

Hexajieter:  In  poetiy,  having  six  feet 
to  the  line  or  verse. 

Hieroglyphics  :  The  sacred  writings  of 
the  Egyptians.  Now  applied  to  any 
writing  whose  key  is  obscure  or  un- 
known. 

Harmonics:  The  science  of  musical 
sounds. 

Ichthus  Monuments  :  Those  which  bear 
the  name  or  figure  of  tlie  fish. 


GLOSSARY. 


525 


Imi'LUVIUM:  a  depression  or  cistern  in 
the  floor  of  a  Konian  liousc  to  re- 
ceive the  rain  laUing  through  the 
coynpluuiuin. 

In  Situ:  Mnuiiments  are  said  to  bo  in 
situ  wiien  they  occupy  their  original 
position,  or  have  not  been  disturbed. 

Labarl'M:  The  standard  of  Consfciniine 
tlie  (ireat,  in  whicli  ilie  ^  supphuited 
the  Roman  eagle. 

Lectouium:  v.   Ambo. 

LocuLUS:  A  grave  liewu  in  the  face  of 
the  rock  in  the  catacombs. 

LiTN'ETrE:  A  semicircular  sp  ce  above  a 
square  window,  or  an  orifice  for  ad- 
mission of  liglit. 

Lyric:  .AppHed  to  poetry  wliich  is  ap- 
l)ropriato  for  singmg. 

M.\RiOL.\TRY:  Tlio  cultMS  or  worship  of 
the  Virgin  .Mary. 

Marmouaimi:  The  Roman  workers  in 
m.irble. 

.Mausoleum:   .'\.n  imposing  tomb. 

Medalmom:  a  circular  tablet  on  which 
figures  are  sculptured,  painted,  or 
wrought  in  mosaic. 

MEroxic  Cycle:  A  cycle  of  nineteen 
years. 

Mime:  A  play  in  wlii'-h  mimicry  is  the 
main  actiuii. 

MixiATUR"?:  An  ilhistrntod  or  illumi- 
nated manuscript;  probably  so  called 
from  painting  the  rubrics  and  initial 
letters  with  red  lead  {minium). 

MissA  Cateciiumknorum:  The  services 
at  which  the  cateclnimens  were  al- 
lowed to  be  present  in  company  with 
the  fulh'  initialed  members. 

MissA  Fidelium:  The  service  which 
only  the  fully  initiated  could  attend, 
especiallj'  the  Eucharist. 

MoxoLiTii:  A  column  consisting  of  a  sin- 
gle stone. 

MON'ooRUi:  A  combination  of  letters  or 
forms  symbolizing  some  nanie  or  fact. 

Moxu.MENT:  Any  sensuous  object  de- 
signed to  perpeiu;ite  tue  niemury  of 
a  por.son  or  event. 

Mosaics:  Ornamental  work  resulting 
from  inlaying  small  pieces  {kssert-), 
usually  cubes,  of  glass,  stone,  ft<'.. 
much  used  hy  the  anc'ents  in  pav(.'- 
nieuts.  and  by  the  Cliristians  in  the 
apses  and  triumiihal  arches  of 
churches. 

MosQui::  The  sacred  building  of  the  .Mo- 
hammedans. 

Mural:  Pertaining  to  a  wall;  as  nniral 
paintinir,  tiiat  upon  the  wall  of  a 
church,  catacomb,  etc. 


Xaos:  Properly  a  temple.  Applied  to 
the  sacred  interior  of  a  church. 

Xarthex  :  The  portico  of  the  Byzantine 
church. 

Xave:  The  part  of  a  church  building  in 
which  the  general  congregation  as- 
sembled, usually  lying  west  of  tlie 
chi'ir.  The  interior  area  of  a  church 
may  be  divided  into  three  or  five 
naves  by  longitudinal  rows  of  col- 
unnis. 

Niche:  A  recess  in  a  wall  to  receive  a 
statue,  bust,  or  other  ornamental 
object. 

Nimbus:  The  circle  encircling  the 
head  of  saints;  called  also  a  corona, 
when  jeweled. 

NiSAN :  The  first  month  of  tlie  Jewish 
year,  l)egiinung  in  March. 

Xu.M.E  :  Marks  accompanyii.g  the  ancient 
musical  notation,  whose  meaning  has 
not  been  satifactorily  deieniiined. 

NU.MIS.MATICS:  The  science  of  coins  and 
medals. 

Octave:  In  music,  the  interval. 

Oecus:  a  recess  in   the  rear  part  of  the 

perist3'lf>  of  a  Roman  house. 
Oraxtes:    The  technical    term   used  for 

figures  found  in  catacombs,  standing 

with  extended  arms  in  the  attitude 

of  f)rayer. 
OitvTORY:   A  building  for  prayer. 

Pal.eograpiiy  :  The  science  of  decipher- 
ing ancient  inscrifttious  and  writings. 
Pal.eoxtology:  The  science  of  organic 

remains. 
Palliu.m:    The    outside    loose    garment 

worn  by  the  Romans. 
Paxtomime:   A  play  in  which  the  plot  is 

revealed  by  action,  and  not  V)}'  words. 
Peristyle:  A  coiut  or  square  enclosed 

Vj}'  acoloimade;  sometimes  it  applies 

to  the  colonnade  itself. 
Pilaster  :  A  square  half  column,  usually 

projecting  from  the  face  of  the  wall, 

for  pm-poses  of  strength  or  ornament. 
Pi.x,  Pixis:    An    ivory     bo.x,     generally 

placed  upon  the  altar  to  contain  the 

consecrated  elements  in  the  eucha- 

rist. 
Plagal:  In  ancient  music,  applied  to  the 

four  modes   added   by   Gregory  the 

Great. 
Presbyteiuu-M  :    The      portion     of    iJie 

churcii   reserved   for   the  ofTiciating 

clergy. 
Proanaphora  :    Th.e    first    portion   of  a 

liturgical  service. 
Psalter:  As  used  in  the  early  Church, 

the  Book  of  Psalms. 


526 


GLOSSARY. 


QrARTO-PKcniAXiAN'S:  Those  in  the  earlj- 
('liui-L-h  \vh(i  celelirated  the  Olinstiau 
passover  uuifonuly  on  the  14th 
>.'isan. 

Rkgula  Fidei:  a  rule  of  faith. 

llnYTHM :  111  ijoetry  is  the  division  of  the 
lines  or  verses  into  parts  by  iin- 
piilses  and  remissions  of  ihe  voice. 
In  mnsic,  a  periodic  recurrence  of 
tlie  accent. 

Rotunda  :  A  round  building  usually  cov- 
ered by  a  dome. 

Sanctuarium-  The  space  within  the  apse 
wiiere  stood  the  altar  and  the  sacred 
furniture  was  kept.  The  space  set 
apart  for  the  officiating  clergy. 

Sarcophagus:  A  stone  coffin,  usually 
covered  by  a  stone  slab  or  lid,  which 
was  carefully  cemented  to  it. 

SCHOLA:  A  building  in  which  the  ancient 
clubs  or  guilds  were  accustomed  to 
meet. 

Spandrel:  The  space  between  the  Arches 
and  entablature  in  a  basilica:  or 
"the  space  included  between  the 
upper  arch  of  a  window  or  door  and 
the  square  outer  molding  which 
form  a  frame  thereto." 

Sphragistics:  Tlie  science  of  seals. 

Swastika  :  A  form  of  the  cross  often  found 
in  India  {v.  Fig.  15,  lower  form). 

Tablixuji:    A   recess   in    the  atrium   of 

a  Roman  house. 
Tesser.k:  Small  cubes  of  glass  or  marble 

used  in  mosaic  work. 
Tetrachord:  In  ancient  music  a   series 

of  four  sounds,  the  first  and  last  of 

which  constituted  a  fourth.     The  ex- 


tremes were  fixed ;  the  otVicrs  might 

vary. 
Thrust:     In    architecture,  the    outward 

pressure  exerted  upon  walls,  etc.,  by 

a  superincumbent  mass. 
TiTULi:  Inscriptions.  p;'0|)erly  so  called. 
Transept:  The  portion  of  a  church  which 

intercepts    the   main   nave    at  right 

angles,  forming  a  cruciform  structure. 

It  was  usually  of  nearly  the  same 

height  as  the  main  nave. 
Tribune:  v.  Apse. 
Triclinium:   The   dining  or   banqueting 

room  in  the  ancient  Roman  house. 
Triumphal  Arch:  In  a  basilica,  the  arch 

spanning   the   opening  leading  from 

the  main   nave  to  the  apse.     When 

a     transept    was    introduced    there 

might  be  more   than  one  triumphal 

arch. 
Tunic:  The  undergarment,  reaching    to 

the  knees,  worn  by  both  sexes  of  the 

Romans. 

Uncial  :  A  term  descriptive  of  a  kind  of 
writing  sharing  the  qualities  of  cap- 
itals and  cursive  writing.  It  in- 
clines to  change  the  angular  outline 
of  the  capital  to  the  rounded  outline 
of  the  cursive. 

Vaulting-:  The  arched  surface  of  a  ceil- 
ing, receiving  different  names  from 
the  character  of  the  curve. 

Verd-antique:  A  kind  of  green  por- 
phj'ry:  sometimes  applied  to  a  mot- 
tled green  marble. 

Vestibule  :  A  hall  or  ante-room  from 
which  the  main  room  of  a  building  is 
entered. 

Vestibulum:  v.  Vestibule. 


NAMES  OF  CHURCHES  AND  CATACO.MBS.  527 


11. 

ITALIAN  CHURCHES  AND  CATACOMBS  WITH  EQUIVALENT  ENGLISH 

NAMES.' 


Santa  Agnese,  Catacomb  of. 

Catacomb  of  St.  Agnes. 
Sunta  Agntse  fuori  le  mio-a,  Church  of. 

Clmrcli  of  St.  Agnes  outside  tlic  city  walls. 
San  Akssandro,  Cemetery  of. 

Cemetery  of  St.  Alexander. 
San  Amlnorjio,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Ambrose. 
San  Andrea  in  Barbara,  Cliurch  of. 

Churcli  of  St.  Andrews  in  Barbara. 
San  Apollinare  in  Classe,  Cliurcli  of. 

Church  of  St.  Apollinarius  at  the  port  of  Classe.  . 
San  Apollinare  Nuovo,  Church  of. 

New  Church  of  St.  Apollinarius. 
San  Bernardo  a  Termini,  Cliurch  of. 

Church  of  St.  Bernard  at  tlie  Limits. 
San  Caltsto,  Catacomb  of. 

Catacomb  of  St.  Calixtns. 
San  Clemente,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Clement. 
Santa  Constanzia,  Cliurch  of. 

Cliurch  of  St.  Constantia. 
SS.  Cosmas  e  Damiano,  Cemetery  of. 

Cemetery  of  Sts.  Cosinas  and  Damianus. 
Satita  Croce  in  Gerusalemme,  Church  of. 

Churcli  of  the  Tloly  Cross  in  Jerusalem. 
Santa  Domitilla,  Catacomb  of. 

Catacomb  of  St.  Domitilla. 
San  F)-ancesco,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Francis. 
San  Gennaro  dei  Poveri,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Janunrius  for  the  Poor. 
San  Giovanni  Evangelista,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist. 
San  Giovanni  in  fonte,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Jolin  (the  Baptist)  by  the  font. 
San  Giovanni  in  Laterano,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Jolin  in  the  Lateran. 

'  This  list  is  (riven  for  the  benefit  of  surh  readers  as  may  not  be  familiar  with  Italian,  or 
may  not  have  enjoyed  the  opportunity  of  visiting  these  spots. 


528        NAMES  OF  CHURCHES  AND  CATACOMBS. 

Santa  Lucina,  Catacomb  of. 

Catacomb  of  St.  Luciuo. 

San  Lorenzo^  Cliurch  of. 

Church  of  St.  Lawrence. 
San  Lorenzo  fuori  le  mura,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Lawrence  out.side  the  city  walls 

Sua  Marco,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Mark. 
Sa/ila  Maria  in  Cosmndin,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Mary  in  Cosmedin. 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  Church  of. 

Cliurch  of  St.  Mi.ry  the  Giei.ter. 

Santa  Maria  cMla  Rotondu,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Mary  of  the  Rotunda. 

Santa  Maria  della  Sanita,  Church  of. 

Churcli  of  St.  Mar\'.  the  liealihgiviiig-. 
Santa  Maria  in  Trastavere,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Mary  in  district  of  Trastavere. 
(SS.  Nazario  e  Celso,  Church  of. 

Church  of  Sts.  Nazarius  and  Ctlsus. 
San  Nicola  in  Carcere,  Church  of. 

Churcli  of  St.  Nicholas  l\v  the  prison. 
San  Paolo  fuori  le  mura,  Chr.rch  of. 

Church  of  St.  Paul  outside  the  city  walls. 
SS.  Pietro  e  Marcellirw,  Catacomb  of. 

Catacomb  of  Sis.  Peter  and  Marccllinus. 
San  Pietro  in  Vincoln,  Church  of. 

Chnrch  of  St.  Peter  of  tlic  Fetters. 
San  Pietro  in  Vaticann,  Church  of. 

Church  of  St.  Peter  in  the  Vatican. 
San  Ponziano,  Catacomb  of. 

San  Prateslato,  Cemetery  of. 

Santii  Priscilla,  Catacomb  of. 

Santa  Pudenziana,  Church  of. 

San  Sistn,  Chapel  of. 

.San  Ste/ano,  Church  of. 

Colli  di  Slo  Stcfano,  Basilica  of. 

San  Vitale,  Church  of.     • 


Catacomb  of  St.  Ponlianus. 

Cemetery  of  Prretextatus. 

Catacomb  of  St.  Prisciha. 

Church  of  St.  Pudentia. 

Chapel  of  St.  Si.xtus. 

Churcli  of  St.  Steplien. 

Basilica  of  St.  Stephen  on  the  hills  (in  Tivoli). 

Church  of  St.  Vital. 


TRANSLATION   OF   INSCRIPTIONS. 


52^) 


III. 

TIIAXSLATION  OF  THE  INSCRIPTIONS  FOUND  L\  THE  TEXT  /IXI)  IX 

THE  PLATES.' 


Victoria  Constantini  Aug. 

Victory  of  Coiistantine  Augustus 
(or  the  Gre:it). 
Hoc  siguo  victor  eris. 

Intliissigntliou  siiait  be  conqueror. 
Feltcv's  Tcmporis  Repar;itio. 

A  restoration  of  the  happv  a^e. 
DN  IHY  XP8  DKI  KILI VS-i)„//i/-- 
N(W  IlIffYf  XP/frof  DIOI  FILIV8. 
The  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  So.i  oi'Gol. 
l-l.i.  IVN.uis  BASSVS  Vir  Cl<irissiirr>.-i 
QVI  ViXIl'  AXXI.S.  XLII.  MKN.  II 
IM  IPSA  PRAKFKOTVUA  VKBI 
NEOFITVS  IIT  AD  DEVM.  V|li 
KALf«'/(w  SKPTembri  EVSICBIO 
ET  YPATIO  COnsuUbu?. 

Junius  Bissus,  of  patrician  rank. 
who  lived  forty-iwo  years  and  two 
montlis.  In  ilie  very  year  in  which 
he  became  preftctof  tliecity,  aneo- 
pliyte,  hewent  toGodon  tlie  8th  be 
fore  llie  Ivalendsof  September,  l<-u- 
sebiusaiid  Hypatius  being  consuls. 

253.  '  Hie  jacet.  '■'Hie  requiescit.  ^Ilic 
jacet  in  nomine  Christi.  •*  Hie  requi- 
escit  in  pace. 

Here  lies.  Here  reposes  or  rests. 
Here  lies  in  the  name  of  Christ. 
Here  rests  in  peace. 

254.  'In  pace.  ' 'Ef  elpi/vy.  'Vivas  in 
Deo.     ■*  Vivas  in  ;eternum. 

In  peace.  In  peace.  Maj'est  thou 
live  in  God.  Mayest  thou  live 
forever. 

255.  '  Diis  Manibus.  'Diis  Manibus  sa- 
crum.    ^Qeolq  naTax^ovintq. 

To  the  gods  of  the  lower  world. 

Sacred   to  the  gods  of  the  lower 

world.     To  tlie  gods  of  the  lower 

world. 

2j6.  '  Qnpai  rdra  fiTjTiip    'ov6e'iQ  adavaro^. 

^  Domus  jeterna.     •*  Perpetua  sedes. 

■*  diKoi;  aidjviog. 

Rejoice,  0  mother  dear,  no  one  is 
immortal.      The     eternal     home. 
Tlie  everlasting  habitation. 
The  eternal  home. 

'  These  tran.slations  art>  made  for  ttic  hcncht 
lan-fiiafrcs.  Sonif  of  the  tc.Ms  an-  fratririciitar 
meaning.  Sdiiic  arecliaracterlzfil  by  iiu'oifcct 
classical  construction,  and  still  others  by  a  bar 
tens  and  words,  v.  p.  251, 
34 


250  n.  '  Adjuro  (vos)  Yiri  Sancfi  omnes 
Ciiri.v^iani,  et  te,  custe  (costodo)' 
beati  Juliani,  Deo  et  tremenda  die 
jndicii,  ut  liunc  sepulchrnm  nunqivt\ 
uUo  tempore  violetur,  sed  conserve- 
tur  usque  ad  fiiicm  miuidi,  ut  prosim 
sine  impedimenta  in  vita  I'edire, 
cum  veiierit  que  jndicaturus  est 
vivos  et  mortuos.  .  .  . 

I  adjure  you  all,  0  holy  Christ- 
ians, and  thee,  0  keeper  of  the 
happy  Julian,  i)y  God,  and  by 
the  fcartul  day  of  judgment,  that 
this  tomb  may  never  at  any  time 
be  violated,  but  may  be  guarded 
even  to  the  end  of  the  world, 
that  I  may  without  liinderance 
return  to  life,  when  he  shall  come 
and  judge  the  living  and  the  dead. 

*  Male  pereat,  insopulius  jaceat,  non 
resurgar  cum  Juda  partem  habeat, 
siquis  sepulcliram  hunc  violaverii. 

If  any  one  shall  viohite  tiiis 
tomb,  let  hiin  misoral)ly  perisii, 
let  him  lie  unburied,  let  him  not 
rise  again,  let  him  have  his  por- 
tion with  the  Jew ! 

'  Perire.     •*Vita  privatus. 
To  perish.     Deprived  of  life. 
257.      '  Vale,  have  or  ave,  salve,  jfa/pe. 
Farewell. 

'Spiritus  tuns  in  pace. 
Thy  spirit  in  peace. 

8  Pax  tibi. 

Peace  to  thee. 

••  In  pace  domini. 

In  tlie  peace  of  the  Lord. 

*  Pax  teciun. 

Peace  be  with  thee. 

*  Vivas,  vivas,  vivis. 

Mayest  thou  live. 
■"  Vivas,  vives,  vivis  in  Christo,  in 
Deo,  in  gloria  Dei,  in  Domino  Jesu, 
etc. 

Mayest  thou  live  in  Christ,  in 
God,  in  the  glory  of  God,  in  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  etc. 

of  tliosc  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  classical 
V,  siiiiie  (luite  indistinct,  and  others  of  doubtful 
orilio>;raphv,  others  by  very  wide  departure  from 
barous  coin'iiiitiK'Iiiitf  of  tjreek  and  Latin  eharae- 


530 


TRANSLATION   OF   INSCRIPTIONS. 


INSCRIPTIONS  IX  PLATE  III. 


No. 
1. 


10. 


12. 
13. 


17.    Q 


19. 


Severa  in  Deo  vivas. 

Severa,  mayest  tliou  live  in  God ! 

Florenlius  in  pace. 
Florentius  in  peace. 

Movar/g  i^uv  enoirjaev  Artj  Kai  rrj  yvvvsm. 
Muses  (?)  while  living  erects  this 
to  Auis  (?)  and  his  spouse. 

Aureliiis  Castus  m.  VIII.  Fecit  filio 

sue  Antonia  Sperantia. 

Anreli\is  Castus  (innocent  ?)  eight 
months  old.  Anionia  Sperantia 
erects  this  to  iier  son. 

Vipas  (vivas  ?)  Pondz  (?)  (Pontius  ?) 

in  teterno. 

Pontius,  mayest  thou  live  for- 
ever. (?) 

'BrjpaTLovQ  'NiKaropag  KaC,apuj  Kat  lov- 

Xiy  KUi  Ou?/ai/ir}Kov  (w  ?)  (l>i?uov(  (o<f  ?) 

bene   merentes.     Ob'uint   .    .    .    octa 

.  .  .  uga. 

Beratius  (Veratius  ?)  Nicatoras  to 
Lazarus  (?)  and  Jnlia  and  Onesinia- 
cus  (Onesinius?)  well  -  deserving 
friends.  (?)  They  died  on  the  eighth 
(day  ?  month  ?)...? 
A  barbarous  combination  of  Greek 
and  Latin. 

Sabinus  co?/Jugi  snas  Coelerine,  bene- 

merenti  quaj  vixit  annis  LV  Mensibus 

VI  Bidms  XV.     In  pace. 

Sabinus  to  his  well-deserving 
spiiuse,  Celerina,  wlio  lived  55 
years,  6  months,  and  15  days.  In 
peace. 

ApreiMCioQ  'B(V)i.vKEVTiai  avvjiiij).     'Ev 

Eiprjvri. 

Artemisios  to  his  wife  Vincentia. 
In  pence. 

A  fragment  wliose  reading  must  be 

conjectural. 

Sabiiiaque  (se)vixie  (t)  Annis  XXVI  M 

ensihus  V. 

Sabina  who  lived  2(>  years  and  5 
months, 
vixit  ansis  (nis)  Villi  .  .  .   ti  in 

pace. 

Who  lived  9  years  ...  in  poace. 

Varonius  Filiumenus  Varroniji;  Foti- 

niifi  fiiliie  suas  fecit. 

Varonius  Filumenus  made  this 
(tomb)  to  his  daughter,  Varonia 
Fotina. 

TllGTOQ  IK  TTIOTUV,    ZuOI/JOC     Cvbai^fKElflE 

Tji^aaq  ereaiv  (i.  /j.rj.a.  k.  £.. 

A  believer  of  believers,  Zosi-nus. 
here  lies,  having  lived  2  years,  1 
montli,  25  daj's. 


No. 
22. 


24. 

26. 
27. 


43. 


45. 


47. 


Marcus  Aurelius  Ammianus  fecit 
sibi  et  conjuj(^)i  suse  Cornelise  rufe- 
rati  (?)  bene  combenientibus. 

Marcus  Aurelius  Anmiianus  made 
(ti  is  lomb)  for  himself  and  his  wife 
Cornelia    (ruferati  ?)   having   lived 
happily  togerher. 
"Domna,"  with  tlie  anchor,  implies 
the  death  of  the  departed  in  hope  of 
the  resiuTection. 
Rufinje  in  Pace. 

To  Rutina  in  peace. 
Agape  qufe    vixit   anni's-f-V-f-Mensi- 
^?«+il+dieby.?+XXII.      Irene   qua3 
vixir    annis •  +  III  +m  + Vll  +  dieb  tw  + 
V  + Julius  urbanus  pater  +  fecit. 
To    Agape    who    lived  5  years,   2 
montiis,   22  days.     To  Irene  who 
lived  3  years,   7   months,  5  days. 
Julius  Urbanus,   the  father,   made 
(tliis  tomb.) 
+  Vtt(?)  Lucius  Be?ie  Merent. 
(?)  Lucius,  well-deserving. 
Lucilla  in  pace. 

Lucilla  in  peace. 
Roman?M  Sabinus. 
A  fragment  of  uncertain  meaning. 
Petrus  —  Paul  us.  —  Asellu(io)    bene 
merenti    qui    vicxit    annu(is)    sex, 
mesis  (mensibus)  octo   dies   (diebus) 
XXI IL 

Peter  .  .  .   Paul  ...  To    Asellus, 
the    well-deserving,   who    lived    6 
years,  8  months,  23  days. 
Victoria   quse   vixit    cum   Virginium 
siumi    annos(is)    XIII    menses (ibus) 
duo  dies(ebus)  XXII.  deposita  nonn. 
kalendas  Augustas.     In  pacne{e). 
Victoria  who  lived  with   her  hus- 
band Virginius  13  years,  2  months, 
22  days.     Buried  the  ninth  before 
the  kalends  of  August.     In  peace. 
(Barbarous  Latin.) 
In  pace  (above)  VII.  M.  .  X.  D.  V.D. 
on  side. 

In  peace.     7   months,  10  days.  (?) 
D'-positus  est  Januarius  III  I  Idus  Sept 
qui  vixit  ann(is)  II,  m.  XL.     In  pace. 
Januarius     was     buried     on     the 
fourth  of  the   Ides  of  September, 
who  lived  2  3'ears,  11  months.     In 
peace. 
A   fragment — not   capable   of   being 
translated. 
Several  virgin!  qum  vixit  ann. 

To  the  virgin  Severa  who  lived  (?) 
years. 


TRANSLATION   OF    INSCRIPTIONS. 


531 


INSCRIPTIONS  IN  PLATE  IV. 


18. 


Parenles  filio  Axiiiiiiio  bene  merenti 

in   puce  ((ui  vixit  auiiis  VI.  ni.X  De 

Pn.situs  VII  Kiileitda.s  Oclohris. 

The  parents  to  Axuiicius  well-de- 
serving, in  peace,  wlio  lived  0  ycMrs 
10  months.  Buried  on  the  seventh 
before  the  kalends  of  October. 

?  V  Calendas  Julias.     Leo  (ni)  bene 

merenti  (\\\\   vixit  annus  (is)  XXVI 

dies(ebus)  XXX. 

The  first  part  a  fragment.  Tiic 
last  runs,  To  Leo,  well-deserving, 
whe  lived  2G  years  ,'!0  days. 

EX/uvo^  KM  ilrepa  'Evar/fitci)  yhrnvTaTu 

reXtvTa  etuv  i.  M.  i(i. 

Ellinus  and  Otera  to  the  very 
precious  Kusebius  who  died  at  1 
years  and  1 2  months. 

Deposz<Ms    Entropies    VII    'K.aXendafi 

Oetobris. 

Eutropius  buried  the  seventli  be- 
fore the  kalends  of  October. 

.Vurelia  Serice  qu;e  vixit  annif  XXXI 

mensis  III  D.icbus  XVI.     Fecit  Au- 

relius  Piiinns  co(/jugi  sure  dnlcissime 

(fe)  bene  merenti  in  pace. 

Aurelia  Serica,who  lived  HI  years, 
3  months,  16  days.  Avirelius  Pri- 
mus erected  (this)  to  his  most  pre- 
cious spouse,  well  deserving.  In 
peace. 

liucinia  /EHdora  ad  Deo  data,  in  pace, 

nil  Idi'is  Mar.   Aonorom.  ('')     Bene 

merenti  in  pace  Fratri.  (?) 

Lucina  TElidora  given  to  God  in 
peace  the  fourth  of  the  Ides  of 
March.  ? 

Alexandra  in  pace. 
Alexandra  in  peace. 

Severe  bene  merotiti  fecerunt  parentes 

in  pace  quic  vixit  atino  ?  diehw  XX. 
To  Severa  well-deserving  the  pa- 
rents erect  (this)  in  peace  who 
lived  years  ?  20  da}'8. 

A  Fragment. 

Januariae  conjugi  bene  merenti  qu.'c 

vixit  ?  aunis  XX. 

To    Jannaria     the     well-deserving 
wife  who  lived  ?  .  20  years. 
Klis-f-et-(-Nicloria  parentes  liili;e  ben 
merenti  qu(e  vixit  annw  II   mcnsiliji-f 
iii. 

Elis    and    Victoria,    the    parents, 

to  the  danghtor  well-deserving  who 

lived  2  years  '^  months. 

Eristitus   ct   Felicia  parentes   Felici 

filio  dulcissimo  bene  merenti  qui  vixit 


anuis  XIIII  mensis  VII  dies  XVIll. 

Te  in  pace. 

The  parents,  Eristilns  and  Feli- 
cia, to  Felix  tlie  dearest  and  well- 
deserving  son,  who  lived  14  years. 
7  months,  18  days.     Thee  in  peace. 

26.    Lucifer  pater  filiie  Urste  bcncmerent(i) 
q?«e  vixit  annw  III  diebus  XXI. 
Lucifer  the  father  to  the  daugh- 
ter L^rsa.  well-deserving,  who  lived 
'A  years.  21  days. 

:!1.    Bibbeo  v(b)ene  merenti. 

To  Bibbeus  well-deserving. 

:i2.    Flavia  hie  posita. 

Flavia  here  buried. 

'M.    Phocina. 

iiO.  Aelia  B(V)ictorina  posuit  AureltH' 
Probaj. 

^lia  Victorina  placed  (this)  to 
Aurelia  Proba. 

52.  Africane  le  in  ?  Maximinus  ei  tu  ? 
qui.  vit.  annos  III  ra  VII  et  ? 

O  Africanus  thee  in  ?  Maximinus 
and  thou  ?  who  lived  A  years  7 
months  and  ? 

57.  ?  :e  ben^  merenti  filial  dulcissim(t 
qniB  vixit  ami.  XXII  mensis  XI  dies 
XVIIII.  deposita  die  IIII  Kalendas 
Maias.  in  pace.     Parentis  fecerunt. 

?  to  the  well-deserving  and  most 
precious  daughter  who  lived  22 
3'ears,  II  months.  19  days.  Buried 
on  the  fourth  before  the  kalends 
of  May.  In  peace.  The  parents 
erected  (this  monument). 

58.  Asurus-fln  p(ace)  vixit  an.  VII. 

Asurus  in  peace  lived  7  years. 

59.  Vixit  anis. 

He  lived  years.  ? 

60.  A  F'ragment. 

61.  A  Fragment. 

62.  Firmia  Viclora  quo  vixit  annis  LXV. 

Firmia  Victoria  who  lived  65  years. 

64.  Aurelio  Felio- qui  b(v)  ixit  cum  con- 
jugio  l)one  meniorie  h((,)ixit  annos 
Iv.  Raptus  etcrne  domns  XII  Kal. 
Januarius.     (Barliarous  Latin.) 

To  Aurelius  Feli\is  who  lived 
with  his  spouse  well  remembered 
55  years.  Snatched  to  his  eternal 
home  the  twelfth  before  the  kalends 
of  .lannary. 

65,  Elenthcrio  in  pace  depo.situs  III  Kal. 
Jan. 

To  Elcutherins  in  peace.  Bnrietl 
the  third  before  the  kalends  of  Jan- 
uary. 


53fe 


TRANSLATION   OF   INSCRIPTIONS. 


INSCRIPTIONS  OF  PLATE  V. 


No. 
1. 


-2,  3. 


Decessit. 

He  has  departed. 
Deposilus.    Buried.    Sepultiis.     Bur- 
ied. 

Burial.     Phadiaiies  (?) 
Marco     Aurelio.       Augustwum .     lib- 
erto.     Proseneti  a  cubiculo  Aua^usH. 
pwcuratori  thesaurorum  \)Toc2iratori 
patrimoni-  proc;(rato/7'  viiioruni  ordi- 
nate a  divo  Comniod  ■  in  castreiise  pa- 
tronopii.«simolibtrti  beuemerenti  sar- 
cophagum  de  suo  adornaverunt. 
To    Marcus  Aurelius    Proseiies,  a 
freedman  of  tlie  Aiigustii,   of  the 
cubicuhim  (?)  of  the  emperor,  the 
keeper  of  the  treasury,  overseer  of 
tlie  paternal  estate,  superintendent 
of  tlie  gifts,  keeper  of  tlie  wines, 
appointed  by  the  divine   Comnio- 
dus  in  charge  of  the  camp ;  to  their 
patron  most  pious  and  well-deserv- 
ing,   his    freedmeu,    of  then'   own 
means,  have    adorned   this   sarco- 
phagus. 
Prosenes  receptus  ad  Deum,  V.  Non  ?  ? 
Reqrediens  in  .  .  .  urbe  ab  expedi- 
tionibus  scripsit  Ampelius  ]\hertn~i. 
Presenes    being   received    to    God 
on  the  fifth  of  tlie  Nones  .  .  .  Ampe- 
lius, his  freedman,  returning  to  the 
city  (?)  from  his  expeditions,  wroie 
-    (this  inscription). 
Aurelia  dulcissima  filia  quae  de  seculo 
recessit  vixit  annis  XV  •  Mensibus  IIII 
Severo  et  Quintino,  Coss. 

Amelia  a  much  beloved  daughter 

who  has  departed  this  life  lived  15 

years.  4moiiilis,  Severus  and  Quin- 

tinus  being  consuls. 

'UpaKTiiTOf  (ru)  deo{u)  fiTieararog  kC,rj- 

aev  £~{r/)  "h  "r^apa  rj{fiepaQ)  I)-  evoarjaev 

y/i{epa^)  ifi^TelEVTa^npola  K[a7\,rv6uv) 

Mai[uv)  (T/*)7r((j  kql  liovTiavifiVTV  (arotq) 


' Avp{?/?uog)  ZavOiai;  Trariip  TeKi>(f}y?.VKv- 

Heraclitus,  the  well-beloved  of 
God,  having  lived  almost  8  years 
and  13  days,  being  sick  12  days, 
died  on  the  11th  before  the  Kal- 
ends of  Ma.y,  Ulpius  and  Ponlianns 
being  consuls.  Aurelius,  the  father, 
held  this  child  more  dear  than  light 
and  life. 
9.    Acliad  ...  am  possu?<  .  .  .  XlII  Kal. 

Aug.  Y.miliano  11  et  Aquilino  Cons. 

Dormit. 

A  broken  inscription;  the  last 
reads:  the  thirteenth  before  the 
kalends  of  August,  Emilianus  the 
second  time  and  Aquilinus  being 
consuls.     He  sleeps. 

1 0.  'Lektl^ioq'  np«(fr£f ra)ro(f)  Kai  K  • .  .  . . 
6  dov/.og'  Tov  l6£o)v  a^iuQ  .  .  .  bv  fjer- 
avot/aa.  Kav  u6e  coi  vTZEpaTTjaa  nai  ev- 
Ka(pia)Trjatj.  tg)  ovofiaTi.  aov  Tra(pe(hKe) 
rrjv  %l'vx{>/v)  {t)v  ^^V-     Tpiavra  Tpiu{v) 

.     .     .     ff   fJLTjVUV. 

Septimius  Pretextatus  (?)  and 
.  .  .  a  servant  of  Gcd  (having  lived) 
worthily.  I  cannot  repent  n  yself 
to  have  thus  served  thee,  and  T 
render  thanks  to  thy  name.  He 
gave  his  soul  back  to  God  at  ?>'.'• 
years  and  6  motuhs.     (?) 

11.  'Evp£(oi)p{e)iTu-  ovpavia  dvyarrip- 
'TipcDdpQ-  (?) 

Maye&t  thou  have  good  passage 
to  heaven  0  daughter  of  Heroda.  (?) 

12.  Ap/uevia-  ^riTitKnaq  •  ATiia-  Vrfyiva. 

Armenia  •  Felicitas  •  ffilia  •  Re- 
gina. 

13.  Jnnuara  co(n)Jngi  bene  merentc(i) 
Gorgono  mpgisiro*  primo     (?) 

Janiiara  to  her  well-deserving 
husband  Gorgonus,  the  master. 

14.  Leontina  (^)n  Deo  pax. 

Leontina  in  God  peace. 


INSCRIPTIONS  OF  PLATE  VL 

BEING   CHIEFLY    OF   DOCTRINAL    IMPORT. 


Vidua  P  (?)  belicissima  !  In  Deo  vives. 

O  widow  most  fortunate!    Mayest 

thou  live  in  God! 
Ursina  vibes  Deo. 

Ursina,  mayest  thou  live  in  God! 
'"EivrvxiQ  'LuTEpn)  cv/iSic)  koXu^  //  f/w- 
fXEV^  itToiTjaa  ^ri  kv  Qeu. 


Eutychis  to  Sotcrie    my  compan- 
ion   well   honoured   (?).      I    have 
made    (this).     May    she    live    in 
God. 
Fortunata  vives  in  Deo. 

Fortunata,    mavest    thou    live    in 
God! 


TRANSLATION  OF   INSCRIPTIONS. 


533 


5.  M  E  M  ? 

UUilius  (Vitiilius  ?)  Calligoiiis  semper 
ill  D«;  vivas  •  dulcis  aniina. 

Viuilius    Calligoiiis,    inaycst    lliuu 
ever  live  in  Gud,  sweet  spirit. 
G.    Faustina  dukis  bibas  in  Deo. 

Sweet  Faustina,  niayest  thou  live 
in  God ! 
7.    Vihas  in  duo.  feci     Qui  ? 

Mayest  tliou  live  in  God.     I  have 

made  (liiis).     ?     ... 

h.    Bono    atque    (?)    dulcissimo    cowjug-r 

(Jastorino  qui  vixit  annis  LXI  meusi- 

l)us' V"'  diei- X.     Benemerenti    uxor 

fecit.    Vive  in  Deo. 

To  her  dear  and  well  beloved 
husband,  Castorinus.  who  lived  61 
years,  5  months,  10  days.  To  Jiim 
well-descrviu<i;  the  wife  ereets{tliis). 
Live  thou  in  God! 
9.  Lucida  in  Deu»i.  B(\')ixit  aunuos  XI. 
Lucida  in  God.  Slie  lived  II  j'ears. 
lu  D.  P. 

Lucifere  co«ju<i;i  dulcissime  omncn 
(tn)  dulcitudinem  cum  luctu  raaxime 
(o)  mariio  reliquit  .  .  .  et  meruit  ti- 
tulum  iuscribi  ut  quisque  de  fratriljus 
legeret  rogeC  deuwi  ut  saiicto  et  inno- 
ceiiti  spirit!)  ad  deum  su-;cipialur.Qiine 
vixit  annos  XXII  ineus.-a  Villi  dies 
VI. 

D.  P.         (?) 

To  Liicifera  llie  dearly-beloved  wife 
who  left  to  her  husband  in  the 
deepest  sorrow  all  pleasanmess  and 
who  deserves  that  this  epitipli 
should  be  inscribed  that  whoever 
of  the  brothers  shall  read  may  be- 
seech God  that  with  a  saintly  and 
sinless  spirit  she  may  be  received 
to  God.  Who  lived  22  years,  9 
months,  6  da)'s.' 
11.  Pactum  (?)  et  lidellism  (?)aput(?)  dcuin 
et  pro  spirito. 

The    translation    is    not    eas}''  on 
account  of  the  traginentar\'  charac- 
ter of  the  inscription. 
]■_'.    Bolosa  dens  tibi  refngeret  quae  vixit 
annos    XXXI   recessit  die  XIII  kal 
Octobres. 

O  Bolosa  (Volosa  ?),  may  God   re- 
fresh thee  I     Who  livedst  .31  years. 
Siie  departed  on   the   18th  before 
the  kalends  ot  October, 
j:;.     .\meriranus  Rnfinie  co?ijugi  carissime 
bone  raerenti  spiritum  tnum  Dens  rc- 
refrigeret. 
Anierimns  to  Rufina  his  precious 


14. 


19. 


wife,  well-deserving.    May  God  re- 
fresh thy  spirit! 
Refrigera  dens  animam  Horn.  (?) 

Refresh,  0(iod,  ihe  spirit  of  Horn  (?) 
Lais  cum  pace  .  .  .  ispiriius  in  bonu/// 
quescat.     (Barbaric  Latin  ) 

Lais    with  peace,   tiiat    thy   spirit 
may  rest  well. 
A  Fragment. 
Regina  vibas  in  domino  Zesu. 

Regina,    mayest   thou    live  in  the 
Lord  Jesus! 
Bibas  in   Christo  Constantia  m  pace 
QuMe  vixit  annos  L V  (?)  I'ecit  (?)  b3ne. 
Mayest  thou  live  in  Christ!    Con- 
stantia wlio  lived  in  peace  55  (?) 
years,  (made  this)  ? 
Suscepta  Colonica  in    ^   qn;e  reqni- 
evit  vixit  anu  XI  dep  in  Nov. 

Colonica    who  rested  in  peace  re- 
ceived in  Christ.  She  lived  40  years, 
having  been  Buried  in  November. 
In  ^  Aselus  D  ? 

In  Christ  Aselus     ? 
.  .  .  Erre  recepit  corpus  Livi  ...  X 
decern  et  quaterque   binos   hie  .  .  . 
estersos  terre  sohitus  anima  Christo 
reddita  est. 

This  is  too  fragmentary  to  fur- 
nish a  key  to  the  sen.se. 
Mirite  bonitatis  adqne  inemitabilis 
.^anctitatis  totius  castitatis  rari  exen 
(m)pli  f eminae  castae  bon«e  b(v)itie  ot 
[)ietate  in  omnibus  gloriosae  Bratiiae 
dignitati,  quae  vixit  anno-i  XXXI II 
qucK  sine  lesione  animi  mei  vixii  me 
cum  annos  XV  tiliosautem  procwavit 
VII  I'X  i|iiibus  si  (e)  cu/m  /iabet  donii- 
nun  mill. 

To  a  t't'male,  of  admirable  good- 
ness, and  of  inimitable  sanctity, 
of  entire  purity  a  rare  example, 
chaste,  of  good  and  pious  life,  re- 
nowned in  all  things,  to  Brattia 
Dignitas  who  lived  33  years,  who 
wiiiiout  vexation  of  my  spirit  lived 
with  me  15  j'cars.  She  bore  7 
sons,  G  of  whom  she  has  with  the 
Lord.  (?) 
B(V)icloriiia  in  pace  et  in  ^  . 

Victorina  in  peace  and  in  Christ. 
Anima  dulcis  iiicomparabili  tilio  qui 
vixit  annis-  XVII  non  X'  meritus 
vitam  red(l/(Zit  in  pace  domini. 

A  sweet  spirit!  To  an  incom- 
parable son  who  lived  less  tlian 
17  years.  Worthy  he  g.ive  l)ack  his 
life  in  the  peace  of  the  Lord.  (?) 


.'  There  has  been  much  dllTerenee  of  opinion  relative  to  the  reatiiim  and  interpretation  of  this 
jn.crlptlon.    Some  prefer  to  read  in  the  vocative  the  opening  name,  and  understand  leUquinti. 


534 


TRANSLATION   OF   INSCRIPTIONS. 


25.    Meieiiti  •  te  cum  pace  ?     A  frag- 
ment. 
2(j.    A  rrugment. 

27.  EcpT/v7/  ry  ipvxv  '^'^^  o'EvxoXei. 

Peace  to  ihy  spirit,  0  Xucholis ! 

28.  'Pi'Aovfj.EV?/  Ev  eipTjvri  aov  to  nvEVfia. 

Pliilomena,  thy  spirit!  in  peace! 

29.  Eip7/vr/  aov  ry  ipyxy  Zuaifirj. 

Peace  to  thy  spirit,  0  Zosimus. 
.'iO.    Agape  vibes  iu  etenium. 

Agapa,  mayest  thou  live  forever! 

31.  Ma/ciis  piier  iiinocens  •  esse  jam  in- 
ter iunocenti  (e)  s  coepisti  ^ani  slau  (b) 
ile(i)s  liv  (b)  i  litec  vita  est  r^uam  le 
laetum  exeipe(i)t  mater  eclesite  de 
hoc  mnniio  revertentem  comprema- 
tur  pectorum  genitus.  otetruaiur  fie- 
lus  oculorum. 

Marcus,  thou  innocent  boy,  thou 
luist  already  begun  to  be  among 
the  blameless.  How  permanent  is 
that  life  which  now  is  thine !  How 
the  mother,  the  Church,  receives 
thee  returning  joyful  from  this  life, 
that  the  sighings  of  the  heart  may 
be  suppressed,  that  the  weeping  o/' 
the  eyes  may  be  staj'ed. 
D  .  Ma  .  .  Sacrum  XL. 

32.  Leopardura  in  pacom  cum  spirita 
sancia.  acceptum.  eiimte  abeatis  in- 
rioci(e)nt^m  posuer  .  .  par  .  .  .  Q  .  . 
Ann.  Vn  •  men  .  .  VII. 

Sacred  to  the  gods  of   the  lower 

realm.  (XL?)    Leopardus  received 

iu  peace  among  the  sacred  spirits, 

.    hold  ye  him  as  innocent.    (?)    The 

*  parents    placed    (this    inscription). 

Wlio  lived  7  years,  7  months. 

.33.    Spirita  sancia  =  sacred  spirits. 

34.  A  fragment  whose  reading  is  conjec- 
tural. 

35.  Maximiaiuis  Satnrnina  dormit  in  pace. 

Maximianus   and    Saiurnina   sleep 

in  peace. 
3G,  Suscipe  terra  tuo  corpus  de  corpore 
sumta  retAef  cot  baleas  bihificante 
A  sic  Gregorini  Hm  truber  in  pace 
tutalur  in  pace  pa  .  u  .  iter  cum  ejus 
Piperusa  juguli  ejus. 

Receive,    O   earth,  a    body    taken 

from  iliy  body. 

'I'luis  of  Gregory  in  peace  togetiior 

with    his    spouse    Piperosa.     (The 

whole  readmg  is  doubtful.) 

37.    Vivere  qui  prestat  morientia  semina 

terras  solvere  qui  potuit  letalia  vin- 

cula  n)oriis  .  .  Depositus  Liberianus 

III  Idus  Augustas  qwestas  in  pacem. 

He    who    can    cause    tiie    dying 

germs  of  earth  to  live,  who  can 


39. 


break   the   fatal   chains  of  death. 

.  .  Liberianus  buried  the  third  of 

the  Ides  of  August.     Mayest  thou 

rest  in  peace  1 

Hie  mihi  semper  dolor  erit  in  tevo  et 

tuum    b(v)enerabilem    vultum    liceat 

videre  sopore  conjunx  Albana  quae 

mihi   semper   casta   pudica    relictum 

me   tuo   gremio    queror    quod    mihi 

sanctum  te  dederat  divinitus  autor  re- 

lictis  tuis  jaces  in  pace  sopore  merita 

resurgis  temporalis  tibi  data  requeiio. 

Quae  vixit  annis  XLV  men  .  .  V  (?) 

dies  XIII  do?-TOit  in  pace  fecit  Cyri- 

acus  maritus. 

Here  there  will  ever  be  to  me 
grief  during  my  life,  and  it  may  be 
permitted  to  see  in  dreams  thy  ven- 
erated countenance,  0  my  spouse, 
who  wast  ever  to  me  chaste  and 
modest.  I  sorrow  that  I  am  sep- 
arated from  thy  embrace,  since  the 
Divine  autlior  had  given  thee  to 
me  as  something  sacred.  Having 
left  thine  own  thou  liest  in  the 
peace  of  dreaming.  0  worthy  one, 
thou  shalt  arise.  The  repose  given 
thee  is  only  temporary.  Who  lived 
45  years,  five  mouths,  13  days. 
She  sleeps  in  peace.  The  husband, 
Cyriacus,  made  (tliis  monument). 
D  M.  S. 

Floreniius  filio  suo  Aproniano  fecit 
titulum  beuemereuli  qui  vixit  annum 
et  menses  noveiw  dies  quinque  cum 
sol  do  a(?)matus  fuisset  a  nuijore 
sua  et  vidit  hiuice  morti  constitum 
esse  petivit  de  feclesia  ut  tidelis  de 
seculo  .  .  .  recessisset. 

Sacred  to  the  Manes. 
Florentiuus  made  this  inscription  to 
his  well-deserving  son,  Apronianus, 
who  lived  a  year,  9  months,  and 
5  days,   and   since    he    had   been 
greatly    beloved    by    his    ancestor 
and  saw  tliat  lie  was  appointed  unto 
death,  he  besought  the  Church  that 
he,    a    faithful    one,    might    retire 
from  this  life.  (?) 
A  very  fragmentary  inscription. 
.S'^mpb/cio     benemerenli     qui     vixit 
annis"     11"     et     post     adceptionewt 
suam  cries'  XXVI  •  dep  .  .  V  nonas 
Feb  .  .  in  pace  .  .  acrius  qui   vixit 
ann  .  .  XII  filio  suo  fecit  in  pace. 
To   Simplicius    (?)    well-deserving 
who  lived  51  years,  and  after  his 
acceptance    26   days.      Buried   ou 
the  fifth  of  the  nones  of  February 
iu  peace.     (?)  made  this  for  his  son 
who  lived  12  years.     In  peace. 


TRANSLATION   OF   INSCRIPTIONS. 


535 


TRANSLATION  OF  INSCRIPTIONS  ON  PLATE  VIL 

INSCHIPTIONS   OP    POPE    IJAMASUS. 


No. 

1.  Fama  refcri  saiielos  dtiiluin  rctulisso 
parentes  A^iiem  cum  liij;iibres  cantiis 
tuba  coiiciepuisset  nutiiois  {<rciniuiii 
subito  ligni8.se  puiillaui  spuiilc  iriu'ls 
calcasse  miiias  rubieiiKii^s  tyraiiui 
urere  cum  rtainmis  voluisse  uobile 
corpus.  virib;w  iii(m)  meusuni  paivis 
superasse  timorem  luidaque  profusuiu 
crinem  per  membra  dedisse  ne  Do- 
mini ternplum  t'acies  peritura  vidorct  ■ 
0  veneranda  milii  sanctum  decus 
alma  piidoris  iit  Damasi  precibwA' 
faveas  precor  inclyta  martyr. 

Report  says  that  when  she  liad 
recently  been  snatched  awa}'  from 
her  parents,  when  the  trumpet 
pealed  forth  it^  terrible  clangor, 
tlie  virgin  Agnes  suddenly  left  the 
breast  of  her  nurse  and  willingly 
braved  the  threats  and  I'age  ot  tiio 
tyrant  who  wished  to  have  her  no- 
ble form  burned  in  flames.  Tiiough 
of  so  little  strength  she  checked 
her  extreme  fear,  and  covered  her 
nude  members  witii  her  abiuid.nit 
hair  lest  mortal  eye  might  see  the 
temple  of  the  Lord.  0  thou  dear 
one,  worthy  to  be  venerated  by  me ! 
O  sacred  dignity  of  modesty !  Be 
thou  favourable,  I  beseech  thee,  0 
illnslrious  martyr!  to  the  prayers 
of  Damasus! 

2.  0  semel  atquo  iterum  vero  de  no- 
mine VeViK  que  intcmerata  fide  con- 
tempto  principe  mundi  confessus 
Christum  ccclestia  regna  pelisti. 
0  vero  preiiosa  tides  cognoscite  fra- 
tres  qua  ad  eculum  victor  pariier  prf)- 
peravit  Adanctus.  Presbyter  his  ve- 
rus  Daniaso  rectore  jiibenlecomposuit 
tumulum  sanctorum  limina  adornans. 

0  thou,  once  and  again  appropri- 
ately named  Felix!  and  with  a  faith 
inviolate,  defying  the  prince  of  the 
world  and  confessing  Ciirist,  hast 
readied  tiio  heavenly  realms.  O 
truly  precious  faith  (recognise  it,  O 
brothers)  by  which  Adanctus,  a 
victor,  has  mounted  steadily  to 
heaven. . .  .  berus,  liie  presbyter,  by 
tlie  order  of  Damasus,  the  i-ecior, 
has  built  this  tomb,  adoring  the 
habitation  of  the  saints. 
3,  4.  Damasus  Kpiscopus  fecit.  Heraclius 
vetuit  lab(p)sos  peccata,  dolere.  Kii- 
sebius    miseros    docuit   sua    crimiDa 


Here.     Scinditur  partes  populus  glis- 
scente  furore  seditio  cacdes    bellum 
discordia     lites.       extempio    puriter 
pulsi   I'eritate  tyranni  •    iniejii-a   cum 
recor  servaret  foedera  pacis  •  perlulii 
exilium    (/omino    sul)     juriice    Uetus 
litore    Trinacrio    nuindum    vit^imqwe 
reliquit  Eusebio  Epi-^copo  et  martyri. 
Damasus  the   bishop   made  (this). 
Heraclius    forbade    the    lapsed    to 
grieve    foi'    their    sins.     Eusebius 
taught  these  wretched  ones  to  wasli 
away    tlieir    crimes    by    weeping. 
Tlie  populace  was  divided  into  par- 
ties; with  swelling  fury  there  are 
seditiou.s,   murders,  war,  discords, 
quarrels.     For  an  example  (or,  ac- 
cording  to   a    suggested    reading, 
"straightway")  by  tlie  cruelty  of 
the  tyrant  both  are  driven  into  ex- 
ile, although  tiie  rector   was   pre- 
serving intact  the  pledges  of  peace. 
He  bore  tlie  e.xile  joyfully  under 
tlie  Lord,  liis  judge.     On  the  Sicil- 
ian coast  he  gave  up  the  world  and 
life.     To  Eusebius,  bi-hopand  mar- 
tyr.— On  the  sides,  nuining  verti- 
cally, is  the  following  inscription: 
Damasi  f^ui  pappaj  cultor  atquo  ama- 
tor  Furius  Dyonisius  Filocahis  scrib- 
sit. 

The  fosterer  and  friend  of  Popp 
Damasus,  Furius  Dyonisius,   Filo- 
cahis wi'oie  (this), 
o,    A  fragment. 

<).  Cum  periturae  Gei.-c  posuisseut  castra 
sub  iirbe  moverunt  sanctus  bella  ne- 
faiida  prius  istaque  sacrilego  verte- 
riiut  cordesepnlchramartyribusqiian- 
dam  rite  saciata  piis  ■  quos  monstrante 
d(>o  Damasus  sibi  {lapa  probatos 
atlixo  monuit  carmine  jure  coli.  Sed 
periit  titiilus  confractomarmoi'C  sanc- 
tus •  iiec  tameii  his  iterum  posse  p' • 
riro  fuit  ■  diruta  Vigilius  nam  mux 
Inec  papa  gemiscons  hostibus  cxpul- 
sis  omne  nouivit  opus. 

AVhen  the  Geiie  had  pitclied  their 
desiruclive  camp  under  (the  walls 
of)  tlie  city,  they  waged  a  nefari- 
ous warfare  against  the  saints,  and 
also  directed  it  against  the  sepul- 
chres once  duly  dedicated  to  the 
pious  martyrs.  UndtT  the  guid- 
ance of  God,  pope  Damasus,  of  him- 
self, gave   notice    ia   a   poem  in- 


536 


TRANSLATION    OF   INSCRIPTIONS. 


scribed  on  thoni.  that  tliey  could  be 
lawfully  worshipped.  But  the  mar- 
ble hiivin<>'  been  sliattered,  this  sa- 
cred inscription  has  perisiied.  Nev- 
ertheless it  was  not  possible  to 
utterly  destroy  these,  since  imme- 
diately after  the  enemy  had  been 
driven  out,  the  pope,  Vigil,  greatly 
sorrowing  over  these  ruins,  re- 
stored every  work. 

7.  A  fiaguieut. 

8.  Hie  conjesta  jacet  quseris  si  turb;i 
piorum  ■  corpora  slructorum  retiuent 
veneranda  sepuichra.  sublimes  ani- 
inas  rapuit  sibi  regia  ca;li  •  hie  comi- 
tes  Xysti  portaut  qui  ex  hoste  tro- 
piea  •  hie  numerus  pi'ocerum  servat 
qui  altaria  Xri  •  hie  posita  longa  vixit 
qui  in  pace  sacerdos  "  hie  confessores 
sancti  quos  Grecia  niisif  hie  juve- 
nes  pueriqite  senes  castique  nepote  s  ■ 
quels  magYS  virgineum  plaouit  reti- 
uere  pudorem  •   hie  fateor  Damasus 


volvi  mea  condere  membra  ■  sed  cine- 
res  timui  sanctos  vexare  piorum. 
Here  lieaped  together  rest  a 
throng  of  pious  ones,  if  thou  art 
seeking  for  them.  These  venerated 
sepulchres  hold  the  bodies  of  the 
saints.  The  regal  lieavenly  palace 
has  taken  to  itself  their  lofty  souls. 
Here  are  the  companions  of  Sixtns 
who  bore  the  trophies  from  the 
enemy:  here  a  number  v/ho  min- 
istered at  Christ's  altars:  here  is 
buried  a  priest  who  lived  in  long- 
continued  peace  (?):  here  the  holy 
confessors  whom  Greece  sent :  here 
the  youth  and  boys,  the  aged,  the 
immaculate  descendants  who  were 
pleased  to  maintain  their  virgin 
modesty.  Here,  I  confess,  O  Da- 
masus. have  1  wished  tliat  my  mem- 
bers might  repose.  But  I  fear  to 
disiurb   the   sacred   aslies   of  the 


TRANSLATION  OF  EPITAPHS  OF  PLATE  VIIL 

SECOND    HALF   OF   THE    FOURTH    CENTURY. 


1.  Parentes'  Dionvsio  filio  •  dulcissimo  • 
vi.v?(;an.V,m.vil,d.  IX-  D.  P.  XVI- 
kal.  Sept.  Constantio  X.  Cos.  in  p. 
A  ^  i2. 

The  parents  to  their  most  precious 
son,  Dionysius.  He  lived  5  years, 
1  months,  9  days.  Buried  on  the 
sixteenth  before  the  Kalends  of 
September,  Constantius  being  for 
the  tenth  time  consul.  In  peace 
in  Christ  Jesus. 

2.  A  fragment.  It  lias  much  interest 
from  the  variety  of  symbols  whicli  it 
contains.  Its  translation  has  been 
conjectured  by  de  Rossi. 

3.  Theodora  reqn^■ovit  in  pace  die  pridie 
Non  Septemljris  D.  N.  Juliano  Aug. 
nil  et  Salustio  Cons. 

Theodora  rested  in  peace  on  the 
day  before  the  Nones  of  Sep- 
tember, our  master  Julianus  Augus- 
tus, for  the  fourth  time,  and  Salus- 
tius  being  consuls. 

4.  Lupicino  et  Jovino  C.  .  .  Victories 
Q  .  An  .  XXV  . .  '.  marito  fecit  An.  .  . 
XIII  et  pudiciiia  omnibus  .  . 

The  reading  is  conjectural  as  fol- 
lows: Lupmus  and  Jovinns  being 
consuls,  Victoria  was  buried,  who 
lived  25  years,  and  lived  13  years 
with  her  liusband,  and  was  known 
to  all  by  her  chasteness. 


5.  Mirffi  sapientise  Augendo  qui  vixit 
Ann  .  plus  mni  LXXII  cum  uxore 
fecit  Lun  .  XXX  •  dept)silus  XV I  kal . 
OfWh  .  DN  Gratiano  Aug.  II  .  et 
Piobo  (."on.   .   .  . 

To  Au.uendus  of  wonderful  wis- 
dom, who  lived  72  years  more  or 
less;  witn  his  wile  he  lived  30 
3-ears.  Buried  the  sixteenth  be- 
fore the  Kalends  of  October  our 
lord  Gratianus  Augustus,  for  the 
second  time,  and  Probus  being 
consuls. 

6.  Hie  queieseit  ancilla  dei  qui7e  de 
sua  omnia  pos.sedit  domum  istam 
que(a)m  amicae  defieni  solaciumqite 
requirunt.  Pro  hu(a)nc  iuiuij(a)m 
ora  su(o)  bolem  que(a)m  superis 
titem  re/i'quisti  .  aeterna  requiem 
Felicita  ?  ?  ?  XVI  ke  (a)  lendas 
Oc.obris  .  Cucurbitinus  et  Abumdan- 
tius  iiic  simul  quiesciwJit  d  'u 
Gratiano  V  et  T/iodosio  Aug. 

Here  rests  a  servant  of  God 
who  with  respect  to  all  her  posses- 
sions has  guarded  this  home, 
whom  iier  friends  lament  and  they 
seek  for  consolation. — The  balance 
is  obscure  except  the  usual  con- 
chision. 

7.  Theodora  quae  vixit  annos  XXI  ni 
VII    d    XXIII   in    pace    est    biso- 


TRANSLATION   OF   INSCTUPTIONS. 


537 


mu(o)     amplifieaui     seqiiitur     vituiii 
cum    CMSta   AlVoditc    ft'cil   ad    astra 
viam    Ohristi    modo   gaiidet   in    aula 
restitit  liaec  muiido  seuiper  Oaelesiia 
qnaereus     optima     servatrix      lejj^is 
fideique    maj^istra     dedit     ejircfriam 
Sanctis  per  saecula  meuicm  iude  ex- 
imios  paradisi  legnat  odores  tem|joie 
contiiiuo   veriiaut  ubi  gramina  rivis 
expectatque     deum     superas       quo 
surgat   ad  auras  hoc   posuit   corpus* 
tumulo  niorUilia  linqueus,  fundavitque 
locum  eonjux  Evagruis  .  .  tans  dcp 
.  .  die  .  Antonio  et  Siagrio  cons  .  . 
Theodora  who    lived  21  years,   7 
months,   23  days,   in  peace    is   in 
this  bisomus,  while  chaste  Aphro- 
dite    lived     a     still    longer    life. 
She   has    made    her   way    to    the 
lieavens,  and  now  rejoices  in  the 
court  of  Christ.    She  withstood  ihc 
world,    alvva3's    seeking    heavenly 
tilings;    tiie    most  e.xcellent  guar- 
dian of  the  law  and  of  the  faith, 
she  has  given   back  to  the  saints 
lier   noble    spiri'.    forever.     There 
amidst    the    delightful    odors    of 
paradise    she    reigns    where     tiie 
grass  blooms  perpetually  by  the  wa- 
ter-brooks, slie  waits    on   God   by 
whom  she  rises  to  those  supernal 
regions.     Her  husband,   Evagrius, 
pressing  forward  to  join  her,  has 
placed    this    body    in    the    tonil), 
leaving   behind    the    mortal    part, 
and  has  founded  this  place.    Buried 
on    the   day  .    .    .    Antonius    and 
Siagrius  being  consuls. 
8.    Quid  loquor  aut  sileam  prohibet  dolor 
ipse   fateri:    hie    tumulus    lacrimas 
retinet;  cognosce  parentuHi  Projectae 
fiicrat  primo  quae  juncta  marito,  pul- 
cAra  decoro  suo  solo  eonteuta  pudore. 
hen  dilecta  satis  miserae  gene(i)tricis 
amore!      Accipo,   cpiid  multis?    tha- 
iami  post  fcedcra   prima,   eropta  ex 
oculis  Flori  genitoris  abiit,  aetlieriam 
cupienscaeli  conscenderelucem"  haec 
Damusus    praeslat     cunctis     solacia 
fletns  .  Vixit   ami   XVI  m    IX  dies 
XXV-  Dep.  Ill  kal  Jan.  Fl.  Mero- 
bande,  et  Fl.  Salurniu.  conss  • 

Respecting  what  may  I  speak,  or 
keep  silence?  Grief  itself  prohib- 
iis  me  from  speaking;  this  tomb 
retiuns  my  tears.  Know  the  par- 
ents of  Projeeta  (?)  who  had  scarce- 
ly had  union  with  her  husband, 
fair  in  her  comeliness,  content 
with  modesty  alone.  Alas!  be- 
loved enough  in   the  afifeclion  of 


No. 

an  afflicted  mother!     A  to  yon  sat- 
isfied that  I  say  more?  (?)     After 
the  lirst  union  of  the  nuptial  bed, 
snatched    from    tlio    eyes    of    her 
father,  Floriis,  she  departed,  longing 
to  mount  to  the  ethereal  brightness 
of  heaven.     Damasus  offers  to  all 
tiie     solaces     of    weeping.      She 
lived  IG  years,  D  months,  25  days. 
Buried  the  third  before  the  kalends 
of  January,    Flavins   Merobandus 
and  Satnriiinus  being  consuls. 
it.    Hie  rcquieseit  quod  vuUdeus  houeste 
recordatioues  (is)  vir  qui  vixit  annos 
LVII  depositus  in  pace  die  V  Idns 
Octobres  cons  .  .  s  D  ■   N"    Arcadio 
Aug.  (plater  et  II(jiiorio  Aug.  .  .  ter 
Consulibus. 

Here  rest  (as  God  wills  (?))  a  man 
of  worthy  memory  who  lived  f>7 
years,  buried  on  the  tifih  of  the 
Ides  of  Ocuiber,  our  lords  Arca- 
dius  Augustus  for  the  fourth  time, 
and  Honorius  Augustus  for  the 
third  time,  being  consuls. 

10.  Hie  cesguid  (?)  Bonifatia  mulier  quae 

bixset  annus  XLVI  d  X'  Deposila 

ill  pace  Cesario  et  Atlico. 

A  piece  of  barbarous  Latin. 
Probably  meaning:  Here  reposes 
the  wife  Bonifatia,  who  lived  4G 
years,  11  days.  Buried  in  peace. 
Caesarius  and  Atticus  being  con- 
suls. 

This  is  a  genuine  palimpsest. 
On  the  opposite  side  is  found  the 
inscription  "  Leo  et  Statia  vivi  fe- 
cerunt."  Beneath  a  Greek  inscrip- 
tion is  found :  'Evrvxiavv  <^ov/.<f) 
Qfoi)  'Io{v)Aiavri  aw{iiiu). 

11.  Maxima  in  pace  q«ie  vixit  annus 
phis  munns  XXXV  cons  doininis  nos- 
Iris  Oiiorio  iv  c  ...  s  ...  el  Euluc/a- 
ano  Cims.  Pridise  Nonas  Septembres. 

Maxima  in  peace.  Who  lived  35 
j^ears  more  or  less,  our  lords,  Ho- 
norius for  the  fourth  time,  and 
Eutnchianus  being  consuls.  On 
the  day  before  the  Nones  of  Sep- 
tember. 

Pa  OR. 

3!);{.  u.  V.  Plate  III,  No.  19. 

477.  M^rp/  KaTinvi'Ali)  epyoiroiu. 

To   the    Mother    Kalianilla    the 
toiling  one. 

478.  Amatrix  panperorum  et  operaria. 

The  lover  of  tlio  poor,  and  her- 
self a  laborer. 
478.      Leontiie  cum  laborome  sna\ 

Tt)  Leontia   together    with   her 
laborers  (?) 


538  LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHEOLOGY. 

IV. 

LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCH/EOLOGY.' 

ENCYCLOPAEDIAS,  DICTIONARIES,  ETC. 

Ersch   u.   Guuber:    Allgeiufciue   Encykloptedie  der  Wissenschafien   imd   Kiinste. 

Leipzig,  1883. 
(iuov'E:  Dictionary  of  Music  airi  Musicians.     Loudon,  1880-83.     3  vols. 
Hefele:  Conciliengescliichle.     2te  And.     Freiburg,  1873.     1  Bde. 
Herzog  u.  Plii'T:   Real-Encyklopadie   t'lir  protestaniische  Tlieologie  u.  Kirclie.     2te 

Aufl.,  Leipzig,  1878-85. 
Kraus:  Real-Eucyklopadie  der  cliristliclieu  Altertliumer.      Freiburg  iiu  Breisgau, 

1880-86. 
Lami:  Dicliounaire  des  Sculpteurs  de  rAnliquite  au  Vl'  Siecle  de  uotre  Ere.     Paris, 

1884. 
LiCHTEN'BERGER:  Encyclopedie  des  Sciences  religieiises. 
Martigny:  Dictionnaire  des  Antiquiles  cliretieunes.     2e  ed.     Paris,  1877. 
Ma.nsi:    Sacrorum   Conciliorum  nova  et  amplissima  collectio.      Florence,    1759-98. 

Edilio  instaurata.     Paris,  1885,  seq. 
McClixtock  aud  Strong:  Cyclopaedia  of   Biblical,  Theological,  and  Ecclesiastical 

Literature.     New  York,  1869-81,  with  supplementaiy  volumes. 
Mesdel:  Dms  niusicalische  Conversations — Lexikon.     Berlin,  1870-1883.      13  Bde. 
Smith  and  Giikkthaji  :  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities,  American  reprint.     Hart- 
ford,  1880.     2  vols. 
Wetzer  u.  Welke:  Kirchen-Lcxikon. 

SYSTEMATIC  TRliATISES. 

AUGUSTI:  Denkwiirdigkeiten  aus  d.  cliristl.  Archaologie.  Leipzig,  1817-31.  12  Bde., 
8vo. 

Handbuch  der  chrisilichen  Archiioloijie.     Leipzig,  1836.     3  Bde.,  8vo. 

Bi.xgham:  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Cliurcii.  Best  edition  by  his  grandson.  Pit- 
man.    London,  1840.     9  vols.,  8vo. 

Binterim:  Vorziigliclie  Denkwiirdigkeilen  der  christkath.  Kirclie.     Mainz,  1825-41. 

Buhmer:  Die  christlich-kirchliche  Altertlmmswis-seuscliaft.  Breslau,  1836.  2  Bde., 
8vo. 

De  Caumont:  Abecedaire  d'Arclieologie.     Caen,  1869-70.     3  vols.,  8 vo. 

Didron:  Manuel  d'Iconographie  cliretienne.     Paris.  1845. 

Delattre:  Archeologie  chretienne  de  Carthage.     Lyons,  1886. 

GuERicKE:  Lelirbuch  der  christlich-kirchlichen  Archaologie.  2te  Aufl.  Berlir. 
1859. 

Jahn:  Ueber  das  Wesen  und  die  wiclitigsten  Aufgaben  der  archaologischen  Studi^n. ' 

Mallet:  Cours  eleiuentnire  d'Arclieologie  religieuse.     Paris,  1883. 

Martha,  Jules:  Manuel  d'Arclieologie  Etrusque  et  Roraaine.     Paris,  1884. 

Mullkr:  ArchiieoloKie  der  Kunst.     Berlin,  1854. 

Newton:  Essa3''s  on  Art  and  Archteologj'.     Loudon,  1885. 

'  Of  the  Immense  literature  the  works  here  given  have  been  found  to  be  among  the  most 
thorough  aud  suggestive. 


LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCILEOLOGY.  539 

Otte:  Haudbucli  der  kircliliclieti  Kunst-arc'iilulugie  des  deutsclieu  Mittolultera.     Ok- 

Aufl.     Leipzig,  1884.     2  lide. 
PiPEK:   Mythologio  dor  chrisilichen  Kuust  von  der  iiltestca  Zeit  bis  in3  sechzelxnie 

Jahriiundert.     Weiinar,  1847-51.     2  Bde.,  8vo. 

Einleituug  in  die  moiiiimenuile  Theologie.     Gotha,  18ti7. 

Haoul-Rociiette:  Trois  Mcmuirs  sur  lo.s  Autiquites  c-hretieunes.     Paris,  1859. 
Kkuskns:   Elements  d'Archeologie  ciuetieuue.     2er  ed.     Louvain,  1885. 
Rhkinvvalu:   Die  kirchliche  Arciia,jlo^ie.     Berlin,  18:50. 
SciiuLTZE:  Areliaologisclie  Sludieu  iiber  iilt-eiiristliche  Moniimente.     Wicn,  1880. 

Die  clii-istiiche   Archuologie,  in   Zockler's   Uandbadi   der  theologischen  VTwie/t- 

shuftfii. 

iJTAKK:    llaudbueh  der  Archaologie  der  KiuisL     Leipzig,  1830. 

EPIGHAPlir. 

BOECKH:  Corpus  Inscriptionum  Graecariun.    3  vols.  fol.     Berolini,  1828-53. 
Franz:   Elem.  Epigr.  Grajc. 

Inscriptioiies  Britannicie  Clirlstianaj.     Berlin  and  London,  1876. 

HC'iiNER:  Inscriplioues  Hispaiiite  Christian;e.     Burol.  1871. 

Article  "  Inscriptions,"  in  Encydoptedia  Brckmuica.     9th  ed. 

Hicks:  A  Manual  of  Greek  Historical  Inscriptions.     Loudon,  1881. 

Le  Blant:  Inscriptions  cliretiens  antiques  de  la  ville  d' Aries.     Paris,  1878. 

Manuel  d'Epigraplue  cliretienne,  etc.     Paris,  1869. 

McCall:  Cliristian  Epitaphs  of  the  First  Six  Cenmries.     Toronto,  18G9. 
MOMMSEN :  On  Latin  Inscriptions,  in  Contemporary  Review,  May,  1871, 

Corpus  Inscript.  Latinaruin. 

De  Rossi:  Inscriptiones  clu-istian;e  urbis  Romae.     I.  Romse,  18G1. 

Reinach:  Traite  d'Epigraphie  Grecque.     Paris,  1885. 

RiTTER:  De  Composilione  titul.  Christ.     Berol,  1877. 

Reinesius:  Syntagma  Inscriptionum. 

Stevens:  The  old  Runic  Monuments  of  Scandinivia  and  i<]ngland.     London,  1805. 

Waddington:   Inscriptions  greeques  et  latinos  de  la  Syrie.      Paris,  1870. 

Zell:   Handbiicli  der  romi.schen  Kpigraphik. 

OX  TMK  CATACOMBS. 

Bellkrmann:  Ueber  die  allesten  chri.'-iliclien  Begriibnissstiitlen  u.   besonders  die 

Katakomben  zu  Neapel.     Hamburg,  1839. 
BosiO:  Roma  sotterraiiea.     Ronue,  1632;    and  the  Latin  translation  of  this  work 

by  Aringhi.     Roma,  1691. 
Caruana:   Hypogenne  Tal-Liebrn.     Malta,  1884. 
Garrucci:  Vetri  ornati  di  ligure  in  oro  trovati  nei  cemiteri  dci  cristiani  piimilni  di 

Roma.     2d  ed.     Roma,  1864. 
Krats:   Roma  sotterranea.     Freiburg,  2te  Aufl.,  1879. 
Lenormant:  Les  Catacombos.     Paris,  1858. 
NoRTHCOTE  and  Brown  LOW:   Roma  sotterranea.     2d  ed.     London,   1879.     3  vols., 

8vo. 
Perret:  Les  Catacombes  de  Rome.     Paris,  1850,  etc.     6  vols.,  fol. 
Roller,  Th.  :  Los  Catacombes  de  Rome.     Paris,  1879-81.     2  vols.,  fol. 
De  RiCHEMOXT:   Les  Catacombes  de  Rome.     Paris,  1870. 
De  Rossi:   Roma  sotterranea  cristiana.     Roma,  1864-79.     5  vols.,  fol. 
SCHULTZE:  Katakomben  von  S.  Gennaro  dei  Poveri  in  Neapel.     Jena,  1377. 


540  LITERATUUE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

WiTHROvv:    Tlie  Catacombs   of   Rome,   and   their   testimony  relative   to    Primitive 
Cliristianiiy.     New  York,  187  T. 

GENERAL  HISTORIES  OF  THE  ARTS  OF  FORM. 

Allard:  L'art  paien  sous  les  Empereiirs  cliretieus.     Paris,  1879. 

Bayet:  L'Art  Byzantiii. 

D'Agincouht:   Histoire  de  l'art  par  les  monumeuts.     6  vols.,  Paris,  1826. 

Can'ina:  Yia  Appia. 

CiAMPnNi:  Yetera  Mouiimeuta  in  quibus,  etc.     2  vols.,  Romte,  1694. 

De  sacris  sedificiis  a  Constantino  Maguo  constructis, 

EcKL:    Die    Madonna   als    Gegenstand    cliristliclier    Kunslmalerei    und    Sculptor. 

Brixen,  1883. 
Forster:  Bildnerei  und  Malerei  von  Einfiihrung  des  Chi-isteulhums  bis  auf  die  neu- 

este  Zeit.     6  Bde.,  Leipzig,  1875. 

Mittel  u.  Unter-Italien.     2  Bde.,  Miinclien,  1866. 

Gaurucci:  Storia  dell'  arte  cristiana.     6  vols.,  Prato,  1873-81. 
IIemans:  Ancient  Christianity  and  Sacred  Art.     Florence,  1866. 

Historic  and  Monumental  Rome.     London,  1874. 

KoxDAKOFP:  Histoire  de  I'Art  Byzantin  considere  priiicipalment  dans  les  Miniatures. 

Tran.s.  from  the  Russian  by  Trawinski.     T.  I.     Paris.  1886. 
Labarte:  Histoire  des  Arts  industriels.     2d  ed.     Paris,  1872. 
LuEBKE:   Ecclesiastical  Art  in  Germany  during  the   Middle  Ages;   trans,  from  SiJi 

German  edition,   with  Appendix,   by   L.    A.   Wheatley.     4lh    English    edition. 

Edinburgh,  1877. 
Lord  Lindsay:  History  of  Christian  Art.     2d  ed.     London.  1885. 
LiJTZOW  u.  Lubke:  Denkmaler  der  Kunst.     Stuttgart,  1879. 
Reber:  History  of  Medieval  Art.     New  York,  1887. 

Schnaase:  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kiinste.    2te  Aufl.,  8  Bde.,  Stuttgart   1866-79. 
Unger:  Die  Byzantinische  Kunst.  in  Ersch  u.  Gruhers  Eacyklopcedle. 
Winckelmaxn:  Geschichte  der  Kunst  des  Altcrtluims.     2  vols.     1776. 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PAINTING. 

Crowe  and  Cavlacaselle:  History  of  Painting  in  Italy.     London,  1864. 

HoTHO:  Geschichte  der  christlichen  Malerei.     Stuttgart,  1867. 

Leport,  Louis:  Eludes  sur  les  monuments  primitifs  de  la  peinture  chretienne  en 

Italie,  etc.     Paris,  1885. 
Rio:  De  l'art  chretienne.     2d  ed.     4  vols.,  Paris,  1861-67. 
WoLTMANN  and  WoERMANX:   History  of  Painting;  trans,  from  the  German  by  Col - 

vin.     2  vols.,  New  York,  1880. 

MOSAICS. 
AgxelluS:  Liber  Pontifiqalis. 

.\PPELL:  Christian  Mosaic  Pictures.     London,  1878. 

-Vrtand:  Histoire  abregee  de  la  peinture  en  mosaique.     Paris,  1885.  ^ 

Rarbet  de  Jouy  :  Les  Mosaiques  chretiennes,  etc.     Paris,  1857. 
Barbier  de  Montaui.t:    Les  mosaiques  chretiennes  de  Milan;  also  articles  in  the 

Revue  de  VArt  Chretien. 
Didron:  La  Peinture  en  Mosiiique,  in  Gazette  des  Beaux  Aries,  vol.  xi. 
Duchesne  et  Bayet:  Memoire  snr  une  Mission  au  Mont  Athos,  etc.     Paris,  1876. 
Foxtana:  Musaici  della  primitiva  cpoca  delle  chiese  di  Roma.     Paris  1870,  1888. 


LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCILEOLOGY.  541 

Frothi.vgham  :  Uue  Mosa.i<iiie  coiistaiitiemie  iiiconnue  a  Saiul-Pierro  do  Rome,  ia 

RtiVVAi  Archeologique.     Jan. -Feb.,  1883. 
FcRiETTi:  De  Mu.sivis. 

Garrucci:  Storia  dell'  Arte,  etc.,  vol.  iv  Tav.  CCI  V'-CCXCl\'. 
Gerspach:  La  Mosaique. 
Heuser  and  Kraus:   xVrticle  "  Mosalk,"  in  Real-Eiunjldopiidit  dti-  christlicheii  Alt.r- 

thiimer.     Bd.  ii,  ss.  419-30. 
Labarte:   Histoire  dcs  arts  industriels.     2cr  cd.,  Paris  1872.     t'.  vol.  ii,  pp.  33.''.-41  1 
Liber  Pontificalis.  sive,  Anaslasii  Bibliotecarii,  Do  Vitis  Poniiliciim. 
MC'XTZ:   Notes   sur  les   Mosaiques  clirecieuiies  do  I'lialie,  iu    litvue  Archeologique 

1875-1878. 

Tiie  Lost  Mosaics  of  Ravenna,  in  Am.  Jour,  of  Arc/uwlogij,  vol.  i,  pp.  1 15-30. 

The  Lost  Mosaics  of  Rome,  IVtli  U>  L\lh  Cciiliiry,  iu  Am.  Jnur.  of  Arclneuloijy, 

vol.  ii,  pp.  295-313. 

Etudes  d'Iconogra[)liie  chretieriue. 

Parker:   Archaeology  of  Rome:  Mosaics,  Photographs. 

QUAST:   Die  alt-christlicheu  Bauwerke  von  Ravenna.     Berlin.  1842.     Fol..  wilh  platc.<. 

Rahn:   Ravenna;    eine  kuustgeschichiliche  Stiidie.     Leipzig,  18G9. 

RicHTER:   Die  Mosaiken  Ravennas.     Wien,  1878. 

De  Rossi:  Musaici  Cristiaui.     Rome. 

Salzenberg:  Die  altchristlichen  Denkinale  vou  Cuustauiinopel  von  V.  bis  XII.  Jalir- 

hundert.     Berlin,  1854. 
Vexables:  Article  "  Mosaics  "  iu  Dictionary  of  CItrislian  Antiqnities  vol.  ii,  pp.  132J- 

1,341. 
Vitet:   Ktudes  sur  I'Histoire  de  I'Art.     Paris,  1861. 
Wyatt:  Art  of  Mosaic;  Geometrical  Mosaics  uf  the  Mid(Jlo  Ages. 

SCULPTURE. 
Chanot:  Les  Figures  criophores,  in  Gazette  Archeulogiqun,  1878. 
Fergusson:   Rude  Stoue  Mouumeuts  of  all  Ages.     Loudim,  1872. 
GoRi:  Thesaurus  veterum  diplychornm.     Floreutioe,  1772. 
Grousset:  Etude  sur  I'histoire  des  sarcophages  Chretiens.     Pari.s,  1885. 
Hahn:  Fiinf  Elfonbeiu-Gefasse  des  friihesteu  Mittelalters.     Hanover,  18G2. 
Hasemclever:   Der  altchrislliclie  Griiberschmuck.     Brauusciiwcig.  1886. 
HiJBNER:   Die  antiken  Bildwrerke  von  Madrid.     Berlin,  1862. 
King:   Antique  Gems:  Their  Origin,  Uses,  and  Value.     Loudon,  1860. 
LfBKE;   History  of  Sculpture;  trans,  from   the  Germ.ui    by  F.  K.  Burnett.     2(1  cd. 

London,  1878. 
Le  Blant:  Etude  sur  les  sarcophages  Chretiens  antiques  de  la  villc  d'.Vrles.     Paris, 

1873. 
Maskell:   Ivories,  ancient  and  mediaeval.     London.  1872. 
Matz  und  Von  Duhn:  Bildwerke  in  Rom. 
Or.PFiELn:  Select  Examples  of  Ivory  Carving,  from  second   t     si.vteenth  centu'T. 

London,  1855. 
Pl'LSZky:  The  Fejevary  Ivories.     Loudon,  1865. 
Veyries:  Les  Figures  criophores  dans  I'art  grec,  I'art  greco-romaiu  ct  I'art  chr^lieu. 

Paris,  1884. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Bf.rti:  Suir  antico  duonio  di  Ravenna.     Ravenna,  1880. 

Bro^-n:  From  Schola  to  Cathodr.il;  a  study  of  early   (Christian   Architecture  and  its 
relations  to  the  life  of  the  Church.     Edinburgh,  18SG. 


rA-i  LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCILEOLOGY. 

Buxsen:   Die  Basilikeu  des  christliclicn  Roms.     Stuttgart  unci  Tubingen,  1842. 
Caxina:  Ricerche  suU'  architettuni  piu  propria  dei  tempi  cristiani.     Roma,  1843. 
Dehio:   Die  Genesis  der  christlicheii  Basilika.     Miiuchen,  1883. 
Dehio  und  Bezoli):  Die  kirchliche  Baukunst  des  Abendlandes.     Stuttgart,  1881. 
DeFleury:  Le  Lateran.     Paris,  1879. 
Fergusson':  History  of  Architecture.     London,  1862-67. 

FosSATi:  Aya  Sofla,  Constantinople,  as  recently  restored  by  order  of  H.  M.,  tlie  Sul- 
tan Abdul  Mejid.     Loudon,  1852. 
HiRT:  Die  Geschiclite  der  Baukunst  bei  den  Alteu.     Berlin,  1822.     2  Bde. 
HiJBSCH:   Die  altchristliche  Kircheu.     Carlsrulie,  1862. 
Kreuser:  Christlichen  Kirclienbau.     Berlin,  1851  and  1860. 

Wiederum  christlichen  Kirclienbau.     Berlin,  1868. 

Kdgler:  Gescliichte  der  Baukunst.     3  Bde.,  Stuttgart,  1856. 

Knight,  H.  Gally:  Ecclesiastical  Arcliitecture  of  Italy.     London,  1842-44.     2  vols. 

Laxge:  Haus  und  Halle :  Studieu  zur  Geschichte  des  antiken  Wohnluiuses  und  der 

Basilika.     Leipzig,  1885. 
LuEBKE:   Geschichte  der  Architectur.     6te  Auflage,  Stuttgart,  1884. 
Mothes:  Die  Baukunst  des  Mittelalters  in  Italien  von  der  ersten  P]atwicklung  bis  zu 

ihrer  hochslen  Bliithe.     2  Bde.,  Jena,  1884. 
Die  Basilikenform  bei  den  Christen  der  ersten  Jahrhunderte.     Hire  Vorbilden 

und  ihre  Entwickelung.     Leipzig,  1865. 
Messmer:  Ueber  den  Ursprung,  die  Kntwickelung,  u.  Bedeutung  der  Basilika  in  der 

christlichen  Baukunst.     Leipzig.  1854. 

Ueber  den  Ursprung  der  christlichen  Basilika.     Leipzig.  1859. 

XoRTON:  Historical  Studies  of  Church  Building  in  the  Middle  Ages;   Venice,  Sienna, 

Florence.     New  York^  1880. 
Parker:  The  Hou^e  of  Pudens  in  Rome,  in  A)'chreological  Journal,  vol.  .xxviii,  1871. 

The  Archoeology  of  Rome.     12  vols.,  O.xford  and  London,  1877. 

Platner,  Bun.sen,  Gerhard,  u.  Rostell:  Bescreibung  der  Stadt   Roms.     Stuttgart 

u.  Tiibiugen,  1830-42. 
Quasi:   Die  alt-christlichen  Bauwerke  von  Ravenna.     Berlin,  1842. 
Raiin:  Ueber  den  Ursprung  und  die   Entwickelung  des  cliristl.  Central-u.  Kuppel- 

baues.     Leipzig,  1866. 
RiCHTER:  Christliche  Architectur  und  Plastik  in  Rom.  vor  Constantin  dem  Grossen. 

Jena,  1872. 
Rosen'Garten  :   Handbook  of  Architectural  Stj'les.     London. 
Stockbauer:   Der  christlichen  Kirclienbau  in  den  ersten  Jahrhunderten.     Regens- 

burg,  1874. 
Texier  et  Papplewell  Pullan:   L'Architecture  byz  mtine.     London,  1864. 

Eglises  byzantines.     Paris,  1869. 

De  VoGtJE:  Syrie  Centrale:  Architecture  civile  et  religieuse  du  premier  au  septieme 

Siecle.     2  vols.,  Paris,  1865-77. 

Les  Kglises  de  la  Terre  Sainte.     Paris,  1860. 

Le  Temple  de  Jerusalem. 

Yai.entixi:  La  patriarcale  basilica  Laterana.     Rona,  1832. 

La  basilica  Liberiana.     Roma,  1839.  * 

La  basilica  Yaticana.     Roma,  1845. 

Weixgartner:    Ursprung   und    Entwickelung   des    chris: lichen    Kircheugebaudes. 

Leipzig,  1858. 
AViEGEMANX:  Ueber  den  Ursprung  des  Spitzbogenstils.     Diisseldorf,  1842. 
Zesterjiaxx:   Die  antiken  u.  die  christlichen  Basilikeu,  etc.     Leipzig,  1847.     4to. 


LITERATURE  OP^  CHRISTIAN  ARCII.EOLOGY.  54:] 


EARLY  CIIlirSTIAX  POKTIIY  AXD  IIYMN'OLOCY. 

Bahr:  Geschichte  dor  romischen  Literatitr.     2te  Autl..  Leipzijj,  1881.     4  Bde. 

Die  christl.    Dicliler    utid    Gescliichtschreiber    lloins.      2te    And.,    Karlsrulio, 

1872. 

Berxhardy:  Gruudi-iss  der  romischen  Literatur.     5ic  Anil..  L^ipzie,  1879. 

Burgess:  Select  Metrical  Hymns  and  Homilies  of  Ephraem  Sjtus.  London,  185.'!. 
2  vols. 

Metrical  Hymns  of  Ephraem  Syrus. 

Clement:  Carmina  e  Poctis  Cliristianis  excerpta.     Parisiis,  1854. 

Christ  und  Paranikas:  Anthologie  Graeca  Carminum  Cliristianornm.    Lipsiic,  1871. 

Dan'iel:  Tiiesaurns  Hymnologicns.     Lipsiic,  1841-56.     5  tom. 

DuFFiELD ;  Tiie  Latin  llymnwritera  and  their  Hymns.     New  York,  1885. 

Ebert:  Gescliiclite  der  christlichcn  lateinischen  Litera'ur.     Bd.  i,  Leipzig,  1874. 

Grimm,  W.  :  Znr  Geschichte  des  Reims,  in  tlie  Memoirs  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences for  1851. 

Hahn:   Ueber  den  Gesang  in  der  griccliisclien  Kirche. 

KoRTUM:  Des  Silentarins  Pauhis  Beschreibung  der  h.  Sophia  n.  des  Ambon.  Ber- 
lin, 1854. 

Kocii:  Geschichte  des  Kirchenlieds  luid  Kirchen-Ge.sangs  in  der  christlichcn,  in 
besondere  der  deutschcn  evangelischen  Kirche.  Slnttgart,  3tc  Aufl.,  18(56-70. 
8  Bde. 

Jacobi  :  Zur  Geschichte  des  griecliisclien  Kirchenlieds,  in  Brieger's  Zeitschrift  fiir 
Kirchengescldchte.     Vol.  v,  Gotha,  1881. 

KoNiGSFEhD:  Lateinische  Hymnen  n.  Gesange  ans  dom  Mittelalter.     Bonn.  18-17-65. 

MoNE:  LateiniscHe  Hymnen  des  Mittehilters  aus  Handschriften  hcrausgegeben  ii. 
erklart      Freiburg,  1853-55.     3  Bde. 

Morris:  Select  Works  of  S.  Ephraem,  the  Syrian,  translated  out  of  the  original 
Syriac.     Oxford,  1847. 

MuNTER:   Uebcr  die  iiltestc  christliche  Poesio.     Kopenhagen.  1806. 

Xeale:  Hj'mns  of  the  Eastern  Church.     Last  edition.     London,  1876. 

Mediieval  Hymns  and  Sequences.     3d  ed.     London,  1867. 

The  Ecclesiastical  Poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Pii'ER:  Der  Hymnus  des  Clemens  von  Alexandricn,  in  the  Evawjelischen  Kalendar, 
1868. 

PiTRA,  Cardinal:  Tlymuographio  de  I'eglise  grecque.     Rome,  1807. 

Analecta  Sacra  Spicilegio  Solesmensi  parata.     T.  i,  Par.,  1876. 

Rambacii:  Anthologie  christlicher  Gesange  aus  alien  Jahrhundortcn  der  Kirche. 
Leipzig,  1817-33.     6  Bde. 

Sciiaff:  Ciirist  in  Song.     New  York  and  London,  1879. 

Teufei.:  Geschichte  der  romischen  Literatur.     4te  Aufl.,  Leipzig,  1882. 

Trench:  Sacred  Latin  Poetry,  chiefly  Lyrical.     3d  ed.     L)ndon,  1874. 

Thierfelder:  De  Christianorum  Psalmis  et  Hymnis  usque  ad  Ainbro-ii  tempora. 
1868. 

Wackerxagel:  Das  deutsche  Kirchcnlicd.     Leipzig,  1804-77.     5  Bde. 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  MUSIC. 
Aguili-ar  and  de  Sola:    The  Ancient  Melodies  of  the  Liturgy  of  tlio  Spanish  and 

Portuguese  Jews. 
Amcros:    Geschichte  der  Musik.     2tc  Aufl.     5  Bde. 


544  LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Bkexdel;  Gescliichte  der  Musik. 

BURNEY:  General   History  of  Music   from  the  Earliest  Ages  to  the  Present  Period. 

4  vols.,  4to.    London,  1776-1789. 
Chappell:   History  of  Music.     Loudon,  1874,  et  seq.    4  vols. 
Clement:    Histone  de   la    Musiqne  depuis   les  temps  ancieus    jiisq'au   uos  jours. 

Paris,  18o5. 

Historic  generale  de  la  unisique  religieuse. 

CoussEJiACiiER:    Histoire  de    Tiiarmonie  an  tnoyeu  Age. 

L'art  liarmonique  aux  XIP  et  XIII'  Siecles.     Paris,  1865. 

Delitzsch:  Physiologic  und   Musik  in  ilireu  Bedeutung  flxr  die  Grammatik,  beson- 

ders  die  hebraische.     Leipzig,  1868. 
En'GEL:  Music  oF  the  most  Ancient  Nations.     London,  1864. 
Forkel:    Allgomeine  Geschichte  der  Musik.     2  vols.     Leipzig,  1788. 
Fetis:  Histoire  generale  de  la  Musique.     Paris.     4  vols. 
Hawkixs:    General  History  of  tiie  Science  and  Practice  of  Music.    London,  1853. 

2  vols.     4to. 
Helmore:   "Gregorian  Modes,"  in  Groves  Mumyl  Dictionary. 
Kiesewetter:  Geschichte  der  Enropteisch-abendlandischeu   oder     unscr   heiuigeu 

Musik.     Leipzig,  1846. 
Lambillotte  :  Antiplionaire  de  Sainte  Gregoire.     Facsimile  du  manuscript  do  S^int- 

Gall.     VHP  Siecle.     Paris,  1851.     4to. 
Martini:  History  of  Music.  Also  "  Xotation,"  in  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Ma-bic. 
Xaumann:  History  of  Music.     Translated  by  F.  Praeger.     London,  1885. 
Reissm.\nn:    "  Gregorianisclier    Gesang,"    in    Menders    miisicaUsches    Conv^rsatio7is- 

Lexicon. 

Allgemeine  Geschichte  der  Musik. 

ROCKSTRO:    History  of  Music.     London,  1886. 

Schletterer:  Geschichte  der  geistlichen  Dichtungen  und  kirchlichen  Tonkunst. 
Hanover,  1869. 

Saalschutz:  Geschichte  und  Wtirdignng  der  Musik  in  iibersichtlicher  Da  stphung. 
Leipzig,  1863. 

Schubiger:  Siingerschule  St.  Gallens  vom  achien  bis  zwoiften  Jahrhundert". 

Thierfelder:  "  Ambrosianischer  Lobgesang,"  in  MendeFs  musicalisches  Conversa- 
tions-Lexicon,    Part  I,  pp.  1 99,  seq. 

Von  Dommer:   Musik-Geschichte. 

Von  Winterfeld:  Der  evangelische  Kirchengesang. 

Westphal:  Geschichte  der  alten  und  mittelalterische  Musik. 

ON  THE  CONSTITUTIOX,  WORSHIP,   ETC.,  OF  THE  EARLY  CHURCH.' 

AuB^:    L'Eglise  et    I'Etat  dans    la   seconde   Moitic  du   IIP  Siecle.     4    vol-s.,  Paris, 

1876-85. 
FJaxnf.rman:  The  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Church.     Edinburgh,  1887. 

The   Church  of  Christ.      A  Treatise  on  the  Nature,  Power,  Ordinances,    Dis. 

cipline,  and  Government  of  the  Christian  Church.     Edinburgh,  1868.     2  vols. 

Baur:  Ursprung  des  Episcopats.     Tubingen.  1838. 

'  The  literature  is  of  innnense  volume  and  of  growing  importance.  The  recent  works 
are  characterized  by  great  thoroughness  of  scliolarship,  and  are  generally  written  in 
a  scientific  rather  than  polemic  spirit.  Besides  the  patristic  writings  of  the 
first  six  centuries,  the  standard  Church  histories,  and  the  histories  of  Christian 
doctrines,  the  following  may  be  found  among  the  most  thorough  and  suggestive. 


LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHAEOLOGY.  545 

Baur:    Das  Cliristentlmm  und  die  ehristliclie  Kirclie  der  diei  crsteii  Jalahundcrte. 

Tubingen,  2te  Aufl.,  1800. 
Bickell:   (Jescliichte  des  Kirelienrechts.     Frankfort,  1849. 
Bruce:  Tlie  Training  of  the  Twelve.     3d  ed.     Edinburgh,  1883. 
Beyschlag  :  Die  ehristliche  Genieindeverfassung  iin  Zeitalter  dcs  Neuen  Testameuta. 

Harlem,  187G. 
Bri'tckner:  Ueber   die    Ziisanmienhang   der  Liturgie   ini   achten   Buche  der  -'Apos- 

tolischen  ConStitutionen,"  in  Studicn  ximl  Kritikcn,  1883,  ss.  7-32. 
Coleman:  The  Apostolic  and  Primitive  Church,  etc.     Philadelphia,  1878. 
Cox:  The  Literature  of  the  Sabbath  Question.     Edinburgh,  1805. 
CuN.NiXGHAM :  The  Growth  of  the  Church.     London,  1886. 
Dale:  Manual  of  Congregational  Principles.     London,  1884. 
Da.mel  :  Codex  liturgieus  ecclesitc  universas  in  epitomen  redactus,     4  vols.     LipsiiE, 

1847-51. 
Dexter  :    Congregationalism :    What  it    is ;    whence  it   is,  etc.      4th  cd.      Boston, 

1876. 
DiJLLiNGER:  The  First   Age   of  Christianity  and   the  Church;    trans,   by  O.xenham. 

London, 1860. 
Drey  :  Neue  Untersuchungen  iiber  die    Constitutionen    uad  Kanoncs  der  Aposteln. 

Tiibingen,  1832. 
Edersiieim  :  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah. 
Fisher;  The  Beginnings  of  Christianity.     Xew  York,  1887. 
Freeman:    Principles  of  Divine  Service.     London,  1855-62. 
(iEIKIE:  Life  and  Words  of  Christ.     New  York,  1880.     2  vols. 
GiLFiLLAN :    The  Sabbath   Viewed  in  the   Light  of  Reason,  Revelation,  and  History. 

New  York,  1862. 
Harnack  :  Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengeschichte.     Freiburg,  1886-87.     2  vols. 
Lieber  den  Ursprung  des  Lectorates  und  der  anderen  niederen  Weihen.     Gie.s- 

sen,  1886. 
Hatch:  Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches.     London,  1882. 
Hausrath:    History  of  the  New  Testament  Times.     The  Times  of  Jesus.     Trans. 

from  the  German  by  Poyniing  and  Quenzer.     New  York,  1887. 
Heixrici  :  Die  Kirchengemeinde  Korinths  und  die  religiiseu  Genossenschafton    der 

Griechen,  in  the  Zeitachrift  fiir  loiKscnxchaftUche  Theologic,  1876. 
Hessey:  Sunday:  Its  Origin,  History,  and  Present  Obligation.      Bampton  Lecture.''. 

London,  1860. 
FIeylin:   History  of  the  Sabbath. 
IIilgenfeld:     Der    Paschastreit  der   alten    Kirche  nach  seiner   Bedeutung    fiir  die 

Kirchengcschichte.     Halle,  1860. 
Hokling:  Das  Sacrament  der  Taufe.     Erlangen,  1846. 
Die  Lehre  der  illtestcn  Kirche  vom  Opfcr  im  Lebcn  und  Cultus  der  Christen. 

Erlangen,  1851. 
Hodge,  C. :  Discussions  in  Church  Polity.     Now  York,  1870. 
Jacob  :  The  Ecclesiastical  Polity  of  the  New  Testament.     A  study  for  the  present 

crisis  in  the  Church  of  England.     5th  Am.  ed.     New  York,  1879. 
Kahnis:  Die  Lehre  vom  heiligeu  Ahendmahl.     Leipzig,  1851. 
Kayser:  Die  Canones  Jacob  von  Edes.sa.     Leipzig,  18S7. 
Killen:  The  Ancient  Church.     Its    History,    Doctrine,   Worship,   and  Constitution. 

New  York,  1883. 
Kostlin:  Geschichtedes  christlichen  Gottcsdicnstes.     Freiburg,  1887. 
Lange:  Life  of  Christ.     Trans,  from  the  German.     Edinburgh,  1864. 
35 


54G  LITEH.VTL'RE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Lechler  :    Das  apostolische  und  das  iiachapostolisehe  Zeitalter  mit  Riicksicht   auf 

Unterschied  und  Einheit  im  Leben  und  Lelire.    3te  Aufl.    Karlsruhe  und  Leipzig, 

1885. 
Leyerlks  :  Die  Enstehung  des   Episeopats  in  der  christlichen  Kirche,  in  the  Ze!t. 

schrift  fiir  praktische  Theologie,  1887,  Heft  ii,  ss.  97-143;  Heft  iii,  ss.  201-244; 

Heft  iv,  ss.  297-333.     Against  Hatch  and  Harnack. 
Lightfoot:  The  Apostolic  Fathers.     London,  1885. 
The  Xame  and  Office  of  an  Apostle,  in  coiiim.  on  Galatians.     7th  ed.     London, 

1881. 

The  Christian  Ministry,  in  comm.  on  Philippians.     8th  ed.     London,  1885. 

Lipsius:  Ueber  Ursprung  und  Gebrauch  des  Christennamens.     Jena,  1873. 

Mone:    Lateinische  und  grlechische  Messen   aus    dem    2ten  bis  6ten    Jahrhundert. 

Frankfort,  1859. 
McRATORi.  L.  A.:  Liturgia  Romana  vetus.     Venet..  1748. 
Neale:  The  Liturgies  of  S.  Mark,  S.  James,  S.  Clement,  S.  Chrysostom,  S.  Basil,  or, 

according  to  the  uses  of  the  Churches  of  Alexandria,  Jerusalem,  Constantinople. 

London,  1859. 
Neander  :  The  Planting  and  Training  of  the  Christian  Church.     Trans,  by  Ryland. 

New  York,  1844. 
Palmer:  Origines  Liturgicae.    2  vols.    London,  1845. 

PoRTEOUs:  The  Government  of  the  Kingdom  of  Christ,  etc.     Edinburgh,  1872. 
Powers:  Irenaeus  and  Infant  Baptism,  in  the  Am.  Preshi/.  and  TheoJ.  Review^  1857. 
Probst  :     Kirchliche    Disciplin    in    den    drei    ersten    christlichen    Jahrhunderten. 

Tiibingen,  1873. 
Kenan  :  Rome  and  Christianity.     Hil)bert  Lectures.     Boston,  1880. 

Marc  Aurele  et  la  fin  du  mond  antique.     Paris.  1882. 

Lcs  Apostres. 

Riog:  The  Sabbath  and  the  Sabbath  Law  before  and  after  Christ.     London,  1869. 
Ritschl:  Die  Enstehung  der  altkatholischen  Kirche.     2te  Aufl.     Bonn,  1857. 
RiTSCHL,  Otto:  Cyprian  von  Carthago,  etc.     Gottingen,  1885. 
Rothe:    Die  Aufange  der  christlichen  Kirche  und  ihrer  Verfassung.     Wittenberg, 

1837. 
Ryckert:    Das  Abendmahl,  sein  Wesen   und   seine   Gesehichte  in  der  alten  Kirche 

Leipzig,  1856. 
Scherer:  Handbuch  des  Kirchenrechts.     Griitz,  1886. 
Schurer:    Die   Paschastreitigkeiten   des  2ten  Jahrhunderts.  in  Zeilschrift   fiir  hht 

T/ieoloffie,  1870. 
Seufert  :  Der  Urspnmg  und  die  Bedeutung  des  Apostolates  in  der  christlichen  Kirche 

der  ersten  zwei  Jahrhunderte.     Leiden,  1887. 
Stanley:  Christian  Institutions.      New  York.  1881. 

Steitz:   Der  Paschastreit,  etc.,  in  Sfndien  und  Kriliken.  1856,  1857,  1859. 
Swainson:  The  Greek  Liturgies.     London,  1884. 

Thiersch:  Die  Kirche  im  apostolischen  Zeitalter.     3te  Aufl.  Augsburg,  1879. 
Vitringa:  de  Synagoga  vetere  libri  tres.     "Weissenfel.s,  1726. 
Wall:  History  of  Infant  Baptism.     Oxford,  1872.     2  vol.*. 
Warren:  The  Liturgy  and  Ritual  of  the  Celtic  Church.     Oxford,  1881. 
Weizsacker:  Das  apostolische  Zeitalter  der  christlichen  Kirche.     Freiburg.  1886. 
Wieseler:    Die  Christenverfolgungen    der    Cfpsaren    bis  zum  dritten  Jahrhundcit. 

Leipzig,  1875. 

Gesehichte  des  Sonntags  in  der  alten  Kirche.     Hanover,  1878. 

Wordsworth:  Outlines  of  the  Christian  Ministry.     London,  1872. 


LITERATURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHEOLOGY.  547 

Woi.'nswoRTii :   History  of  the  Christian  Chuirh.     Vol.   i. 
Zaun:   Ij^natius  von  Aiitiochcn.     Gotha,  1878. 

Igiiatii  et  Polycarpi  Epistohe  Martyria  Fraguienta.     Lipsiai,  1876. 

Zocklkk:  Apostelgescliichte.     Niiidlingen,  1886. 
Das  Kieutz  Christi.     Gutetsloli,  1875. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

AcKERMANN :     The  Christian  Element  in  Plato  and  the  Platonii-  Philosophy.     Trans. 

from  the  Germiin.     Ediiilmigh,  1861. 
Allard:  Les  Esclaves  chretiens  (ie|)uis  les  premiers  temps  de  I'^l^glise  jiisq'au  la  fin  de 

la  domination  roniaine  en  Occident.     Paris,  1876. 
Alt:   Die  heiligen  Bildcr,  oder  die  bildende  Kunst  und  die  theologische  Wissenscliaft 

in  ilirem  gegenseitigen  VerluUtniss,  historisch  darjrestellt.     Herlin,  1845. 
Bahr:  Synibolik  des  mosiiischen  Cultn.'i.     Heidelberg,  I8ri7. 
Bkcker:  Das  Spott-Crucifix  der  romischen  Kaiserpaliiste.     Breslau,  1866. 

Die  Darstellung  Jesii  Christi  unter  dem  Bilde  des  Fisches.     Breslau,  1866. 

Die  heidnische  Weihforniel  D.  M.  Bresbiu,  1869. 

Becrath:    Zur  Geschichte  der  Marienverehiiing,  in   S/iidim  nvd  KritiLcu,    1886. 

Heft  i,  £.s.  7-94;  Heft  ii,  ss.  197-267. 
BouROOx:  Letters  from  Rome.     Londcm,  1862. 
Birckiiardt:  C  cerone.     5te  Aufl..  1884.     2  Bde. 
Burnell:  Elements  of  South  Indian  Palasography  from  the  -1th  to  the  17th  Century, 

A.  D.     2d  ed.    London,  1878. 
Butler:  The  Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of  Egypt.     O.xford,  1884.     2  vols. 
Chastel:  Destruction  du  Paganisnie  dans  lEmpire  d'Orient. 
Cocker:    Christianity  and  the  (ireek  Philosophy.     New  Yoik,  1870. 
Cohen  :  Description  historique  des  Monnaies  frappees  sous  I'empire  romain,  commun- 

ncment  appelees  medaillcs  iniperiales.     2er  ed.     T.  iv,  Paris,  1884. 
CoNDER  :  Survey  of  Western  Palestine.     Special  Papers.     London,  1881. 

Christian  and  Jewish  Traditions. 

Creuzer  :  Symbolik  u.  Mythologie. 

Crook.s  and  Hurst:  Theological  Encyclopsedia  and  Methodology.     New  York,  1884. 

CuRTiiTS,  HiRsniFELD,  ctc. :  Ausgrabungen  zu  Olyinpia. 

Conybeare  and  Howson  :  Life  and  Epi.stles  of  St  Paul.     6th  ed.     New  York,  18.">8. 

Dietrick:  Das   philosophische  System  Platons  in  seiner  Beziehung  zuni  cliristliihen 

Dogma.     Freiburg,  1862. 
Dollinc.er:  The  Gentile  and  the  Jew  in  the  Courts  of  the  Temple  of  Christ.     Trans. 

from  the  German  by  Darnell.     London,  1862. 

Ilippolytus  und  Callistus. 

Dorser:  History  of  tlie  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ.     5  vols. 

DuRSCH  :  Der  symbolische  Character  der  christlichen  Religion  und  Kunst.    Schaffhau- 

sen,  1860. 
Ekiiard:  Das  Erzichungswesen  der  christlichen  Zeit.  in  Der  Schulfreund.  lite  Jalu- 

gang,  Trier,  1855. 
EwAi.n:    The  History  of  Israel.     Trans,  from  tiie  German.     London,  1874. 
Farrar  :  Life  of  St.  Paul.     Lon«l(m,  1882. 
Forbes,  Leslie:  The  Early   Races  of  Scotland    and    tlicir    Monuments.     Edinburgli, 

1 876.     2  vols. 
I>'6r.ster.  Th.  :  .\mhrosiu.<<,  Bischof  von  Mailand.     Eine  Darstellung  seines  Lebens  und 

Wirkens.     Halle,  1884. 


548  LITEKATL'RE  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHxEOLUGY. 

Freeman:  Tlie  Historical  Geography  of  Europe.     2d  ed.     London,  1882. 

Fkikdlander:  Darstellungen  aus  der  Sittengeschichte  Roms.     Leipzig,  1881.     a  Bdo. 

Gibbon:   Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.     New  York,  1880.     6  vols. 

Gregorovius  :  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Roms  ini  Mittelalter. 

Ideler:  Haiidbuch  der  math,  und  tech.  Chronologie.     Breslau,  1825. 

Jacob:  Die  Kunst  im  Dienste  der  Kirche.     2te  Aufl.    Landshut,  1870. 

King:  The  Gnostics  and  their  Remains,  Ancient  and  Modern.  London,  1864.  New 
edition,  New  York,  1887. 

Kral's:  Die  christliehe  Kunst  in  ihrer  friiliesten  Anfiingen.     Leipzig,  1873 

Synchronistische  Tabellen  zur  ohristlichen  Kunstgescliichte.     Freiburg   1880. 

Kuenen:  Ilibbert  Lectures,  1882. 

Lea:  Studies  in  Church  History.     Boston,  1883. 

History  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy.     2d  ed.     Boston,  1884. 

Leckey:  History  of  European  Morals,  etc.     London,  1884.     2  vols. 

Lochler:  Sclaverei  und  Christenthiini.     Leipzig,  1877-78. 

Lehner:     Die  Marienverehrung  in  den  ersten  Jahrhundertcn      Stuttgart,  1881. 

Mariott:  The  Testimony  of  the  Catacombs  and  of  other  Monuments  of  Christian  Art 
from  the  Second  to  the  Eighteenth  Century.     London,  1870. 

Vestiarium  Christianum. 

Merivale:  Conversion  of  the  Roman  Empire.     London,  1864. 

Milman  :  History  of  Latin  Christianity.  New  York,  1881.     8  vols,  in  4 

Mommsen:  History  of  Rome.     New  York,  1870.     4  vols. 

Overbeck:  Verhiiltniss  der  alten  Kirche  zur  Sclaverei  im  romischen  Reiche.  Ber- 
lin, 1875. 

Pal.mer,  W.  :   An  Introduction  to  Early  Christian  Symbolism.   London,  1884. 

Ratzinger:  Geschichte  der  kirehlichen  Armenpflege.     2',e  Aufl.     Freiburg,  1884. 

V.  Raumer:  Geschichte  der  Padagogik.     Stuttgart,  1843. 

Reidelbach:  Ueber  den  Znsammenhang  der  clirisiliohen  Kunst  mit  der  antiken. 
Miinehen,  1881. 

Reuss:  History  of  the  New  Testament.  2d  ed.  Trans,  from  the  German  by  Hougli- 
ton.     1884. 

Rohault  de  Fleury  :  La  Sainte  Vierge.     2  vols.     Paris,  1878. 

Schmid:  Geschichte  der  Erziehung  vom  Anfang  l)is  auf  unsere  Zeit.  Stuttgart, 
1884,  seq. 

Schmidt:  Geschichte  der  Padagogik.     3te  AuH.     Cuthen,  1874.     2  Bde. 

Schlumberger  :  Sigillographie  de  I'Empire  byzantine.     Paris,  1885. 

Schurer:    Der  Gemeindeverfassung  der  Juden  in  Rom.     Leipzig,  1879. 

The   Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ.     Edinburgh,  1885. 

Stanley:  History  of  the  Eastern  Church.     New  York,  1863. 

Strzygowski:  Ikonographie  der  Taufe  Christi.     Miinehen,  1885. 

Twining,  Louisa  :  Symbols  and  Enil)lems  of  Early  and  Medianal  Christian  Art.  Lon- 
don, 1852. 

Tyrwhitt:  Christian  Art  Symbolism.      London,  1881. 

The  Art  Teaching  of  the  Primitive  Church.     London,  1886. 

Uhlhorn:  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Heatheni.sm.  Trans,  from  3d  German  ed.  l)y 
Smith  and  Ropes.     Revised  Am.  Eil.,  New  Yoik.     1879. 

Christian  Charity  in  the  Ancient  Chuich.     Trans,  from  the  German,  New  York, 

1883. 

Wallon  :  Histoire  de  I'esclavage.     2er  cd.     Paris.  1879. 

Wood  :  Discoveries  at  Ephesus.     Boston,  1857.     New  ed.,  1887. 

Zahn:  Sclaverei  und  Christenthum  in  der  alten  Welt.     Heidelberg,  1879. 


31  oil  s 


MA1>  OF 

]{():NrE  AND  ITS  ENVIRONS 


CATACOMBS,  PRINCIPAL  CIUIICHES, 
IMPOKTAXT  OBJECTS. 


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M  /!■  k  r  /o  n 


^^':i«n 


AH 


A^ 


0«.J«.rJU. 

1 

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All       \              j,                  <"/r(.«rtt«ll^""                     7 

^i^' 

/ 

k 

,.,\Lvy'              / 

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\   / 

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^ 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


Til  this  Index  f  sliows  that  the  subject  is  coniiiincil  on  the  next  p:ip;c:  fftliat  tlic 
subject  is  continued  on  the  loUowiug  pages;  n  that  ihe  nialtcr  is  eoniaineU  in  a  note. 


Abortion,  frequency  of  ainoiig  pagans, 
4G3;  not  coudeinned  by  Romans,  461; 
how  viewed  by  the  Cliurcli,  465. 

Abraxas  gems,  as  evidence,  -\  ;  nature 
of,  31; 

Absolution,  stages  of,  383. 

Acolytiis,  duties  of,  374. 

Actors,  V.  Drama. 

Au-iK'Uus,  biographies  by,  20G  f. 

Alberti,  on  Ciiristian  basilica,  157. 

Alexandria,  important  eucliaristic  frcscK 
at,  82;  schools  of,  505  f;  theologi.uis 
of,  506  f. 

Altar,  names  and  forms  of,  426;  position 
of,  426;   accompauiments  of,  427  f. 

Ambo,  situation  of,  184;  uses  of,  184. 

Ambrose,  on  the  phoenix,  71;  contribu- 
tions to  hymnology,  291;  musical 
reforms  of,  304 ;  musical  modes  of, 
309;  on  trine  baptism,  414  f ;  quoted, 
420. 

Amor  and  P.syche,  significance  of,  in  Chris- 
tian art,  68  f. 

Ampulhe,  controversy  respecting,  156; 
o|imions  on  tiie  contents  of.  156. 

Amusements,  interdicted,  480. 

Aiiatoiins,  liymns  of,  282. 

Anaphora,  440. 

Angels,  guardian  in  art,  69. 

Aniiphouarium,  Gregorian,  314. 

Apostles,  in  Jewisli  Church,  326;  signiti- 
caiice  of  the  Twelve,  327  ;  first  tost 
of,  328 ;   harmony  of  teaching  of,  354. 

Apostolate,  323  f. 

Apostolic  Constitutions, on  baptism,  414  f ; 
on  episcopacy,  361  f;  oti  Church 
government,  362. 

Apostolic  succession,  according  to  tlie 
Clementines,  346;  according  to  Ire- 
najus,  355. 

Apse,  termination  of  law  basihca,  177; 
signiticauce  of,  in  Christian  basilica, 
181;  Ciiristian,  and  pagan  governed 
by  diflerent  principles,  181  f;  origin 
of,  182;   furniture  of,  184. 

ArcIi:cologis;s,  scliools  of,  74  f. 


Arcba^olog}',  definition  of,  C!;  divisions 
of,  13  f;  lustory  of.  15;  relations  of 
Christian  to  classi?al,  16;  limits  of, 
17;   utility  of.    19  B". 

Arclideacon.  appointment  and  functions 
of,  368;   importance  of,  368. 

Area,  definition  of,  170;  sacredness  of. 
170,  513;  carefully  bounded,  172. 

Architecture,  v.  Basilica;  Irauformatious 
gradual,  197;  germs  of  (joihic,  189; 
dome  style  of,  217  :  Byzantine,  232  f. 

Ariaus,  t-hurches  of,  208;  hymns  of.  in 
loiirtii  century,  292;  practise  trine 
Ijaptism,  414. 

.\rk,  symbol  of,  261. 

Art,  infiuences  alfectiug,  51;  helpful  to 
fiiti:,  51  ;  presence  of  formative  art 
in  public  services  opposed  by  early 
Ciiristian  fathers,  52 ;  liow  far  and 
why  opposed,  53,  131;  relations  of 
reliscion  to,  55;  subjects  of  uniform, 
112;  ecclesiastical  control  of.  108; 
last  judgment  in,  149;  activity  in 
West,  203. 

Asceticism,  pertains  to  all  religions,  467; 
heathen  exanifiles  of,  467;  enconr- 
agcnients  to,  468. 

.\ss,  a  caricature  of  Christ.  95  f. 

Atria,  five  classes  i>f.  167  f. 

Augusti,  274  n.  276,  280,  284  n. 

Augustine,  hymns  of,  296;  on  public  wor- 
ship, 437. 

.\.  il.  monuments,  chronology  and  signifi- 
cance of,  88 ;  connected  with  other 
symbols,  89. 

Biihr.   283  n,   284,   285,  286,    288   n.  293, 

295. 
Balancing,   principle  of,  in  early  frescos, 

98  f;   in  sarcopha<:i,  136.  140. 
B.iptism,  formula  of,  389;  Christ's  peculiar, 

I'.SO  ;  meaning  of.  390 ;  n.ilure  ot,  390  ; 

regenerative  power  of.  390;  subjects 

of,  391  ;  infant,  391  fl';    adult  more 

common.   393;    conditions  of,  393  f; 

niiuistrants  of,  391  f ;  mode  of,  395  fl'; 


r^r,o 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


when  administered,  396;  testinionj' of 
''Teaching"  respecting,  397  t':  pic- 
torial representations  of,  398  ff;  by 
aspersion,  403  ff;  mosaics  conia'n- 
ing,  404  f;  nniformitj-  of  art  losti- 
mon3^  concerning,  406  f;  liberiy  r^-- 
specting,  407  ;  clinic,  why  not  eucnui'- 
aged,  407  f ;  reasons  of  delay  of,  409  ; 
lime  of,  409 ;  place  of,  409  If ;  pre- 
liminaries to,  412  f;  sponsors  in,  413; 
ceremonies  of,  413  fif;  trine,  413; 
reasons  of  trine,  41-:^;  why  trine  was 
discontinued,  414  ;  miction  following, 
414;   sign  of  the  cross  after,  415. 

Baptisteries,  arrangement  of,  410 :  size  of, 
410. 

Bardesaues,  hymns  of,  278. 

Baronius,  15. 

Basil,  on  trine  baptism,  413;  on  canonical 
singers,  304;  on  education,  507  f. 

Basilica,  origin  of  Christian,  157  ;  theories 
discussed,  157  fl';  Zestermann's  lour 
classes,  159;  Alberti's  theory  of,  157  ; 
Weingiirtner's  theory,  159,  f.;  Mess- 
mer's  theory,  161 ;  Dehio's  theory, 
162;  Lange's  theory,  162;  eclectic 
view,  162  ft";  description  of  law  ba- 
silicas, 175;  derivation  of,  175;  uses 
of,  178;  Christian  basilica  a  growth, 
178;  earlie.«t  notices  of,  180;  resem- 
blances to  pagan  basilica,  181,  186; 
differences  from,  183,  186;  parts  of, 
184;  transformation  of,  186;  balanc- 
ing of  parts  of,  186,  187;  later  devel- 
opment of,  187 ;  influence  on  other 
forms  of  architecture,  188:  how  far 
original,  191;  few  remains  of.  191; 
post-Constantine  examples  of,  195  ft"; 
in  Syria  exceptional,  213;  ceilings  of, 
213. 

Becker,  op- n  ion  of  respecting  heathen  car- 
icatures, 94;   on  Diis  Manibus,  255. 

Bernhardy,  'JSS,  295. 

Beveridge,  278  n. 

Bishop,  Ignatius  on,  344  f;  identical  with 
presbyters,  338  ff;  congregational, 
345 ;  the  unifymg  power  of,  348 :  the 
arbiter  of  doctrine,  347  ;  mode  of  elec- 
tion of,  351 ;  relation  of  to  each  other, 
352;  of  Rome,  352:  increased  power 
of,  352;  catalogues  of,  355;  deposi- 
taries of  apostolic  teaching,  356 ;  be- 
come general  ofiBcers,  358. 

Bohmer,  274  n. 

BcEthins,  310. 

Bingham,  on  canonical  singers,  303;  on 
the  notitia,  371  n;  on  absolution,  383. 

Bucher,  quoted,  136  n. 

Bullaj,  476  f. 

Bun.sen,  quoted,  28  n. 

Burial,  Jewish  customs  of,  510  f;  lack  of, 
a  punishment,  510;  duty  of,  among 


the  Greeks,  51 1  f;  preparation  of  body 
for.  511  f;  Roman  custom  of,  512;  legal 
provisions  among  the  Romans,  513; 
revival  of,  at  Rome,  514;  Christian 
customs  of,  514  f;  shared  in  the  com- 
mon feeling,  515;  doctrine  of  resur- 
rection aflecting,  515;  the  familj' idea 
preserved  in,  516;  Christian,  protect- 
ed by  law,  516;  no  secrecy  necessary 
in,  516;  clubs  for,  516;  in  catacombs, 
"      517. 

Burial  brotherhoods,  influence  of,  on  bur- 
ial, 31,  51C. 

Burgess,  quoted.  272  n,  278  n,  279. 

Burnell,  on  lateness  of  South  Indian  in- 
scriptions, 85  n;  on  lack  of  original- 
ity in  the  Indian  Trinity,  85  n. 

Burning  of  the  dead,  seldom  practised  by 
the  Jews,  510;  custom  among  the 
Greeks  varying.  511  f;  also  among 
the  Romans,  512  f;  not  practised  by 
Christians,  516. 

Business,  v.  Trades. 

Butler,  on  baptism  in  Coptic  Church, 
393  n. 

Bj'zantine  Architecture,  principle  of,  232; 
periods  of,  232 ;  perfection  of,  in  St. 
Sophia,  232  f. 

Bj'zantine  art,  early  origin  of,  34  n. 

Bj'zantine  churches,  in  Constantinople,  40. 

Byzantine  Empire,  degeneracy  of,  203  ;  ab- 
solutism of,  231;  good  offices  of,  231. 

Cajlius  Sedidius,  296. 

Calistus,  his  care  for  the  cemeteries,  32. 

Canon  Paschalis,  sculptured,  135. 

Capella,  310. 

Capitoline  Fragments,  166. 

Caricatures  of  Christ,  94  f. ;  TtrtuUian's 
testimonj'  to,  94. 

Carriere,  on  symbolism,  quoted,  73  n. 

Catacombs,  less  used  in  4th  century,  35 ; 
of  Syracuse,  35  ;  of  Malta,  36 ;  de- 
scription of,  56,  516  ff;  origin  of 
Roman,  516;  entrance  lo,  not  con- 
cealed, 516;  construction  of.  5!  7  If; 
number  of,  518;  numbers  buried  in. 
518;  not  used  for  public  worship, 
519;  lighting  of,  520. 

Carvings,  in  ivory,  150;  of  book-covers, 
153;   on  pixes,  154. 

Cassiodorus,  310. 

Catholic  Church,  when  tl  e  term  first  used, 
357  f;  meaning  of,  358. 

Celibacy,  early  inculcated,  467  f:  evils 
of  among  the  Romans,  463  ;  difficul- 
ties of  enforcing,  468. 

Cellae,  uses  of,  169;  inflrienoe  on  Christian 
architecture,  170;  examples  of,  172; 
growth  into  churciies,  206. 

Cemeteries,  separate,  desired  by  Jews, 
510   f;    removed   from    cities,    511; 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


551 


Clii'istiai),  peculiar.   519;  Jewish,  at 
Rome.  511. 

Ceniral  style,  v.  Domed  style. 

Chalice,  richness  of,  428 ;  protests  against 
richness  of,  429. 

Ohamber  of  the  Sacraments,  important 
fresco  of,  81. 

Chant,  original  style  of  music  in  early 
Cimrcli,  :{01. 

Charisms,  324,  341  ;   result  of  office,  351. 

Charities,  under  Roman  government,  488 ; 
numbers  relieved,  488 ;  Stoics  fa- 
vourable to,  488;  defects  (if  pagan, 
489,  490  f;  of  guild-*  and  clubs, 
489:  selfishness  in.  489;  intluence  of 
colteijia  upon  Christian,  490;  idea  of 
early  Ciiristian,  492;  true  inspiration 
of,  in  early  Church,  491 ;  in  the  early 
oblations,  491  f;  intluence  of  finan- 
cial condition  of  the  imperial  period 
on,  492  f;  infiuences  adverse  to, 
493 ;  scope  of,  493  f ;  organized, 
494  f;  iuHuence  on  pauperism,  495 
f;  opportunities  for,  496  f;  princi- 
ples adverse  to,  497  f;  relation  of 
Montanisni  to,  498  ;  doctrine  of  good 
works  connected  with,  498  ;  influ- 
ence of  union  of  Churcii  and  State 
on,  498  f ;  decay  of,  499 ;  influence 
of  hospitals  on,  499. 

Charles,  Mrs.,  295  n,  296  n. 

Charnay,on  cross  in  Central  America,  83  n. 

Children,  absolute  property  of,  among 
Romans,  463;  care  for  by  Christians, 
465;   ex[)osure  of,  465. 

Chorepiscopi,  when  instituted,  371  ;  fiuic- 
tions  of,  371. 

Christ,  no  portrait  of,  76,  131  ;  traditions 
concerning  art  representations  of,  76 
n ;  two  general  types  of,  in  early  art, 
100;  the  earlier  from  Greek,  the 
later  from  Hebrew  influence,  100  ff'; 
tendency  to  decoration  in  later  I'rescos 
of,  103;  reasons  of  change  in  type  of, 
104;  crucifixion  of,  in  art,  114;  statues 
of,  symbolic,  132;  type  of,  in  sculpture, 
136;  nativity  selilom  fotmd  in  early 
art,  146;  cross-bearing  of,  148; 
crowning  with  thorns,  148;  crnci- 
fi.xion  of,  in  art,  152;  divinity  of, 
267  ;  date  of  birth  unknown,  456  f. 

Christians,  number  of,  26,  51 ;  high  position 
of  some,  26,  161,  165,  262,  516  f; 
judged  a  sect  of  the  Jews,  163  ;  their 
places  of  worship,  163;  burial  of 
515  ff.  . 

Christianity,  rapid  spread  of,  25;  a  mes- 
sage to  ti)e  poor,  25 ;  cause  of  prop- 
agation of,  27  ;  not  hostile  to  art, 
42;  contaminated  by  heathen  influ- 
ences, 65 ;  compared  to  Judaism  re- 
specting tiie  priesthood,  79  n. 


Curislian  art,  cau.ses  of  encouragement  of, 
52;  early  forms  of,  54;  originality  of. 
54;  symbolism  in,  55;  appropriated 
what  was  at  hand  but  modified  it, 
55  f.  521 ;  decorative  in  cliaractcr, 
57 ;  naturalness  of  earl}-,  58 ;  pagan 
elements  in,  59:  mythologic  elenienta 
in,  60  If ;  contaminated  by  heathen 
influences,  65. 

Cliristma.s,  origin  of,  457 ;  conclusions 
concerning,  457. 

Choirs,  female,  organized  by  Ephraim  of 
Kdessa,  278;  by  Basil  and  Chrysos- 
tom,  304. 

Christian  fathers,  their  art  teachings 
compared  with  those  of  the  reform- 
ers, 54  n. 

Churches,  many  destroyed,  35;  traces  of, 
in  I'Igypt,  36;  appropriation  of  pagan 
elements  in,  62,  197;  in  private 
houses,  161;  temples  changed  to, 
198;  ruined  near  Carthage,  211;  in 
Egypt,  211  f. 

('iuirclies.  of  vSyria,  212  ff;  ceilings  of,  21.3. 

Church  Discipline,  design  of,  378;  in- 
curred no  loss  of  civil  rights,  379; 
relation  of,  to  the  lapsi,  381  ;  decline 
of  penitential,  382 ;  readmission  to 
Church  by,  382;  stages  of,  383;  no 
merit  in,  383;  of  the  clergy,  383. 

Church,  symbolized  by  Noah's  ark.  9:5. 
259;  an  organism,  181,  322;  New 
Testament  idea  of,  321  f;  a  kin:;- 
dom,  321;  tiie  body  of  Clirist,  322: 
a  temple,  322;  the  Bride,  322;  names 
of  memi)ors  of,  322  f;  believers, 
323;  brethren,  323;  a  fellowsliip, 
325  ;  oflicers  of,  327  ;  first  organiza- 
tion of,  333;  each  congregation  inde- 
pendent, 335  ff;  general  conchisions 
respecting,  341  f;  government  of,  350; 
priesthood  of  the  entire,  359 ;  a  divine 
state,  362;  government  of,  a  develop- 
ment, 362  ;  readmission  to,  382 ;  rela- 
tions of,  to  slavery,  470  ft";  relations 
of,  to  civil  government,  470:  encour- 
aged labor,  477  f. 

Church  constitution,  influence  of  Gnostics 
on,  353;  apostolic  teaching  respeci- 
in<r,  353  f;  Ireufcus's  principle  of. 
354  ff;   Cyprian's  teaching,  :>56  ff. 

(Cimrcli  government,  republican  type  of 
early,  336;  influence  of  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  on,  343  f;  a  congrega- 
tional episcopacy,  350. 

Church  letters,  church  unity  promoted 
by,  348. 

Ciirvsostom,  on  canonical  singers,  304; 
on  Christian  education,  507  f. 

Circular  style,  v.  Domed. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  31,  5!?;  opinion 
on  Orpheus,  64;  hymns  of,  280. 


552 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Clement  of  Rome,  on  episcopacy,  342. 

(Jlemeiitiues,  on  epiHCiipac\-,  346  f. 

Clergv,  prit!.~thood  of,  359 ;  siib-urders  of, 
373. 

Collegium,  meaning  and  objects  of,  512; 
for  burial  purposes,  513. 

Columbarium,  meaning  of,  513  f;  arrange- 
menc  of,  513. 

Commodianus,  lij'mns  of,  285. 

Communion,  what,  419;   infant.  419,  421. 

Compluvium,  use  of,  169;  how  guarded, 
169. 

Conder,  quoted,  39  n. 

Constautiue,  keen  discernment  of,  27  ;  na- 
ture of  his  vision,  86  n. ;  great  influ- 
ence of,  86;  statesmanlike  quali- 
ilies  of,  19G;  donations  of  Ciiurclies. 
196;  luxurious  reign  of,  203;  re- 
script of,  respecting  Lord's  day,  445, 

Coustaniinian  monogram,  lornis  of,  8G ; 
on  the  Roman  standards-,  86;  on 
coins,  87. 

Constantinople,  motives  for  founding, 
229  f;  syncretism  of  pagan  and 
Christian  elements  in,  230;  art  treas- 
ures of,  230,  509. 

Cousin,  quoted,  318  u. 

Creeds,  simplicity  of  early,  389. 

Crooks  &  Hurst,  quoted,  19  n. 

Cross,  wide  diffusion  of,  83 ;  power  of, 
83  f;  widely  recognized  by  early 
Ciiristians,  84;  Indian  derivation  of, 
doubtful,  84;  Charney's  remark  on, 
83  n;  forms  of,  86;  legend  of  find- 
insj  the  true,  87 ;  the  patibularv, 
88; 

Crucifixion  of  Christ,  the  earliest  art  rep- 
resentation of,  152. 

Cruciform,  v.  Domed. 

Cunningham,  on  transubstantiation,  424  n. 

Cupid  and  Psyche,  on  Christian  roonu- 
umcnts,  62. 

Cubiculum,  in  Roman  house,  168;  in  cat- 
acombs, 519. 

Curise,  infltience  on  Christian  architecture. 
169. 

Cyprian,  31;  on  Church  constitution  and 
government,  356  f;  on  ordination, 
358;  on  sacraments,  387;  on  clinic 
baptism,  407 ;  on  sacrificial  charac- 
ter of  Lord's  Supper,  422  f;  on  in 
fant  commiuiion,  434;  on  drama  and 
shows,  484  f ;  on  education,  504. 

Damasus,  inscriptions  of,  265:  hvmns  of, 
287. 

Daniel,  280,  281,  283  n,  287  n,  293  n. 

Deacons,  first  institution  of,  329;  qualifi- 
cations of,  330;  Irenpeuson,  330;  pe- 
culiarly Christian  character  of ,  331  f; 
prencliing  of,  :).'>2 :  duties  of,  not  sharp- 
ly   defined,    341  ;    in    post -apostolic 


Cliurcii  342;  change  in  function  of, 
366;  elii<ibility  of,  367  ;  seven  contin- 
ued, 368. 

Deaconesses,  institution  of,  331;  quali- 
fications of,  368 :  ordination  of,  369 ; 
duties  of,  369,  494  f. 

Decalogue,  influence  of,  on  art  cultiva- 
tion, 43  ;  hinderauce  olj  to  art,  45. 

Dehio,  162. 

Uelattre,  32. 

Do  Sola,  on  Hebrew  music,  298. 

Dexter,  280  n. 

Diis  Manibus,  conclusions  respecting,  255. 

Diocletian,  of  edict  for  persecution,  32; 
destruction  of  monuments  b}',  34. 

Diptychs,  Barberini  mentioned,  60 ;  in 
ivory,  150:  considar,  importance  of, 
150;  uses  of,  150  f. 

Disciples,  the  lamb,  sheep,  and  fish,  sym- 
bol of,  91  f. 

Divorce,  Scripture  ground  of,  461;  Justin 
Martyr's  opinion  of,  463 ;  frequency 
of,  among  the  Romans,  46  f. 

Dollinger,  on  Pentecostal  baptism,  397  n. 

Domed  style,  dift'usion  of,  217  ;  origin  of, 
218;  resembled  Roman  baptisteries, 
218:  was  it  indigenous  to  the  West, 
219;  principles  of  classification,  220 
f:  not  a  .^lavisli  imitation,  222;  cir- 
cular style  of,  242  fif;  cruciform  style 
of,  244  ff. 

Door-keepers,  duties  of,  374. 

Durmit,  significance  of,  263. 

Dove,  a  Christian  .sj^mbol  of  innocence  and 
peace,  92,  261  ;  sometimes  used  as 
a  means  of  decoration,  92;  chronology 
of  moniunents  containing,  92. 

Doxologies,  specimens  of,  296. 

Drama,  low  condition  of  Roman,  481 ;  of 
Eastern,  481 ;  actors  in,  under  legal 
disabilities,  481  f;  Tenullian's  opin- 
ion of,  482 ;  Cyprian's  opinion  of, 
482  f;  conciliary  decisions  respect- 
ing, 483;  severe  discipline  of  Clau'cli 
respecting,  483 ;  actors  in,  excluded 
from  the  Ciiurch,  483. 

Dnpin,  285. 

K.ister,  connection  with  passover,  452 ; 
ti'ne  ol  celebratiuu  of,  452;  dispuies 
respecting,  452  f;  opinion  of  Jewish 
party-  respecting,  452  f;  of  Roman 
party,  453  ;  attempts  to  reconcile  dif- 
ferences, 453  ;  conciliar}^  decisions  re- 
specting, 454 ;  rule  for  celebration 
of,  454;  different  cycles  454  f;  three 
periods  of  the  conirovers}'  concern- 
ing, 455  n ;  ceremonies  of,  455;  two 
parts  of  the  celebration  of,  455  ;  man- 
ner of  observance  of,  455 ;  acts  of 
clemencj'  connected  wjth,  456. 

Eastern  Church,  decline  of  music  in,  316. 


GZNEiiAL   INDEX. 


553 


J'^cclesiastical  divisions,  explanations  of, 
369  ff;   followed  the  political,  370. 

Education,  of  apostles  difficult  to  do- 
teniiine,  500;  Jewish  care  for,  GOO  f; 
influence  of  the  law  upon,  501  ;  of 
the  synagogue,  501 ;  Paul's  view  of, 
501  f;  illustrated  by  character  of  apos- 
tolic writings,  502  f;  by  charade r  oC 
the  family,  503  ;  declining  condition  in 
the  West,  503  f ;  Tertuilian's  views  of, 
50-1 ;  indiiencc  of  the  catecliumenate 
upon.  505;  influence  of  Greek  thought 
on  Clirislian,  505;  nitlucnce  of  Alex- 
andria upon,  505  f;  Christian  tiieorv 
of,  507  ;  Chr3'sostom's  advice  respect- 
ing, 507  f ;  more  kindly  feeling  towai  d 
pagan  culture,  507;  Julian's  influence 
on,  507;  Basil's  teaching  on,  508; 
Jerome's  views  on,  508  f ;  effects  of 
barbarian  invafsions  on,  509  ;  in  the 
Eitstern  Church,  509. 

Egyptians,  grotcqueness  of  art  of,  101. 

El-Baraii,  churches  of,  215. 

Elijah,  translation  of,  in  sculpture,  138  f. 

Epigraphy,  detinition  of,  247. 

Epiphany,  feast  of,  450;  wlien  observcii, 
456;  commemorates  what,  456. 

Episcopacy,  Jiunes'  relation  to,  333 ;  Ig- 
natius on,  344  f;  of  the  Clementinas 
ou,346f;  liermas  on,  347  ;  Polycarp 
on,  348;  a  development,  351;  be- 
comes general,  358 ;  theories  of  origin 
of,  363  ff. 

Ephraem  Syrus,  hymns  of,  278  f;  humi- 
lies  of,  quoted,  278  n. 

Eras,  252. 

Eucliarist.  v.  Lord's  Supper  ;  symbolizeil 
by  the  'I.ti^'f,  81  11". 

I'^udo.xia,  Empress,  hymns  of,  282. 

l']uscbius,  on  Lord's  day,  445. 

Eutiiimius,  hymns  of,  281. 

Ewald,  299  n. 

Exconnnunication,  greater  and  lesser,379f; 
notice  given  of,  380;  eflfects  of,  380: 
appeal  from  tlie  sentence  of,  380. 

Exorcists,  origin  and  functions  of,  374. 

Family,  a  type  of  the  Churcli,  461 ;  Christ's 
sanction  of,  461  ;  Paul's  teaching 
respecting,  462;  teachings  of  the 
Ciiristian  fathers  concerning,  462  f[; 
two  tiireals  to  the,  468  f ;  Roman  idea 
of,  463 ;  decline  of  the  life  of  under 
the  empire,  463  f. 

F.uM-ar,  on  Paul's  lack  of  art  sensibility, 
50  n. 

Feasts  and  festivals,  burial,  where  cele- 
braicd,  165;  Easter,  452  fl';  Quinqua- 
gesima,  456 ;  Quadragesima,  450 : 
Pentecost,  456;  Epiphany,  457; 
Christmas,  456  f;  multiplicity  of, 
457  f. 


Fish,  a  .symbol   of  Christ,  71-33;  of  the 

disciples,  92. 
Formative  arts,  principles  governing,  47; 

groiesqueness  of  Jewish,  48. 
Fossore.s,    wlio,  520;  modes   of   working 

and  duties  of,  520. 
Frescos,  eucharislic,  at   Alexandria,  82 ; 

teaching     of,     respecting     baptism, 

398  ff. 
Friedliiuder,  294  u. 

Galla  Placidia.  120,  244,  245. 
Galerius,  his  edict  of  toleration,  34. 

(Jarrucci,  1 19,  154. 

Gibbon,  2S9. 

Glyptic  art,  utility  of,  156. 

Gnosticism,  illustrated  by  abraxas  gems, 
21. 

Goethe,  308  n. 

Good  Slicpherd,  mistaken  for  Ilermes- 
Kriopiioru.s.  61 ;  differences  between, 
53;  associated  witli  Amor  and 
Psyche,  69 ;  a  symbol  of  protection 
among  pastoral  peoples,  90;  not 
necessarily  derived,  91;  associated 
with  other  Christian  symbols,  91; 
with  swastika,  109;  statues  of,  132  ff; 
compared  with  Hermes-lviiopiiorns, 
133;  connected  witli  iuscriptions, 
258  f. 

Genii,  opinion  of  Christian  fathers  con- 
cerning, 69;  liow  far  used  for  decor- 
alive  purposes  in  Ciiristian  art,  70. 

Graffiti,  foimd  on  Palatine  Hill,  94; 
Becker's  conclusions  concerning,  94; 
examples  of,  268 ;  work  of  pilgrims, 
268. 

Gothic  architecture,  first  germs  of,  189; 
the  consummation  of  the  Christian 
basilica,  190. 

Grapes,  symbol  of,  261. 

Greeks,  mytliology  and  influence  of,  on 
an  culture,  49 ;  freedom  of  their 
worshi[),  49;  could  represent  tlieir 
gods,  50;  their  ideal  of  divine  per- 
fecuou,  101. 

Green  and  the  Red,  fixctions  of,  29. 

Gregor\',  the  Great,  hymns  of,  296;  mu- 
sical reforms  of,  310 :  Antiphonarium 
of.  314;  advice  of,  against  trine  im- 
mersion, 414. 

(Jregory  Nazianzen,  hymns  of,  281. 

(jtrimm,  VV..  288,  321. 

Grousset,  liis  catalogue  of  Christian  sar- 
cophagi mentioned,  70  n;  of  sar- 
cophagi containing  the  Good  Sliep- 
herd,  91  n. 

Guido  of  Arezzo,  ."^IS. 

Guilds,  burial,  special  privileges  of,  170. 

Ilarmonins,  measures  of,  278. 
Ilarnack,  on  baptism,  392  o. 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Hegesippiis,  on  Gnostic  inHnence,  354. 

Helena,  iraditiouul  discoverv  ul  in.e  cross 
by,  87. 

Keruaiis,  remarks  of,  on  Mercury-Kri"iili- 
oros,  90  n. 

Hercnles,  a  lype  dfClirist,  64. 

Herder,  quoted,  27:^  ii. 

Hilarius.  hymns  of,  286. 

Hippolytus,  statue  of,  33 ;  its  chronology, 
136. 

Holhmd,  quoted,  53  n. 

Hospitals,  rise  of,  499 ;  iutiueuce  of,  on 
Christian  charities,  499. 

Hubner,  132. 

Hymnology,  of  early  church,  272  ;  favor- 
able conditions  for,  272;  growth  re- 
tarded by  danger  and  persecution, 
273  ;  and  by  hesitation  about  using 
pagan  forms  oF  art,  273;  germs  nf, 
in  New  Testament,  273;  •'fsiihii" 
and  "ode,"  274;  probable  use  ol'. 
in  second  century,  274;  reasons  lor 
scant  information  respecting,  27."): 
councils  upon  use  of,  275;  Greek 
fathers  favorable  to,  276;  rela'ive- 
ly  small  number  of  hymns,  276; 
reason  for,  276;  of  Syrian  Ciiurch, 
277  :  of  Greek  Church,  280 ;  of  West- 
ern Church,  283;  narrative  and  lyric, 
283  f;  improvement  under  Consian- 
tiriian  rule,  287  ;  influence  of  Julian's 
policy  on,  289. 

Idolatry,  trades  connected  vi^ith.  479  f. 

Ignatius,  epistles  of,  345  n  f;  on  epis- 
copacy, 344  f;  on  Lord's  Supper, 
421 ;  on  Lord's  day,  445. 

Illuminations,  reason  of,  112;  examples 
.of,  113  f. 

Image  worship,  wars  over,  29. 

Immortality  suggested  in  inscriptions,  257, 
264. 

Imposition  of  hands  in  baptism,  415. 

Indietions,  252. 

Industries,  v.  Trades. 

Infanticide,  frecpiency  of,  among  tlie  Ro- 
mans, 464  f. 

Inscriptions,  unconscious  testimony  of. 
21;  two  clas.s^s  of.  77  ;  late  origin  of 
S.  Indian,  85;  delinition  of,  247  :  early 
use  of,  247;  utility  of,  247  f ;  mun- 
ber  of,  248  f;  classes  of,  249:  by 
whom  prepared,  250:  forms  of  vvri'- 
ing  \ised  in,  250;  how  read.  250; 
punctuation  of.  250  f;  ortliography 
of,  250;  chronology  of,  250  f;  lew- 
ness  of  dated,  252  n  ;  eras  used  in, 
252;  dale  how  determined  25.'!  f; 
subject  and  context  of,  254  fT;  care- 
lessness in  preparation  of.  265;  dog- 
matic character  of,  264;  indications 
of  a  belief  in  a  future  life  in,    264 ; 


character  of  Damasene,  265 ;  of  fourth 
century,  266;  aids  of,  to  history  illus- 
strated,  270  f. 

Ireuicus,  theory  of  the  Church,  353 ;  on 
Clun'ch  constitution,  354  f;  on  dea- 
cons, 330;  on  mysteries,  388  n;  on 
infant  baptism,  391;  on  Lord's  day, 
445. 

Ivory,  carvings  in,  150;  diptychs  of,  150. 

'IjW'g  monuments,  chronology  of.  77;  in- 
terpretation of,  78  ft';  de  Rossi's 
opinion  of,  78. 

Jacob,  286,  291. 

James,  relation  of,  to  episcopac}'',  333 ; 
Hegesippus  on,  334  n. 

Jews,  exclnsiveness  of,  42;  pastoral  life 
of,  unfavorable  to  art  cidture,  42 ; 
drpressed  condition  of,  43;  peculiarity 
of  imagination  imlavoralile  to  Hris 
of  form,  45,  46;  monotheism  of,  not 
promotive  of  foruiaiive  art,  48  f;  lyric 
poetry  of,  48  n;  special  privileges  of, 
516. 

Jerome,  on  lyre  and  flute,  273 ;  on  baptism, 
413;  on  Christian  education,  508. 

Jonah,  history  of,  in  sculpture,  139  f. 

Judaism  compared  with  Christianity  re- 
specting the  priesthood,  79  n. 

Judgment,  last,  seldom  found  in  eailv 
"art,  149. 

Julian,  attempt  of,  to  restore  heathenism, 
37  ;  influence  of  policy  of,  on  Christian 
poetry,  289;  influence  of,  on  Christian 
education,  507. 

Junius  Bassus,  sarcophagus  of,  60,  143- 
145;  casts  of,  143  n;  subjects  of, 
144;  baptismal  scene  in,  145 

Justin  Martyr,  on  music  of  Eastern 
Church,  301 ;  on  the  Lord's  Supper, 
419;  on  public  worship,  434  f;  on 
Lord's  day,  447  f. 

Justinian,  232^  234,  235.  240. 

Juvencus,  hymns  of,  286. 

Kalat  Sem'an,  church  and  convent  of, 
216  f. 

Kaltenbruinier,  his  three  periods  of  the 
Easter  controversy,  455  n. 

Kartum,  282  n. 

Keaiy,  similarity  of  use  does  not  imply 
dependence,  90  n. 

Kherbet-Hass.  213. 

Kreuser,  opinion  of.  respecting  the  Chris- 
tian basilica,  159  n. 

Kugler,  207. 

Labarte,  119. 

Labor,  encouragement  of,  by  Church, 
477;  monumental  evidence  respect- 
ing, 477  f. 

Lactantius,  hymns  of,  285. 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Laity,  limitation  of  rigiit.s  of,  3G.') ;  de- 
cline of  influence  in  councils,  'Mi). 

Lamb,  a  symbol  of  Clirist,  7G;  forbidden 
by  Ti'uUan  Council,  7  7. 

Lamps,  materials  of,  155;  symbols  upon, 
155;   artistic  iu  f(jrm,  155. 

Lange,  J.  P.,  on  the  "Seven,"  3J2  n. 

Lange,  K.,  162,  180. 

Laodicean  Council,  on  Church  music,  ."503. 

Lazarus,  raising  of,  in  art,  99  f,  1-iU,  259. 

Le  Blant,  on  number  of  inscriptions,  252  n. 

Leyrer,  on  proselytes,  ;!96  n. 

Libertus,  infrequently  met,  476. 

Lightfoot,  J.  B.,  on  origin  of  sacerdotal- 
ism, 360. 

Lights  by  the  altar,  260. 

Lion,  symbol  of,  261. 

Liturgies,  occasion  of  growth  of,  438: 
connection  of  penitential  system 
with,  438;  moditications  of,  439; 
classification  of,  439;  two  parts  of, 
440;  of  St.  Clement.,  440;  of  St. 
James,  441 ;  brandies  of,  441  ;  of 
St.  Mark,  441  ;  the  Western,  441  f; 
the  philosophy  of,  442 ;  central 
thought  in  Greek,  442 ;  central 
thought  in  Latin,  443;  idea  in  Piot- 
estant,  443  n. 

Loculi,  detined.  56;  number  of,  517. 

Lombards,  destruction  of,  29. 

Lord's  day,  eucliarist  celebrated  on,  444; 
reason  for  observing,  444,  446;  rela- 
tion of,  to  Jewish  Sabbath,  444  f ;  no 
enactment  concerning,  445 ;  Barry 
on,  445 ;  imperial  provisions  concern- 
ing, 445  f;  New  Testament  idea  of, 
447  ;  Constantine's  rescript  concern- 
ing, 445 ;  Justin's  opinion  of,  447  f , 
Tertullian's  view  of,  448;  provisions 
for  observance  of,  448  f;  impossibility 
of  literal  observance  of,  449  ;  groiuul 
of  sanction,  449  f;  Wuttke  on,  449 
f  n;  why  legally  sanctioned,  450;  the 
Christian  emperors  had  no  reference 
to  Mosaic  law,  450  f ;  legal  supplant- 
ing the  moral  sanction  of,  451. 

Lord's  Supper,  symbolized  by  '1X0Y2,  81 
fl';  symbolic,  416;  a  memorial,  416; 
when  celebrated,  416;  likeness  to 
other  feasts,  41();  character  of,  417; 
celebrants  of  417  :  modes  of  celebra- 
tion of,  417 ;  coimected  with  the 
agape,  418;  simplicity  of  early  observ- 
ance of,  418;  "  I'ho  Teaching  "  on, 
418;  Justin  Martyrs  account  of,  419; 
Tertullian's  accoimt  of,  419;  ante- 
Niccne  order  of,  4 1 9 ;  liturgical  forms 
in,  420;  theory  of  operation  of, 
421,  IT.;  how  far  a  sacrilice,  421 
f;  three  views  of,  423;  teacning  of 
t!iG  liturgies  respecting,  not  uniform. 
423 ;  obligations  of,  424  ;  where  eel-  , 


eljratcd,  425;  order  of,  425;  in  one 
kind,  425;  frequency  of,  425;  no 
elevation  of  host  in,  426;  niagnilied 
by  the  fathers,  426. 

Lotze,  on  Hebrew  lyric  poetry,  48  n. 

Luminarium,  meaning  and  u.-es  of,  520. 

Macrobius,  310. 

Magdeburg  centuriators,  15. 

Magi,  on  hionunients,  258. 

Mai'iibourg,  on  Gregory,  quoted,  311. 

Malta,  catacombs  of,  36. 

Manuscri()ts,  illuminated,  40. 

Mariott,  quoted  on  subject  of  early  fres- 
cos, 108  n. 

Marriage,  sacredness  of,  462  f ;  Church 
had  oversight  of,  466;  Pauline  doc- 
trine respecting,  466. 

Martyrs,  number  of,  266. 

Matliias  Flacius,  15  n. 

Menas,  St.,  of  Egypt,  154. 

Merivale,  276. 

Messmer,  161. 

Military  life,  aversion  to,  in  early  Church. 
484;  tainted  with  idolatry,  484;  Ter- 
tulliaii  on,  484  ;  decadence  of  Roman, 
485 ;  milder  views  later  held,  485  ; 
relation  of  clergy  to,  486;  monu- 
mental evidence  respeciiug,  486  f. 

Milman,  mistake  respecting  Solomon's 
temple,  47  n;  quoted,  317  n. 

Miniatures,  examples  of,  112  f. 

Mohammedans,  iconoclasm  of,  29. 

Monasticism,  philosophy  of,  468;  its  two 
principles,  468 ;  evils  of,  468  f. 

Mone,  393  n. 

Mosaics,  classification  of,  114  f;  in  an- 
tiquity, 115;  kinds  of,  115;  limited  use 
in  catacombs,  115;  three  types  of, 
116;  uses  of,  116;  restorations  of, 
116;  location  of,  116;   chronology  of, 

116  f;  style  of,  117;  examples  of, 
118  ff:  seriousness  of  later,  118  f; 
transition  in  style  of,  119;  of  Rome, 

117  flf;  of  Thessalonica,  116:  of 
Ravenna,  121  fl";  of  Constantinople, 
127  ff. 

Moihes,  quoted,  157  n. 

Monuments,  fewness  of,  28;  where  best 
preserved,  28;  causes  of  destruc- 
tion of,  28  f;  of  first  century,  29  f; 
of  second  century,  30  f;  third  cen- 
tury, 31  f;  fourth  century,  34  fl"; 
fifth  century,  36  IT;  sixth  century, 
39  f ;  numerous  in,  41. 

Miinter,  on  hymn  service,  275. 

Miintz,  on  mosaics  of  Santa  Constanzia, 

118  n. 
Mnratori,  289  n. 

Music,  early  Christian,  298;  no  tune  of 
the  first  two  centuries  in  existence, 
298;    probable  adoption  of  existing 


556 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Jevvisli  forms,  299  f;  tcsiinioiiy  of 
riiiiy  respecting,  301 ;  of  Justin.  Ter- 
tullian,  Origeii,  ;tiid  Eusebius,  3^;!; 
ori<riiial  st.vle  the  chant,  301;  lime 
wlien  Clirisliari  Churcli  began  u  com- 
position of  iis  own,  uncertain,  302; 
first  recorded  attempts,  303;  action 
of  councils  respecting,  303;  Council  of 
of  Laodicca  and  the  kclvovikoI  ipa/.ral, 
303;  diverse  inierpretation  of  this  ac- 
tion, 303  f ;  Basil's  service  of  song, 
304 ;  Ciujsostom's.  304;  Syrian  modes 
probabl}'  prevalent  in  East  and  West, 
304;  Amljrosian  reforms  of,  305;  de- 
velopment of,  under  improved  condi- 
tions of  Churcli  life,  305  ;  musical  no- 
tation among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
307  ;  harmonic  arrangement  first  de- 
veloped by  Christianity,  308;  Ambro- 
sian  notation,  309  ;  reforms  of,  under 
Gregory  the  Great,  310;  his  Anti- 
phonarium,  314;  the  num;e,  314; 
laier  modifications  of  Gregorian  S3'S- 
tem  of,  316;  decline  of,  in  Eastern 
Cliurch',  310. 

Mystery,  confounded  with  sacrament,  388. 

Mythologic  element  in  sculpture,  139. 

Xeale,  J.  M.,  282,  283  n,  284  n,  287  n,293  n. 

Neander,  quoted,  54  n;  on  canonical  sing- 
ers, 303. 

Xco-Platonism,  influence  of,  16. 

Nonnus  of  Panopolis,  hymns  of,  282. 

Xorthcole  and  Brownlovv,  quoted,  142  n. 

Notation,  Ainbrosian,  authentic,  and  Gre- 
gorian Plagal,  311. 

Xumaj,  of  ancient  music  not  capable  of 
interpretation,  314. 

Numismatics,  service  of,  37  ;  a  special  sci- 
ence, 156. 

Oblation,  what,  419;  by  the  whole 
Church,  420. 

Olympia,  Christian  remains  at,  39. 

Optaius,  105,  180. 

Orantes,  meaning  of,  106;  on  inscribed 
monuments,  258,  260. 

Ordination,  Cyprian's  view  of,  358 ;  in  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions,  362. 

Origen,  31;  on  the  music  of  the  Alexan- 
drian Church,  301 ;  on  bapiism,  392. 

Orpheus,  a  type  of  Christ,  04;  as  anti- 
type, 64. 

Otte,  on  symt>"i'"°'  «i -— -'-      "  ^    ■ 
art,  73  i 

Pagans,  extc 

defects 
Painting,  Cli 

97;    ch 

tf)    heal 

subject 


pie  of  balancing  in,  98;  in  Santa  Ce- 
cilia, 102;  transitions  in,  110  f;  on 
gilt  glasses.  111;  fewness  of.  111. 

Palm  braucli,  a  symbol  of  triumph,  262. 

Palm  tree,  symbol  of  paradise,  93. 

Palmer,  287  n. 

Palimpsest,  268. 

Pajipa,  signification  of,  266. 

Paradise,  indicated  symbolically,  258. 

Parker,  J.  H..  aulhoriiy  of,  on  painting, 
30  n. 

Pastor,  terms  for,  266. 

Patriarclis,  when  originated,  373;  duties 
of,  373. 

Paul,  St.,  want  of  susceptibility  to  art, 
50  f;  representations  on  gilt  glasses, 
112;  associated  with  Peter,  112. 

Paul  Silentiarius,  hymns  of,  282. 

Paidiniis  of  Nola,  poems  of,  290;  theory 
of  poetry  of,  290. 

Pausanius,  39. 

Peacock,  symbol  of  immortality,  93. 

Penitents,  orders  of,  381  f. 

Pentecost,  meaning  of,  456;  mode  of  ob- 
servance of,  456. 

Peter,  representation  of,  on  gilt  glasses, 
111  f;  no  primacy  of,  intimated,  1 12. 

Phenix,  on  coins  of  Chrislian  empeiors, 
67  ;  used  by  the  Christian  fathers,  70  ; 
symbol  of  resurrection,  71,  93. 

Piper,  17  n,  63  n,  75  n,  280  n. 

Fixes,  in  ivory,  154;   uses  of,  154. 

Plinj^,  on  singing  of  early  Cliristians,  301. 

Plumptre,  on  proselytes,  396  n 

Poetry,  Greek  and  Hebrew,  contrasted, 
48  ;  Christian,  v.  Ilynniology. 

Polycarp,  on  episcopacy,  348. 

Pondi  d'oro,  how  made.  111. 

Prayer,  attitude  in,  as  found  on  monu- 
ments. 145. 

Presbyters,  common  to  Jewish  and  Gen- 
tile societies,  334;  a  council,  334; 
officers  of  administration,  335 ;  a  de- 
liberative body,  336;  Sciipture  ac- 
count of,  337 ;  in  Gentile  churches, 
337  f;  identical  with  bishops,  338  fl'; 
why  two  term.s,  339;  duties  of,  not 
sharply  defined,  341 ;  decline  of,  in 
povver,  352 ;  change  in  functions  of, 
366:  penitential,  382. 

Priests,  not  recognized  by  apostolic 
Church,  349. 

Primates,  origin  of,  372;  how  appointed, 
372;  functions  of,  372. 

Proanaphora,  440. 
'roperty,  in  Roman  empire,  492  f. 
rudentius,  hymns  of,  293. 
palter,  use  of,  in  early  Church,  273. 

yiiagesima,  456. 
\\.,  107. 
juagesima,  456. 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


Kauibucli,  quoted,  274  ii,  276,  280  n,  281, 
■^'Si  n. 

Ravenna,  cliiirclies  of,  ."58;  a  middle 
iiround,  202;  siiuplicit-y  otits  churches, 
206,  f. ;  four  periods  of  architecture 
in,  207. 

Readers,  duties  of,  374. 

Rebor,  quoted,  317  n. 

Reuseus,  divisions  ol"  archaeology,  15  ii. 

Richter,  180  ii. 

Roller,  ou  symbolism,  quoted,  72  n,  75  ii, 
132  n. 

de  Rossi,  school  of  symbolism,  75  n  ; 
quot.'d,  174;  on  number  of  Ohristiiui 
inscriptions,  248  n,  249,  252  n,  265, 
2G8,  400,  477  u;  on  siiivery,  475  f. 

Roman  house,  arrangement  of.  166  f;  in- 
tluence  of,  on  early  Christian  archi- 
tecture, 166;  how  liglited,  169. 

Rome,  bishop  of,  352. 

Rutiiius,  reference  of,  to  the  phcnix, 
71. 

Sacerdotalism,  rise  of,  349;  growtli  of, 
350;   origin  of,  360  ff. 

Sacraments,  meaning  of,  indefinite,  387  ; 
number  of,  not  determined,  388. 

Sacrifice,  in  Lord's  Supper,  422. 

Salzenberg,  282  n. 

San  ApoUinare,  in  Classe,  209  ff. 

St.  Sophia,  Ciiurch  of,  originality  of,  234; 
difficulty  of  construction  of,  234;  pres- 
ent condition  of,  235 ;  vast  prepara- 
tions for  building  of,  235 ;  injury  of, 
236;  description  of,  236;  dimensions 
of,  236;  dome  support  in,  239;  light- 
ing of,  239 ;  decorations  of,  240 ; 
arrangement  of,  241. 

San  Vitale,  description  of,  225  ff;  mo- 
saics of,  lost,  226;  contrast  with  Ro- 
man basilica,  228. 

Sarcophagi,  preference  for,  136;  slight 
originality  of,  136;  subjects  of,  137, 
142;  decorative  and  symbolic  prin- 
ciple in,  137. 

Savonarola,  131  n. 

Schaff,  280  n,  281  n,  293  n,  295  n. 

Schlctterer,  273  n. 

Sclinaasc,  quoted,  178  n,  181  n. 

Scholaj,  influence  of,  on  Onrislian  archi- 
tecture, 162,  164;  examples  of,  170  f. 

Schools,  V.  I'jdncation,  Culture,  Teaching: 
secular  under  the  empire,  503;  Ter- 
tullian's  views  of  hoaihen,  504;  of 
Alexandria,  505  f;  catecliumenical, 
505  ;   of  Aulioch,  506  f. 

Schultze,  Victor,  75  n. 

Sculpture,  in  pagan  cultus,  131;  sensu- 
ousness  of,  131  ;  decadence  of,  131; 
architectural  principle  in,  136;  balanc- 
ing of  parts  in,  136;  Scripture  sub- 
ject of,  142. 


Serpent,  a  symbol  of  wisdom,  or  of  heal- 
ing, 93. 

Sexes,  separated  in  ancient  Church,  186. 

Sheep,  symbol  of  di.sciples  of  Christ.  92. 

Ship,  symbol  of  the  Church,  93,  261. 

Sibvllino  Oracles,  reference  of,  to  the 
'  'Ixt^i'C  80  ;   nature  of,  80  n. 

Singers,  dtuies  of,  374. 

Sins,  venial  and  mortal,  379. 

Slavery,  a  fixed  institution  in  Roman  em- 
pire, 470  f;  no  attempt  at  inuiiediate 
aboliiion  of  l)y  Cijurcii,  471;  emanci- 
pation encouraged  by  Church,  472; 
Uhlhorn's  opinion  concerning,  472; 
Stoical  teachings  respecting,  473; 
slight  amelioration  of,  in  2d  and  .'id 
centuries,  473;  moral  type  of  Chris- 
tianity unfavourable  to,  473:  snnpliciiy 
of  Ciiurch  opposed  to,  474;  in  United 
States,  474  n;  testimony  of  monu- 
ments respecting,  475  f;  de  Rossi 
on,  475  f;  relations  of  labor  to,  477; 
inscriptions  relating  to,  477  f. 

Slaves,  condition  of,  under  Roman  govern- 
ment, 470  f;  care  of  Church  lor,  472; 
eligibility  of,  to  office,  474;  equality 
of,  in  burial,  475;  fewness  of  names 
of,  on  Christian  monuments,  476. 

Smith,  W.  Robertson,  on  the  principle  of 
the  2d  commandment,  45  n. 

Soldiers,  v.  Military  life. 

Sophronius,  hymns  of,  281. 

.Sponsors,  duty  of,  413. 

Stanley,  opinion  of,  on  Solomon's  temple, 
47  n. 

Statues,  of  Christ  symbolic,  132;  testi- 
monies respecting,  132;  conform  to 
pagan  morals,  133;  of  Good  Shep- 
herd and  Hermes-Kriophoros  com- 
pared, i:!3;  of  Hippolj'tus,  134;  few- 
ness of,  136. 

Stevens,  ou  the  value  of  rude  dialects, 
22  n. 

Sunday,  v.  Lord's  day. 

Supernatural  religion,  author  of,  quoted, 
59  n. 

Swastica,  a  Buddhistic  symbol,  84. 

Symbolism,  in  Christian  art,  55,  72;  tran- 
sition from,  to  literal  representation, 
55 ;  not  occasioned  by  desire  for 
concealment,  55  ;  definition  of  symbol, 
72;  used  by  Clirist  in  teaching,  72; 
not  arbitrary,  73 ;  how  interpreted, 
72,  73;  two  schools  of  iuterpretadon 
of,  74  f ;  in  painting  of  l.ilor  origin,  98  ; 
in  Junius  Bassus  sarcopliagus,  145. 

Symbols,  the  lish,  77  f;  the  cross  and 
crucili.x,  83  f ;  the  vine,  89 ;  the 
dove,  91;  the  sliecp  and  lambs,  92; 
the  ship,  93 ;  the  anchor,  93 ;  the 
palm-tree,  93 ;  the  crown,  lyre,  phe- 
uix,   serpent,   93 ;    commingling   of. 


r,58 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


259;  the  prrapcs,  261 ;  tlie  lion,  261 ; 
the  ark,  261  ;  the  pahn-brauch,  262. 

Synesius.  h3'iiins  of,  281. 

Synods,  analogous  to  civil  councils,  375; 
provincial,  375;  metropolitan,  376; 
ceciimenical,  376 ;  by  whom  assem- 
bled, 376;  by  whom  presided  over, 
376  f;  subjects  considered  by,  377; 
method  of  voting  in,  377;  decisions 
of,  how  enforced,  377;  decisions  of, 
iiow  far  binding,  377. 

Syria,  churches  of,  38,  212;  generous  l.fe 
in,  213;  destitute  of  mosaics,  217. 

Tabernacle,  furniture  of,  dictated,  44 ;  ar- 
tistic character  of,  44;  aumial  and 
vegetable  forms  allowed  in,  44. 

Teaching,  v.  Education;  Paul's  estimate  of, 
501  f;  acharism,  502;  Christ's  meth- 
od of,  502. 

'•Teaching  of  the  Twelve,"  on  apostles, 
328  n  ;  importance  of,  397  ;  chronol- 
ogy of,  397  n ;  statements  of,  concern- 
ing baptism,  398;  on  trine  baptism, 
413;  on  the  Lord's  Supper,  418;  on 
public  worship,  433. 

Terlnllian,  on  number  of  the  Christians. 
26;  opposition  to  image  makers,  53; 
on  the  caricatures  of  Christ,  94  f; 
hymns  ascribed  to,  284;  on  music  of 
early  African  Church,  301;  on  bap- 
tism, 392,  413;  on  unction,  414; 
on  Lord's  Supper,  419;  on  public 
worship,  436;  on  Lord's  Day,  448; 
on  trades,  482  f ;  on  shows,  482  ;  on 
idolatrv,  482;  on  lieathen  schools, 
504. 

Temple,  Jewish,  site  of,  sacred,  44. 

Tcuflel,  285,  286,  294,  n.,  295. 

Thayer,  321. 

Theater,  v.  Drama, 

Theodoric,  influence  of,  on  architecture, 
208. 

Tombs,  three  kinds  of,  among  the  Jews, 
511  :  ornamentation  of  Jewish,  511  ; 
lejuhng  thought  of,  among  the  Greeks, 

512,  Itoundaries  o*',  carefully  defined, 

513,  sanctity  of,  513;  publicity  of, 
in  Roman  towns,  514;  at  Pompeii, 
514;  gorgeousness  of,  514;  Roman 
idea  of,  514;  single,  found  in  the  East. 
521;  in  Syria,  521. 

Tourmanin,  church  of,  215. 

Trades,  trying  position  of  Christians  re- 
specting, 479;  certain  ones  con- 
demned, 479  f;    Tertullian's  opinion 


of,  480  f;  Apostolic  Constitutions  re- 
specting, 480. 

Tradition,  Cyprian's  view  of,  357. 

Transept,  siguihcance  of,  187  f. 

Triclinium,  inhuence  on  early  Christian 
architecture,  161. 

Triumphal  arch,  how  important,  188. 

Types,  heathen  gods  and  heroes  used  as, 
61,  63  f;  two,  of  Christ,  100;  the 
earlier,  the  product  ot  Greek  influ- 
ence, 100. 

Uhlhorn,    on  heathen  guilds,   55  n,  276, 

288. 
Ultzen,  287  n. 
Unction,  what,  414;  two  are  met,  414. 

Yerantius  Fortunatus,  hymns  of,  295. 

Vestibule,  explained,  185. 

Victorj',  statue  of,  set  up  by  Augustus, 
66 ;  on  the  early  coins,  67. 

Vine,  symbolic  of  Christ  and  disciples, 
89;  not  necessarily  borrowed  from 
paganism,  89. 

Virgin  Mary,  no  portrait  of,  106;  never 
sj-mbolically  represented,  106 ;  ex- 
amples of  frescos  of,  106  ff. 

Vitruvius,  157,  161,  166,  175,  219. 

de  Vogiie,  on  Syrian  churches,  212  f; 
quoted,  216,  217,  218. 

Wackernagle,  284  n,  293  n,  296. 

Weizsacker,  on  presbyters  and  bishops 
339  n. 

Whitsimda)',  456. 

Wilkie,  321. 

Woltmann,  on  seriousness  of  the  latei 
mosaics,  118;  quoted,  119. 

Woman,  position  ofi  among  the  Romans 
463. 

Worship,  places  of,  164;  suggestions  o 
liturgy  iu  early,  430  ;  Jewish  influ 
ences  in,  430 ;  spirituality  of,  ui  earl} 
Church,  430  ;  forms  of,  different  ir 
different  churches,  432 ;  independen 
forms  of,  in  Gentile  churches,  433 
"  The  Teaching  "  on,  433  ;  heathei 
notices  of,  434;  Justin  Martyr's  ac 
count  of,  334  f;  order  of  .service  in 
435 ;  Tertullian's  statements  concern 
ing,  436 ;  in  third  century,  436 ;  Cyp 
rian  on,  436  f;  Augu.stine  on,  437. 

Zestermann,  theory  of,   on   the  origin  c 
basilica,  158  ;  classification  of,  159. 
Zockler,  quoted,  83  n. 


THE   END. 


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